Studies on Self-Assembled Alkanethiol Monolayers Formed at Applied Potential on Polycrystalline Gold Electrodes

Advances in Bioreceptor Layer Engineering in Nanomaterial-based Sensing of Pseudomonas Aeruginosa and its Metabolites

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a pathogen that infects wounds and burns and causes severe infections in immunocompromised humans. The high virulence, the rise of antibiotic-resistant strains, and the easy transmissibility of P. aeruginosa necessitate its fast detection and control. The gold standard for detecting P. aeruginosa, the plate culture method, though reliable, takes several days to complete. Therefore, developing accurate, rapid, and easy-to-use diagnostic tools for P. aeruginosa is highly desirable. Nanomaterial-based biosensors are at the forefront of detecting P. aeruginosa and its secondary metabolites. This review summarises the biorecognition elements, biomarkers, immobilisation strategies, and current state-of-the-art biosensors for P. aeruginosa. The review highlights the underlying principles of bioreceptor layer engineering and the design of optical, electrochemical, mass-based, and thermal biosensors based on nanomaterials. The advantages and disadvantages of these biosensors and their future point-of-care applications are also discussed. This review outlines significant advancements in biosensors and sensors for detecting P. aeruginosa and its metabolites. Research efforts have identified biorecognition elements specific and selective towards P. aeruginosa. The stability, ease of preparation, cost-effectiveness, and integration of these biorecognition elements onto transducers are pivotal for their application in biosensors and sensors. At the same time, when developing sensors for clinically significant analytes such as P. aeruginosa, virulence factors need to be addressed, such as the sensor's sensitivity, reliability, and response time in samples obtained from patients. The point-of-care applicability of the developed sensor may be an added advantage since it enables onsite determination. In this context, optical methods developed for P. aeruginosa offer promising potential.

Electrochemical detection of bacterial endotoxin lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on gold electrode modified with DAL-PEG-DK5-PEG-OH - Antimicrobial peptide conjugate

This work describes fabrication of gold electrodes modified with peptide conjugate DAL-PEG-DK5-PEG-OH that enables ultra-sensitive detection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) isolated from the reference strain of Escherichia coli O26:B6. The initial step of the established procedure implies immobilization of the fully protected DAL-PEG-DK5-PEG-OH peptide on the surface of the gold electrode previously modified by cysteamine. Then side chain- and Fmoc-deprotection was performed in situ on the electrode surface, followed by its incubation in 1 % of BSA solution to block non-specific bindings sites before LPS detection. The efficiency of the modification was confirmed by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS) measurements. Additionally, the cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impendance spectroscopy (EIS) were employed to monitor the effectiveness of each step of the modification. The obtained results confirmed that the presence of the surface-attached covalently bound peptide DAL-PEG-DK5-PEG-OH enables LPS detection by means of CV technique within the range from 5 × 10-13 to 5 × 10-4 g/mL in PBS solution. The established limit of detection (LOD) for EIS measurements was 4.93 × 10-21 g/mL with wide linear detection range from 5 × 10-21 to 5 × 10-14 g/mL in PBS solution. Furthermore, we confirmed the ability of the electrode to detect LPS in a complex biological samples, like mouse urine and human serum. The effectiveness of the electrodes in identifying LPS in both urine and serum matrices was confirmed for samples containing LPS at both 2.5 × 10-15 g/mL and 2.5 × 10-9 g/mL.

Grafting of short elastin-like peptides using an electric field

Surface-grafted elastin has found a wide range of uses such as sensing, tissue engineering and capture/release applications because of its ability to undergo stimuli-responsive phase transition. While various methods exist to control surface grafting in general, it is still difficult to control orientation as attachment occurs. This study investigates using an electric field as a new approach to control the surface-grafting of short elastin-like polypeptide (ELP). Characterization of ELP grafting to gold via quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation, atomic force microscopy and temperature ramping experiments revealed that the charge/hydrophobicity of the peptides, rearrangement kinetics and an applied electric field impacted the grafted morphology of ELP. Specifically, an ELP with a negative charge on the opposite end of the surface-binding moiety assembled in a more upright orientation, and a sufficient electric field pushed the charge away from the surface compared to when the same peptide was assembled in no electric field. In addition, this study demonstrated that assembling charged ELP in an applied electric field impacts transition behavior. Overall, this study reveals new strategies for achieving desirable and predictable surface properties of surface-bound ELP.

Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy in the Characterisation and Application of Modified Electrodes for Electrochemical Sensors and Biosensors

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is finding increasing use in electrochemical sensors and biosensors, both in their characterisation, including during successive phases of sensor construction, and in application as a quantitative determination technique. Much of the published work continues to make little use of all the information that can be furnished by full physical modelling and analysis of the impedance spectra, and thus does not throw more than a superficial light on the processes occurring. Analysis is often restricted to estimating values of charge transfer resistances without interpretation and ignoring other electrical equivalent circuit components. In this article, the important basics of electrochemical impedance for electrochemical sensors and biosensors are presented, focussing on the necessary electrical circuit elements. This is followed by examples of its use in characterisation and in electroanalytical applications, at the same time demonstrating how fuller use can be made of the information obtained from complete modelling and analysis of the data in the spectra, the values of the circuit components and their physical meaning. The future outlook for electrochemical impedance in the sensing field is discussed.

Elucidating the Influence of Electrical Potentials on the Formation of Charged Oligopeptide Self-Assembled Monolayers on Gold

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) based on oligopeptides have garnered immense interest for a wide variety of innovative biomedical and electronic applications. However, to exploit their full potential, it is necessary to understand and control the surface chemistry of oligopeptides. Herein, we report on how different electrical potentials affect the adsorption kinetics, stability and surface coverage of charged oligopeptide SAMs on gold surfaces. Kinetic analysis using electrochemical surface plasmon resonance (e-SPR) reveals a slower oligopeptide adsorption rate at more positive or negative electrical potentials. Additional analysis of the potential-assisted formed SAMs by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy demonstrates that an applied electrical potential has minimal effect on the packing density. These findings not only reveal that charged oligopeptides exhibit a distinct potential-assisted assembly behaviour but that an electrical potential offers another degree of freedom in controlling their adsorption rate.

Functionalised microscale nanoband edge electrode (MNEE) arrays: the systematic quantitative study of hydrogels grown on nanoelectrode biosensor arrays for enhanced sensing in biological media

Nanoelectrodes and nanoelectrode arrays show enhanced diffusion and greater faradaic current densities and signal-to-noise ratios compared to macro and microelectrodes, which can lead to enhanced sensing and detection. One example is the microsquare nanoband edge electrode (MNEE) array system, readily formed through microfabrication and whose quantitative response has been established electroanalytically. Hydrogels have been shown to have applications in drug delivery, tissue engineering, and anti-biofouling; some also have the ability to be grown electrochemically. Here, we combine these two emerging technologies to demonstrate the principles of a hydrogel-coated nanoelectrode array biosensor that is resistant to biofouling. We first electrochemically grow and analyze hydrogels on MNEE arrays. The structure of these gels is shown by imaging to be electrochemically controllable, reproducible and structurally hierarchical. This structure is determined by the MNEE array diffusion fields, consistent with the established hydrogel formation reaction, and varies in structural scale from nano (early time, near electrode growth) to micro (for isolated elements in the array) to macro (when there is array overlap) with distance from the electrode, forming a hydrogel mesh of increasing density on progression from solution to electrode. There is also increased hydrogel structural density observed at electrode corners, attributable to enhanced diffusion. The resulting hydrogel structure can be formed on (and is firmly anchored to/through) an established clinically relevant biosensing layer without compromising detection. It is also shown to be capable, through proof-of-principle model protein studies using bovine serum albumin (BSA), of preventing protein biofouling whilst enabling smaller molecules such as DNA to pass through the hydrogel matrix and be sensed. Together, this demonstrates a method for developing reproducible, quantitative electrochemical nanoelectrode biosensors able to sense selectively in real-world sample matrices through the tuning of their interfacial properties.

A perspective on the magnetism of alkanethiol-coated gold thin films

Intriguing ferromagnetic behaviour has been reported in gold thin films — a diamagnetic material in the bulk — wherein large magnetic moments and uncommon anisotropy are often hallmark features. The tuning of the electronic and magnetic properties by the presence of molecular self-assembled monolayers has been proposed. In this work, we present the study of the magnetism of a wide collection of alkanethiols of differing chain lengths coated on Au. We find no or only very weak magnetism, casting doubt on the universality and reproducibility of this phenomenon.

Adsorption Kinetics of WS2 Quantum Dots onto a Polycrystalline Gold Surface

In this work, we report the adsorption kinetics of electrochemically synthesized WS₂ quantum dots (QDs) (ca. 3 nm) onto a polycrystalline gold electrode. The Langmuir adsorption isotherm approach was employed to explore the temperature and adsorbate concentration dependence of the experimentally calculated equilibrium constant of adsorption ( K_eq) and the free energy for adsorption (Δ G_ads). Subsequently, we extract other thermodynamic parameters, such as adsorption rate constant ( K_ads), desorption rate constant ( K_d), the enthalpy of adsorption (Δ H_ads), and the entropy of adsorption (Δ S_ads). Our findings indicate that Δ G_ads is temperature-dependent and ca. -7.64 ± 0.6 kJ/mol, Δ H_ads = -43.72 ± 1.7 kJ/mol, and Δ S_ads = -0.126 ± 0.017 kJ/(mol K). These investigations on the contribution of the enthalpic and entropic forces to the total free energy of this system underscore the role of entropic forces on the stability of the WS₂ QDs monolayer and provide new thermodynamic insights into other transition-metal dichalcogenide quantum dot (TMDQD) monolayers as well.

Construction and application of an electrochemical biosensor based on an endotoxin aptamer

An electrochemical biosensor that used an aptamer as a biological element was constructed to detect endotoxin. Biolayer interferometry was used to obtain the affinity constant of an aptamer for lipopolysaccharide, which had an equilibrium dissociation constant of 22.9 nM. The amine-terminated aptamer was then assembled on a gold electrode surface using 3-mercaptopropionic acid as an intermediate linker. The modification of the gold electrode was confirmed by cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. In the range of 0.001-1 EU/mL, the increase in electron transfer resistance of the biosensor was linear with the logarithmic value of the endotoxin concentration. The constructed biosensor exhibits sensitivity and a low limit of detection.

Ultra-low fouling methylimidazolium modified surfaces for the detection of HER2 in breast cancer cell lysates

We synthesized novel ultra-low fouling ionic liquids and demonstrated their use with surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensing for the analysis of HER2 in breast cancer cell lysates.

Selective in situ potential-assisted SAM formation on multi electrode arrays

The selective modification of individual components in a biosensor array is challenging. To address this challenge, we present a generalizable approach to selectively modify and characterize individual gold surfaces in an array, in an in situ manner. This is achieved by taking advantage of the potential dependent adsorption/desorption of surface-modified organic molecules. Control of the applied potential of the individual sensors in an array where each acts as a working electrode provides differential derivatization of the sensor surfaces. To demonstrate this concept, two different self-assembled monolayer (SAM)-forming electrochemically addressable ω-ferrocenyl alkanethiols (C₁₁) are chemisorbed onto independent but spatially adjacent gold electrodes. The ferrocene alkanethiol does not chemisorb onto the surface when the applied potential is cathodic relative to the adsorption potential and the electrode remains underivatized. However, applying potentials that are modestly positive relative to the adsorption potential leads to extensive coverage within 10 min. The resulting SAM remains in a stable state while held at potentials <200 mV above the adsorption potential. In this state, the chemisorbed SAM does not significantly desorb nor do new ferrocenylalkythiols adsorb. Using three set applied potentials provides for controlled submonolayer alkylthiol marker coverage of each independent gold electrode. These three applied potentials are dependent upon the specifics of the respective adsorbate. Characterization of the ferrocene-modified electrodes via cyclic voltammetry demonstrates that each specific ferrocene marker is exclusively adsorbed to the desired target electrode.

Measuring Electrolyte Impedance and Noise Simultaneously by Triangular Waveform Voltage and Principal Component Analysis

In order to measure the impedance variation process in electrolyte solutions, a method of triangular waveform voltage excitation is investigated together with principal component analysis (PCA). Using triangular waveform voltage as the excitation signal, the response current during one duty cycle is sampled to construct a measurement vector. The measurement matrix is then constructed by the measurement vectors obtained from different measurements. After being processed by PCA, the changing information of solution impedance is contained in the loading vectors while the response current and noise information is contained in the score vectors. The measurement results of impedance variation by the proposed signal processing method are independent of the equivalent impedance model. The noise-induced problems encountered during equivalent impedance calculation are therefore avoided, and the real-time variation information of noise in the electrode-electrolyte interface can be extracted at the same time. Planar-interdigitated electrodes are experimentally tested for monitoring the KCl concentration variation process. Experimental results indicate that the measured impedance variation curve reflects the changing process of solution conductivity, and the amplitude distribution of the noise during one duty cycle can be utilized to analyze the contact conditions of the electrode and electrolyte interface.

Preparation and characterization of alkylphosphonic acid self-assembled monolayers on titanium alloy by chemisorption and electrochemical deposition

Ti-6Al-4V alloy is the most commonly used alloy for dental and orthopedic implants. In order to improve osseointegration, different surface modification methods are usually employed, including self-assembled monolayers (SAMs). This study presents an investigation of both active (electroassisted) and passive (adsorption) approaches for the modification of Ti-6Al-4V using alkylphosphonic acid. The monolayers were characterized by cyclic voltammetry, double-layer capacitance, contact angle measurements, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, polarization modulation infrared reflection adsorption spectroscopy, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and corrosion potentiodynamic polarization measurements. It is shown that the electrochemically assisted monolayers, which are assembled faster, exhibit better control over surface properties, a superior degree of order, and a somewhat higher packing density. The electrosorbed SAMs also exhibit better blockage of electron transfer across the interface and thus have better corrosion resistance.

Thiol-yne adsorbates for stable, low-density, self-assembled monolayers on gold

We present a novel approach toward carboxylate-terminated, low-density monolayers on gold, which provides exceptional adsorbate stability and conformational freedom of interfacial functional groups. Adsorbates are synthesized through the thiol-yne addition of two thiol-containing head groups to an alkyne-containing tail group. The resulting monolayers have two distinct phases: a highly crystalline head phase adjacent to the gold substrate, and a reduced density tail phase, which is in contact with the environment. The ellipsometric thickness of 27 Å is consistent with the proposed structure, where a densely packed decanedithiol monolayer is capped with an 11 carbon long, second layer at 50% lateral chain density. The Fourier transform infrared peak at 1710 cm(-1) supports the presence of the carbonyl group. Further, the peaks associated with asymmetric and symmetric methylene stretching are shifted toward higher wavenumbers compared to those of well-packed self-assembled monolayers (SAMs), which shows a lower average crystallinity of the thiol-yne monolayers compared to a typical monolayer. Contact angle measurements indicate an intermediate surface energy for the thiol-yne monolayer surface, owing to the contribution of exposed methylene functionality at the surface in addition to the carbonyl terminal group. The conformational freedom at the surface was demonstrated through remodeling the thiol-yne surface under an applied potential. Changes in the receding contact angle in response to an external potential support the capacity for reorientation of the surface presenting groups. Despite the low packing at the solution interface, thiol-yne monolayers are resistant to water and ion transport (R(f) ~ 10(5)), supporting the presence of a densely structured layer at the gold surface. Further, the electrochemical stability of the thiol-yne adsorbates exceeded that of well-packed SAMs, requiring a more reductive potential to desorb the thiol-yne monolayers from the gold surface. The thiol-yne monolayer approach is not limited to carboxylate functionality and is readily adapted for low-density monolayers of varied functionality.

An Immunosensor for Pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus Based on Antibody Modified Aminophenyl-Au Electrode

The objective of this work is to elaborate an immunosensing system which will detect and quantify Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. A gold electrode was modified by electrografting of 4-nitrophenyl diazonium, in situ synthesized in acidic aqueous solution. The immunosensor was fabricated by immobilizing affinity-purified polyclonal anti S. aureus antibodies on the modified gold electrode. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) and Faradaic Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) were employed to characterize the stepwise assembly of the immunosensor. The performance of the developed immunosensor was evaluated by monitoring the electron-transfer resistance detected using Faradaic EIS. The experimental results indicated a linear relationship between the relative variation of the electron transfer resistance and the logarithmic value of S. aureus concentration, with a slope of 0.40 ± 0.08 per decade of concentration. A low quantification limit of 10±2 CFU per ml and a linear range up to 107±2×106 CFU per mL were obtained. The developed immunosensors showed high selectivity to Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus saprophyticus.

Impedimetric microbial sensor for real-time monitoring of phage infection of Escherichia coli

We describe an impedimetric microbial sensor for real-time monitoring of the non-lytic M13 bacteriophage infection of Escherichia coli cells using a gold electrode covalently grafted with a monolayer of lipopolysaccharide specific antibody. After infection, damage to the lipopolysaccharide layer on the outer membrane of E. coli causes changes to its surface charge and morphology, resulting in the aggregation of redox probe, Fe(CN)6(3-/4-) at the electrode surface and thereby increases its electron-transfer rate. This consequent decrease of electron-transfer resistance in the presence of bacteriophage can be easily monitored using Faradaic impedance spectroscopy. Non-lytic bacterium-phage interaction which is hardly observable using conventional microscopic methods is detected within 3h using this impedimetric microbial sensor which demonstrates its excellent performance in terms of analysis time, ease and reduced reliance on labeling steps during in-situ monitoring of the phage infection process.

Selective detection of endotoxin using an impedance aptasensor with electrochemically deposited gold nanoparticles

Using a single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) aptamer exhibiting high binding affinity (Kd = 12 nM) to endotoxin as a probe, an impedance sensor where aptamer-conjugated gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were electrochemically deposited on a gold electrode was fabricated and its performance in regard to endotoxin detection assessed. AuNPs have been employed widely as biosensors because of their unique physical and chemical properties. In order to maximize the performance of the impedance aptasensor on endotoxin detection, some critical factors affecting aptamer conjugation to AuNPs and target recognition ability (i.e. concentrations of aptamer coupled with AuNPs, pH, ion strength and cation effect at the time of aptamer-endotoxin interaction) were optimized. Electrochemical impendence spectroscopy, cyclic voltametry, atomic force microscope, scanning electron microscope and quartz crystal microbalance were employed to characterize all the modification/detection procedures during the sensor fabrication. The developed aptasensor showed a broad linear dynamic detection range (0.01-10.24 ng/ml) with a very low detection limit for endotoxin (0.005 ng/ml), despite the presence of several biomolecules (e.g. plasmid DNA, RNA, serum albumin, Glc and sucrose) known to interfere with other endotoxin assays. The demonstrated aptasensor required a detection time of only 10 min, providing a simple and fast analytical method to specifically detect endotoxin from complex biological liqors.

Determination of endotoxin through an aptamer-based impedance biosensor

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) often referred to endotoxin is an undesirable impurity frequently entrained with various recombinant protein therapeutics and plasmid DNA (pDNA) vaccines of bacterial origin. The inherent toxicities (e.g. fever, hypotension, shock and death) of LPS render its early and sensitive detection essential for several biological assays and/or parenteral administrations of biotherapeutics. In this study, an electrochemical biosensor using an LPS specific single stranded DNA (ssDNA) aptamer as a probe was developed. Amine-terminated aptamer exhibiting high affinity (K(d)=11.9 nM) to LPS was immobilized on a gold electrode using 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA) as a linker. Each step of the modification process was characterized by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and electrochemical impendence spectroscopy (EIS). A good linear relationship of the changes in the charge-transfer resistance (ΔR(et)) and the logarithmic value of LPS concentration was demonstrated in a broad dynamic detection range of 0.001-1 ng/ml. Furthermore, the aptasensor showed a high selectivity to LPS despite the presence of pDNA, RNA and bovine serum albumin (BSA) and could be regenerated in low pH condition, offering a promising option for detecting LPS often present in a complex milieu.

Electrocatalytic oxygen reduction on functionalized gold nanoparticles incorporated in a hydrophobic environment

The electrocatalytic properties of gold nanoparticles covalently capped with a monolayer film of 1,4-decylphenyl groups for oxygen reduction in an alkaline solution have been studied. Functionalized nanoparticles were adsorbed on a film of the same capping ligand previously grafted to a glassy carbon electrode. The molecular film-nanoparticle assembly was characterized by cyclic voltammetry and XPS. It is shown that although the attachment of the capping ligand to the electrode surface blocks direct electron transfer, the metal centers of the incorporated nanoparticles provide sites for electron tunneling from the electrode surface thus leading to sites where oxygen reduction can take place. Rotating disk voltammetry shows that the oxygen reduction reaction follows mainly a peroxide formation channel on these nanostructured surfaces. The capping ligand greatly influences the reduction mechanism by establishing a local hydrophobic environment at the reaction centers within the film.

Self-assembled monolayers of thiols and dithiols on gold: new challenges for a well-known system

Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of alkanethiols and dialkanethiols on gold are key elements for building many systems and devices with applications in the wide field of nanotechnology. Despite the progress made in the knowledge of these fascinating two-dimensional molecular systems, there are still several "hot topics" that deserve special attention in order to understand and to control their physical and chemistry properties at the molecular level. This critical review focuses on some of these topics, including the nature of the molecule-gold interface, whose chemistry and structure remain elusive, the self-assembly process on planar and irregular surfaces, and on nanometre-sized objects, and the chemical reactivity and thermal stability of these systems in ambient and aqueous solutions, an issue which seriously limits their technological applications (375 references).

Electrochemically assisted self-assembly of alkylthiosulfates and alkanethiols on gold: the role of gold oxide formation and corrosion

Electrochemically directed self-assembly of alkylthiosulfates enables the selective formation of monolayers on gold surfaces. These monolayers are identical to those formed from the corresponding alkanethiols. However, the mechanistic details of monolayer formation under electrochemical conditions as well as the role of other variables and residual water in the solvent have not been extensively studied. A systematic investigation shows that self-assembly is not a result of an outer-sphere one-electron oxidation of alkylthiosulfate. Voltammetry and electrochemical quartz crystal microbalance techniques reveal that self-assembly involving alkylthiosulfates as well as alkanethiols under oxidative conditions proceed through direct reaction with gold oxide and in some cases is accompanied by corrosion. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy indicates that monolayers can undergo rapid exchange with molecules in solution under electrochemically directed self-assembly conditions.

An STM study on nonionic fluorosurfactant zonyl FSN self-assembly on Au(111): large domains, few defects, and good stability

Nonionic Fluorosurfactant Zonyl FSN self-assembly on Au(111) is investigated with scanning tunneling microscopy under ambient conditions. STM reveals that the FSN forms SAMs on Au(l11) with very large domain size and almost no defects. A (mean square root of 3 x mean square root of 3)R3 degree arrangement of the FSN SAM on Au(111) is observed. The SAMs show excellent chemical stability and last for at least a month in atmospheric conditions. The structure and stability of the FSN SAMs are compared with those of alkanethiols SAMs. It is expected that FSN may serve as a new kind of molecule to form SAMs for surface modification, which would benefit wider applications for various purposes.

Characterization of carboxylic acid-terminated self-assembled monolayers by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and scanning electrochemical microscopy

Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) are used to monitor changes in the ionization of monolayers of 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid. When using an anionic redox probe, Fe(CN)6(-4), the charge-transfer resistance of the 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid monolayer-modified interface increases in a sigmoidal fashion as the solution is made basic. The opposite effect is observed when using a cationic redox probe. The inflection points of these two titration curves, however, differ when using the different redox probes. This result is taken as being characteristic of the influence that applied potential has on the ionization of the monolayer. The role of substrate potential on the ionization of the monolayer is further investigated by SECM. The SECM measurement monitors the concentration of Ru(NH3)6(+3) as the potential of the substrate is varied about the potential of zero charge. For monolayers of 11-mercaptoundecanoic acid in solutions buffered near the pKa of the terminal carboxylic acid, potential excursions positive of the PZC cause an increase in the concentration of Ru(NH3)6(+3) local to the interface, and potential excursions negative of the PZC cause a decrease in the local concentration of Ru(NH3)6(+3). Similar experiments conducted with an interface modified with 11-undecanethiol had no impact on the local concentration of Ru(NH3)6(+3). These results are interpreted in terms of the influence that applied potential has on the pH of the solution local to the interface and the impact that this has on the ionization of the monolayer.

Self-assembled-monolayer formation of long alkanedithiols in molecular junctions

The orientation of alkanedithiol molecules in self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) is of vital importance for their transport properties in molecular junctions. It is demonstrated that a too-low concentration of long alkanedithiols in ethanol leads to the formation of looped molecules, resulting in a 50-fold increase of the current through the SAM. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy measurements show that high-concentration dithiol solutions result in a preferential standing-up phase. To obtain an almost full standing-up phase of 1,14-tetradecanedithiol (C14) a 30 mM concentration in ethanol is required, whereas a 0.3 mM concentration leads to a highly looped monolayer. The conduction through the full standing-up phase of C14 and C16 is in accordance with the exponential dependence on molecule length as obtained from shorter alkanedithiols.