Regulatory fit and cognitive performance: the interactive effect of chronic and situationally induced self-regulatory mechanisms on test performance

Examining the moderating role of regulatory fit on stereotype threat among Ugandan adolescents

Prior research in Western contexts has tested the hypothesis that stereotype threat induces a prevention focus and that in contexts where both prevention focus and stereotype threat are simultaneously activated, members of stereotyped groups experience a performance boost due to the fit between one's goal orientation and the task demands (i.e. regulatory fit or stereotype fit). The present Study tested this hypothesis with high school students in Uganda, East Africa. Study findings revealed that in this cultural context where high-stakes testing fosters a predominantly promotion-focused testing culture, individual differences in regulatory focus interacted with the broader cultural, regulatory focus test culture to impact student performance.

Goal Length (Short or Long Term) Interacts with Goal Scheduling Strategy (Clock Time or Event Time) for Optimal Achievement

There are two strategies for scheduling personal goals: (i) clock-time, based on time passage; and (ii) event-time, based on the progress made. Neither strategy is always superior to the other; rather it is necessary to consider the environment and other conditions such as whether the goal is long or short term. We focused on goal lengthas an important factor for determining the best scheduling strategy, hypothesizing that clock-time and event-time strategies would differentially activate higher performance for long-term and short-term goals, respectively. Thus, we conducted a two-part laboratory experiment (Part 1: n = 63, Part 2: n = 86 ) in which we manipulated both goal length and scheduling strategy. Subsequently, we examined the effects of each combination of goal length and scheduling strategy on task performance (i.e., completion of a mathematical problem). Although our two studies were designed identically in most respects, they differed in the number of task problems, task time limits, and question content. Our data supported our hypothesis that clock-time scheduling was optimal for long-term goals while event-time scheduling was optimal for short-term goals.

Coaching as a growth- or security-oriented process-How regulatory fit increases coaching success

Regulatory focus theory suggests that promoters are more concerned with growth and preventers are more concerned with security. Since coaching is a growth-oriented process, it seems to be more suitable for clients high on promotion than for clients high on prevention. Applying regulatory fit theory, the present research investigates how preventers can also benefit from coaching. First, a study looking at real coaching processes (N1 = 103) found that a higher promotion than prevention focus was indeed related to more coaching success, i.e., satisfaction and approach motivation. Next, testing the hypothesis that fit effects should also be present in coaching, a study using a vignette approach (N2 = 99) shows that participants experiencing a fit between their focus and a promotion versus a prevention coaching indicate a better coaching evaluation than participants experiencing no fit. In three studies (N3a = 120, N3b = 85, N3c = 189), we used an experimental approach and manipulated the regulatory focus of coaching interventions. We found promotion as well as prevention fit effects showing that participants experiencing a fit indicate more coaching success than participants experiencing no fit. Two studies (N4a = 41, N4b = 87) further tested interpersonal fit, i.e., the fit between the coach's and client's regulatory focus. We found promotion as well as prevention fit effects on participants' satisfaction with and trust in a coach (Study 4a) and promotion fit effects on participants' goal attainment and coaching progress (4b). The findings suggest that by adapting coaching to the client's focus, coaching success can be increased not only for promoters but also for preventers. Thus, we found that regulatory fit effects, albeit small to medium, are also present in coaching. Multiple studies assessing multiple variables relevant to coaching showed that the findings differ regarding the interventions used and the variables that we looked at. The practical implications of these findings are discussed.

Shared Leadership and Improvisation: Dual Perspective of Cognition-Affection

Improvisation is an effective way to cope with rapid changes and obtain unexpected opportunities in a complex environment. Based on the cognitive-affective system theory, this study investigates the dual mediating role of cognitive flexibility and emotional intelligence between shared leadership and improvisation and the moderating role of promotion focus. We used multilevel and multi-sourced data to test the theoretical model and used a social network approach to measure shared leadership in teams. Our sample was comprised of 40 teams and 240 team members. The empirical findings indicated that cognitive flexibility and emotional intelligence mediated the relationship between shared leadership and improvisation; promotion focus moderated the relationship between shared leadership and improvisation, and the mediation effect via cognitive flexibility. This study contributes to expanding on improvisation research from the perspective of shared leadership and incorporating both the cognitive and the emotional process of the generation of improvisation into a theoretical framework from a compound perspective, which will open the black box for the mediation mechanism from shared leadership to improvisation. Furthermore, promotion focus is introduced into the research and creatively corresponds to the cognition-affection mediation mechanism, which expands the applicable scope of the regulatory focus theory.

Toward a New Approach to Investigate the Role of Working Memory in Stereotype Threat Effects

Stereotype threat arises when the activation of negative stereotypes about a group impairs performance of stigmatized individuals on stereotype relevant tasks. There is ample evidence that stereotype threat leads to performance detriments by consuming executive resources. Several studies indeed showed that working memory (WM) mediates stereotype threat effects among young adults. More recently, researchers have sought to understand whether the same mechanisms underlie age-based stereotype threat, but findings are mixed regarding the role of WM and some authors rather favor a motivational explanation based on regulatory fit. The present review critically appraises the empirical support for distinct forms of stereotype threat effects mediated by distinct mechanisms. We propose a novel approach based on one of the most recent WM models, the time-based resource sharing model, to evaluate the impact of stereotype threat on attentional resources in WM among both young and older adults.

Everything right or nothing wrong? Regulatory fit effects in an e-learning context

Feedback is a key factor in helping individuals to self-regulate their learning behavior. Informative feedback, as a very basic form of feedback informing learners about the correctness of their answers, can be framed in different ways emphasizing either what was correct or what must be improved. The regulatory focus theory describes different strategic orientations of individuals towards goals, which may be associated with different effects of different informative feedback types. A promotion orientation describes the preference for approaching positive outcomes, while a prevention orientation describes the preference for avoiding negative ones. Applied to the context of informative feedback in self-regulated e-learning environments, we predict that regulatory fit, defined as the congruence of individuals’ regulatory orientations and framed feedback, positively affects learning persistence and performance. In two experiments, we assessed individuals’ regulatory orientations and experimentally varied framed feedback in samples of university students preparing for exams with an e-learning tool (N = 182, experiment 1; N = 118, experiment 2) and observed actual learning behaviors. Using different operationalizations of regulatory-framed feedback, we found statistically significant regulatory fit effects on persistence and performance in both experiments, although some remain insignificant. In experiment 2, we additionally tested ease of processing as a mechanism for regulatory fit effects. This way, we expand the literature on regulatory fit effects and feedback on actual learning behavior and provide evidence for the benefits of adaptive learning environments. We discuss limitations, especially regarding the stability of regulatory fit, as well as future directions of research on regulatory-framed feedback.

Focus meets motivation: When regulatory focus aligns with approach/avoidance motivation in creative processes

According to Regulatory Focus Theory, two systems determine our strategies to pursue goals – the promotion and the prevention system. Individuals with a dominant promotion system focus on achieving gains, i.e., promoters, and individuals with a dominant prevention system focus on avoiding losses, i.e., preventers. Regulatory Fit Theory suggests that a fit between this focus and the situation causes superior performance and makes individuals feel right. We transfer the fit idea to the interaction of dominant regulatory focus (promotion vs. prevention) with motivational direction (approach vs. avoidance motivation). We investigated these interaction effects on individuals’ performance and their experience within creativity workshops. In Study 1 (N₁ = 172), using multi-level analyses, we found that a promotion focus was associated with fluency and a prevention focus with elaborated ideas. This effect was stronger, when preventers also scored high on avoidance motivation. Further, preventers experienced more autonomy support and were more satisfied when they scored high on avoidance. Promoters high on approach motivation reported more autonomy support and more satisfaction than preventers high on approach motivation. For Study 2 (N₂ = 112), we used an experimental design: After measuring regulatory focus, we manipulated approach vs. avoidance motivation in creativity workshops. Using multi-level analyses, we did not find main or interaction effects on fluency or elaboration but we found interaction effects on participants’ experience of the creativity workshop. Preventers were more satisfied when they received the avoidance condition. Promoters reported less autonomy support, lower satisfaction, and more perceived conflicts within their teams in the avoidance condition.

Can Regulatory Fit Improve Elementary School Students’ Performance? Effects of Different Types of Regulatory Fit

Previous studies have demonstrated the effect of regulatory fit on Japanese elementary school students (aged 9–12 years). The hypotheses were that promotion focused students tend to show good performance related to speed when they use an eager manner; on the other hand, prevention focused students tend to show good performance related to accuracy when they use a vigilant manner. In Study 1, the class teacher assessed their student’s regulatory focus and then manipulated the students’ manner of solving a calculation task by asking the students to engage speedily so that they solve many tasks in eager manner condition, or accurately so that they can avoid making errors in the vigilant manner condition. The results indicated that students with a promotion focus tended to solve more tasks in the eager manner condition. In addition, the same result was replicated in Study 2. These combined results suggest that regulatory fit is experienced not only by adults but also by young children. Moreover, the influence of regulatory fit depended on the type of regulatory fit. It is suggested that regulatory fit theory could be applied to educational settings to efficiently enhance the performance of students.

The Influence of Situational Regulation on the Information Processing of Promotional and Preventive Self-Regulatory Individuals: Evidence From Eye Movements

Regulatory focus theory uses two different motivation focus systems—promotional and preventive—to describe how individuals approach positive goals and avoid negative goals. Moreover, the regulatory focus can manifest as chronic personality characteristics and can be situationally induced by tasks or the environment. The current study employed eye-tracking methodology to investigate how individuals who differ in their chronic regulatory focus (promotional vs. preventive) process information (Experiment 1) and whether an induced experimental situation could modulate features of their information processing (Experiment 2). Both experiments used a 3 × 3 grid information-processing task, containing eight information cells and a fixation cell; half the information cells were characterized by attribute-based information, and the other half by alternative-based information. We asked the subjects to view the grid based on their personal preferences and choose one of the virtual products presented in this grid to “purchase” by the end of each trial. Results of Experiment 1 show that promotional individuals do not exhibit a clear preference between the two types of information, whereas preventive individuals tend to fixate longer on the alternative-based information. In Experiment 2, we induced the situational regulatory focus via experimental tasks before the information-processing task. The results demonstrate that the behavioral motivation is significantly enhanced, thereby increasing the depth of the preferred mode of information processing, when the chronic regulatory focus matches the situational focus. In contrast, individuals process information more thoroughly, using both processing modes, in the non-fit condition, i.e., when the focuses do not match.

Vigilant Self–Regulation, Cues of being Watched and Cooperativeness

The present research examined the interplay of individual differences in self–regulatory mechanisms as outlined in regulatory focus theory (promotion– and prevention–focus) and a cue of being watched in the context of cooperative behaviour. Study 1 revealed that the more individuals’ habitual self–regulatory orientation is dominated by a vigilant prevention focus, the more likely they are to act cooperatively (i.e. to donate money to natural conservation organizations) when a subtle cue of being watched renders reputational concerns salient. In contrast, when no such cue is provided individuals’ habitual vigilant self–regulatory orientation is negatively related to cooperative behaviour. Study 2 replicated the results of the initial study and examined interpersonal sensitivity (empathic concern) as a potential mediator of the observed effects. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Locus of control and the flow experience: An experimental analysis

The present research addresses the notion that the compatibility of skills and task demands involved in a given activity elicits a flow experience that renders the respective activity rewarding. The study employed an experimental paradigm to document the causal impact of skills–demands compatibility on the emergence of flow and revealed that participants characterized by a strong internal locus of control (LOC) were most sensitive to the manipulation of skills–demands compatibility and experienced flow under conditions of a fit of skills and task demands, whereas individuals with a weak internal LOC did not enter the state of flow. In line with previous findings, this suggests that distinct personality attributes are of critical relevance for the experience of flow to emerge. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Vigilant Self–regulation and Costly Punishment in Public Goods Situations

Applying regulatory focus theory to the context of social dilemma situations, the present research demonstrates that individual differences in vigilant, prevention–focused self–regulation predict the tendency to invest private resources to punish uncooperative interaction partners (costly punishment), a behaviour that typically has strong positive effects on the collective level of cooperation. Analyses further support the distinctiveness of the vigilance system proposed in regulatory focus theory (prevention focus) in comparison with general defensive inhibitory tendencies (measured with Carver and White's Behavioral Inhibition System scale). Results document that individual differences in prevention–focused self–regulation but not differences in general defensive inhibitory tendencies are positively related to costly punishment. In sum, the findings indicate that vigilant, prevention–focused self–regulation plays a crucial role in the context of sanctions that enforce cooperation. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The effect of regulatory focus and time preference on the dual process of physical activity: A cross-sectional study among nurses

AIMS

To examine the dual process of physical activity adoption among nurses and its relationships with two personal orientations-regulatory focus-the tendency to focus on promotion (vs. prevention) goals and time preference as measured by delay discounting: the tendency to overvalue immediate rewards over long-term ones.

BACKGROUND

The dual process theory suggests that both conscious and non-conscious processes influence the adoption of physical activity. However, the role of regulatory focus and time preference in this process was not yet examined.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional online survey among 143 nurses during August-November 2017.

METHODS

Validated measures were used to estimate physical activity habit strength (a non-conscious process) and intention, planning and behaviour control (conscious processes), physical activity level, regulatory focus and time preference. Multivariable ordered logit and logistic models were specified to examine determinants of both processes.

RESULTS

Promotion focus was positively associated with having a strong habit of physical activity among nurses with moderate-to-low activity levels, but it was negatively associated with habit for active nurses. As for time preference, higher delay discounting was negatively associated with nurses' conscious intention to adopt physical activity and with their action planning.

CONCLUSION

Promotion focus and time preference are associated with both conscious and non-conscious processes of physical activity adoption among nurses and should be considered in future health promotion interventions targeted to this population.

IMPACT

Promotion focus and time preference have a significant role in this dual process. Enhancing physical activity of health providers by adjusting the intervention to personal orientations may improve public health.

Tailored texts: An application of regulatory fit to text messages designed to reduce high-risk drinking

This study used the regulatory focus/fit framework to compare the impact of text message wording on college students' drinking behaviors. In this 2 × 3 × 2 pre-test/post-test experiment, participants (N = 279) were randomly assigned to one of the three groups: messages matching regulatory focus (congruent group), messages mismatching regulatory focus (incongruent group), and general health messages (control group). Messages were tailored by regulatory fit (prevention-oriented or promotion-oriented). Mixed factorial analyses of covariance revealed that prevention-oriented individuals who received text messages incongruent with their regulatory focus reported drinking alcohol for more hours and were more likely to consume a higher quantity of drinks than participants in the congruent or control group. These findings suggest that health messages mismatched to a receiver's regulatory focus might exacerbate unhealthy behavior.

Bringing Context to Workplace Coaching: A Theoretical Framework Based on Uncertainty Avoidance and Regulatory Focus

Workplace coaching is increasingly popular as a global learning and development tool for enhancing employees’ professional capabilities. However, little is known about the role of cross-cultural factors in coaching and the relationships between cross-cultural factors and both coaching approach and motivation factors. Accordingly, by drawing on and integrating theories from the research areas of cross-cultural psychology, regulatory focus, and training, we propose a theoretical framework that unravels the effectiveness of different coaching approaches in different cultural and coaching contexts. We propose that chronic regulatory focus is an underlying mechanism that predicts the effectiveness of a chosen coaching approach in specific contexts of societal uncertainty avoidance (i.e., low vs. high uncertainty avoidance). Furthermore, we propose that coaching context elicits coachee situational regulatory focus, and that compatibility between coachee chronic and situational regulatory focus has a significant impact on coachee pre-coaching motivation. We conclude by discussing implications for future research and practice.

Gold for now and the golden years

Purpose

The purpose of this paper is to draw from regulatory focus theory, to examine the effects of the “gain/no gain” nature of stock options and retirement pay on the decision to engage in cross-border acquisitions. The moderating effects of managerial discretion arising from the external industry context and internal organizational leadership structure are also examined.

Design/methodology/approach

The authors employ random effects negative binomial regression analysis with a longitudinal (2006–2016) data set of US public companies operating in four industries with differing levels of industry discretion: the oil and gas, paper and packaging, aerospace and defense, and telecommunications.

Findings

The findings indicate that both CEO in-the-money stock options and retirement pay are positively related to cross-border acquisition activity. The results also demonstrate that managerial discretion, arising from the firm’s external industry context, accentuates the positive relationship between both the value of CEO in-the-money stock options and retirement pay with cross-border acquisition activity.

Practical implications

The findings provide implication for practice as understanding how retirement pay and stock options, both of which make up a substantial portion of overall CEO pay in the USA, motivate cross-border acquisition activity, may improve decisions by executives. The evidence also provides guidance to boards of directors who are charged with the responsibility of creating CEO compensation contracts.

Originality/value

The paper fills important gaps in the existing research on the influence of compensation elements on firm outcomes, by offering a novel explanation for how in-the-money stock options and retirement pay affect CEOs’ motivations to engage in cross-border acquisitions.

Future and Present Hedonistic Time Perspectives and the Propensity to Take Investment Risks: The Interplay Between Induced and Chronic Time Perspectives

Willingness to take risk is one of the most important aspects of personal financial decisions, especially those regarding investments. Recent studies show that one's perception of time, specifically the individual level of Present Hedonistic and Future Time Perspectives (TPs), influence risky financial choices. This was demonstrated for both, Time Perspective treated as an individual trait and for experimentally induced Time Perspectives. However, on occasion, people might find themselves under the joint influence of both, chronic and situational Time Perspectives and little is known about interactions between them. The paper focuses on the interplay between chronic and induced levels of Future and Present Hedonistic TPs in explaining people's propensity to take investment risks. An experimental study using a Polish national random-quota sample was conducted. The results showed that situationally induced Future TP lowered the preferred level of portfolio riskiness while situationally induced Present Hedonistic TPs resulted in exactly the opposite effect, and that the higher level of chronic Present Hedonistic TP was linked to higher investment risk preferences. The role of the chronic Present Hedonistic TP was moderated by the situationally induced Future (approaching significance) and Present Hedonistic TPs. The induction of these TPs resulted in reduction of the propensity to take investment risks. The study adds to the literature on psychological factors influencing the propensity to take financial risk. The results are also important for researchers who experimentally manipulate variables that might be also considered as chronic traits. They indicate that whether the manipulation is congruent with one's natural tendencies may have a differential impact on subsequent measures.

Motivational valence alters memory formation without altering exploration of a real-life spatial environment

Volitional exploration and learning are key to adaptive behavior, yet their characterization remains a complex problem for cognitive science. Exploration has been posited as a mechanism by which motivation promotes memory, but this relationship is not well-understood, in part because novel stimuli that motivate exploration also reliably elicit changes in neuromodulatory brain systems that directly alter memory formation, via effects on neural plasticity. To deconfound interrelationships between motivation, exploration, and memory formation we manipulated motivational state prior to entering a spatial context, measured exploratory responses to the context and novel stimuli within it, and then examined motivation and exploration as predictors of memory outcomes. To elicit spontaneous exploration, we used the physical space of an art exhibit with affectively rich content; we expected motivated exploration and memory to reflect multiple factors, including not only motivational valence, but also individual differences. Motivation was manipulated via an introductory statement framing exhibit themes in terms of Promotion- or Prevention-oriented goals. Participants explored the exhibit while being tracked by video. They returned 24 hours later for recall and spatial memory tests, followed by measures of motivation, personality, and relevant attitude variables. Promotion and Prevention condition participants did not differ in terms of group-level exploration time or memory metrics, suggesting similar motivation to explore under both framing contexts. However, exploratory behavior and memory outcomes were significantly more closely related under Promotion than Prevention, indicating that Prevention framing disrupted expected depth-of-encoding effects. Additionally, while trait measures predicted exploration similarly across framing conditions, traits interacted with motivational framing context and facial affect to predict memory outcomes. This novel characterization of motivated learning implies that dissociable behavioral and biological mechanisms, here varying as a function of valence, contribute to memory outcomes in complex, real-life environments.

Gain +1 or Avoid -1: Validation of the German Regulatory Focus Questionnaire (RFQ)

Background

The Regulatory Focus Questionnaire (RFQ) assesses regulatory promotion and prevention focus, which represent orientations towards gains or losses. The main objective of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the newly translated German version.

Methods

A sample of 1024 participants answered the questionnaire and several related instruments. We used an online survey tool to collect this data. Data analysis was conducted using methods of exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis in SPSS and AMOS.

Results

The RFQ displayed acceptable reliability, while its correlations with other, related psychological constructs indicated good validity. Factor analysis showed good fit for a two-dimensional model. Tests of measurement invariance revealed clear evidence for metric invariance while scalar invariance remained uncertain. Differences in regulatory focus based on sociodemographic characteristics are reported and discussed.

Conclusions

Overall, the RFQ can be recommended for application in fields dealing with motivation and goal attainment in a broad sense.

Psychometric Properties of the German Version of the Health Regulatory Focus Scale

The Health Regulatory Focus Scale (HRFS) is a short scale which measures an individual's prevention and promotion focus in a health-specific context. The main objective of this study was to examine the psychometric properties of the newly translated German version of the HRFS. Reliability and item characteristics were found to be satisfactory. Validity of both subscales toward other psychological constructs including behavioral approach and avoidance, core self-evaluations, optimism, pessimism, neuroticism, as well as several measures of physical and mental health was shown. In addition, invariance of the measure across age and gender groups was shown. Exploratory as well as confirmatory factor analyses clearly indicated a two-factorial structure with a moderate correlation between the two latent constructs. Differences in health promotion and prevention focus between socio-demographic groups are discussed. The HRFS is found to be a valid and reliable instrument for the assessment of regulatory focus in health-related environments.

Reducing Stereotype Threat With Embodied Triggers: A Case of Sensorimotor-Mental Congruence

In four experiments, we tested whether embodied triggers may reduce stereotype threat. We predicted that left-side sensorimotor inductions would increase cognitive performance under stereotype threat, because such inductions are linked to avoidance motivation among right-handers. This sensorimotor-mental congruence hypothesis rests on regulatory fit research showing that stereotype threat may be reduced by avoidance-oriented interventions, and motor congruence research showing positive effects when two parameters of a motor action activate the same motivational system (avoidance or approach). Results indicated that under stereotype threat, cognitive performance was higher when participants contracted their left hand (Study 1) or when the stimuli were presented on the left side of the visual field (Studies 2-4), as compared with right-hand contraction or right-side visual stimulation. These results were observed on math (Studies 1, 2, and 4) and Stroop (Study 3) performance. An indirect effect of congruence on math performance through subjective fluency was also observed.

Promote health or prevent disease? The effects of health-related advertising on eating behavior intention

The health medical costs of colorectal cancer are increasingly higher in Taiwan. The National Health Insurance Administration (NHI) and The Health Promotion Administration of the Ministry of Health and Welfare (MOHW) in Taiwan encourage individuals to adopt an earnest approach to healthy behavior through advocacy advertising. However, the number of colorectal cancer patients continues to increase annually. Our study explored the effects of health-related advertisements (ads) on healthy behavior intentions as influenced by regulatory focus theory (RFT) and construal level theory (CLT). We conducted an experiment with different public health advocacy ads. A 2 (regulatory focus: promotion vs. prevention) × 2 (temporal distance: one month vs. one year) × 2 (graphics-text ratio: more pictures and less text vs. fewer pictures and more text) three-factor experiment was adopted. The multiple analysis of variance (MANOVA) results revealed that ads with higher construal levels (i.e., more text) had greater effects with a promotion-oriented regulatory focus. However, no significant differences were found in either attitude toward the ads or behavior intention when the regulatory focus was prevention. In addition, according to the young testers and those who were psychologically distant from colorectal cancer, different temporal distances and different construal levels had no statistically significantly effects on attitudes toward advertising or on behavior intentions. The results revealed that viewers found the information easier to understand when the ads triggered the regulatory focuses of the viewers and applied an appropriate graphics-text ratio, which resulted in favorable health-related advertising effectiveness. Thus, we provide two suggestions regarding the use of health-related advertising for MOHW in the future.

Regulatory focus and generalized trust: the impact of prevention-focused self-regulation on trusting others

The current research suggests that taking self-regulatory mechanisms into account provides insights regarding individuals' responses to threats in social interactions. In general, based on the notion that a prevention-focused orientation of self-regulation is associated with a need for security and a vigilant tendency to avoid losses and other types of negative events we advocate that a prevention-focused orientation, both as a disposition as well as a situationally induced state, lowers generalized trust, thus hindering cooperation within social interactions that entail threats. Specifically, we found that the more individuals' habitual self-regulatory orientation is dominated by a prevention focus, the less likely they are to score high on a self-report measure of generalized trust (Study 1), and to express trust in a trust game paradigm as manifested in lower sums of transferred money (Studies 2 and 3). Similar findings were found when prevention focus was situationally manipulated (Study 4). Finally, one possible factor underlying the impact of prevention-focused self-regulation on generalized trust was demonstrated as individuals with a special sensitivity to negative information were significantly affected by a subtle prevention focus manipulation (versus control condition) in that they reacted with reduced trust in the trust game (Study 5). In sum, the current findings document the crucial relevance of self-regulatory orientations as conceptualized in regulatory focus theory regarding generalized trust and responses to threats within a social interaction. The theoretical and applied implications of the findings are discussed.

The influence of motivation on stress: is it stressful not to fit?

The present research elaborates on the regulatory fit hypothesis by investigating a biological stress marker in a motivational fit- and non-fit-situation. Recent stress theories lead to the assumption that the participants' stress level in fit-situations remains constant or rather decreases, whereas under non-fit-conditions an increase of the stress activity is observed. We tested this hypothesis by assessment of salivary α-amylase (sAA), a saliva-based stress marker presumed to reflect noradrenergic activity. The results indicated that participants in a fit-situation show a decrease in sAA, whereas participants in a non-fit-situation demonstrate a contrary effect with an increase in sAA. These findings extend the concept of regulatory fit by illustrating that there are differences in sAA activity depending on whether participants are in a fit-situation. The experience of regulatory fit appears to be associated with a reduction of stress.

Lassen sich Leistungsunterschiede im Basketballfreiwurf durch die Regulatory Focus Theorie und die Handlungskontrolltheorie erklären?

Nach der Regulatory Focus Theorie von Higgins (1997) kann ein Ziel mit einem Promotion-Fokus (Fokus liegt auf Hoffnung und Erfüllung) oder Prevention-Fokus (Fokus liegt auf Pflicht und Sicherheit) erreicht werden. Ein Leistungsvorteil ergibt sich, wenn der chronische Fokus mit der Situation übereinstimmt („Regulatory Fit“). Die Handlungskontrolltheorie von Kuhl (1983, 2001) erklärt Zielerreichungsprozesse mittels handlungsorientierten (zügige Umsetzung der Intention) und lageorientierten Personen (kognitive Auseinandersetzung führt zur Handlungsblockade). Diese Studie überprüft, ob die Konstrukte der Regulatory Focus- und der Handlungskontrolltheorie im Zusammenhang stehen. Zudem wird überprüft, ob der Regulatory Fit-Effekt sowie die Handlungsorientierung ähnliche Effekte bezüglich der Trefferleistung beim Freiwurf während einer Doppelaufgabe erklären können. Basketballspieler der Ober-/Landesliga stehen zur Verfügung. Die Ergebnisse zeigen einen Zusammenhang bezüglich der Skalen zur Erfassung der Handlungsorientierung und des regulatorischen Fokus. Leistungsstarke Basketballspieler profitieren signifikant von einer Prevention-Instruktion. Der Zusammenhang zwischen den Theorien sowie deren Vorhersage auf die sportliche Leistung wird diskutiert.

End-of-semester syndrome: How situational regulatory fit affects test performance over an academic semester

Psychology researchers often avoid running participants from subject pools at the end of the semester because they are "unmotivated". We suggest that the end of the semester induces a situational prevention focus (i.e., sensitive to losses) unlike the beginning of the semester, which may induce a situational promotion focus (i.e., sensitive to gains). In two experiments, we presented participants with math problems at the beginning or end of an academic semester. End-of-semester participants performed better minimizing losses as compared to maximizing gains, while the opposite was true for beginning-of-semester participants.