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Hassan SSM, El-Shalakany HH, Fathy MA, Kamel AH. A novel potentiometric screen-printed electrode based on crown ethers/nano manganese oxide/Nafion composite for trace level determination of copper ion in biological fluids. Mikrochim Acta 2024; 191:313. [PMID: 38717608 DOI: 10.1007/s00604-024-06394-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Copper levels in biological fluids are associated with Wilson's, Alzheimer's, Menke's, and Parkinson's diseases, making them good biochemical markers for these diseases. This study introduces a miniaturized screen-printed electrode (SPE) for the potentiometric determination of copper(II) in some biological fluids. Manganese(III) oxide nanoparticles (Mn2O3-NPs), dispersed in Nafion, are drop-casted onto a graphite/PET substrate, serving as the ion-to-electron transducer material. The solid-contact material is then covered by a selective polyvinyl chloride (PVC) membrane incorporated with 18-crown-6 as a neutral ion carrier for the selective determination of copper(II) ions. The proposed electrode exhibits a Nernstian response with a slope of 30.2 ± 0.3 mV/decade (R2 = 0.999) over the linear concentration range 5.2 × 10-9 - 6.2 × 10-3 mol/l and a detection limit of 1.1 × 10-9 mol/l (69.9 ng/l). Short-term potential stability is evaluated using constant current chronopotentiometry (CP) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS). A significant improvement in the electrode capacitance (91.5 μF) is displayed due to the use of Mn2O3-NPs as a solid contact. The presence of Nafion, with its high hydrophobicity properties, eliminates the formation of the thin water layer, facilitating the ion-to-electron transduction between the sensing membrane and the conducting substrate. Additionally, it enhances the adhesion of the polymeric sensing membrane to the solid-contact material, preventing membrane delamination and increasing the electrode's lifespan. The high selectivity, sensitivity, and potential stability of the proposed miniaturized electrode suggests its use for the determination of copper(II) ions in human blood serum and milk samples. The results obtained agree fairly well with data obtained by flameless atomic absorption spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saad S M Hassan
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Abbasia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt.
| | - Hadeel H El-Shalakany
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Abbasia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud Abdelwahab Fathy
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Abbasia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt.
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science and Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.
| | - Ayman H Kamel
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Ain Shams University, Abbasia, Cairo, 11566, Egypt
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Sokheer, 32038, Kingdom of Bahrain
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Shahzad U, Saeed M, Marwani HM, Al-Humaidi JY, Rehman SU, Althomali RH, Awual MR, Rahman MM. Recent Progress on Potentiometric Sensor Applications Based on Nanoscale Metal Oxides: A Comprehensive Review. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2024:1-18. [PMID: 38593048 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2024.2337876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Electrochemical sensors have been the subject of much research and development as of late, with several publications detailing new designs boasting enhanced performance metrics. That is, without a doubt, because such sensors stand out from other analytical tools thanks to their excellent analytical characteristics, low cost, and ease of use. Their progress has shown a trend toward seeking out novel useful nano structure materials. A variety of nanostructure metal oxides have been utilized in the creation of potentiometric sensors, which are the subject of this article. For screen-printed pH sensors, metal oxides have been utilized as sensing layers due to their mixed ion-electron conductivity and as paste-ion-selective electrode components and in solid-contact electrodes. Further significant uses include solid-contact layers. All the metal oxide uses mentioned are within the purview of this article. Nanoscale metal oxides have several potential uses in the potentiometry method, and this paper summarizes such uses, including hybrid materials and single-component layers. Potentiometric sensors with outstanding analytical properties can be manufactured entirely from metal oxides. These novel sensors outperform the more traditional, conventional electrodes in terms of useful characteristics. In this review, we looked at the potentiometric analytical properties of different building solutions with various nanoscale metal oxides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umer Shahzad
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Mohsin Saeed
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hadi M Marwani
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Jehan Y Al-Humaidi
- Department of Chemistry, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shujah Ur Rehman
- Institute of Energy & Environmental Engineering, University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Raed H Althomali
- Department of Chemistry, College of Art and Science, Prince Sattam bin Abdulaziz University, Wadi Al-Dawasir, Saudi Arabia
| | - Md Rabiul Awual
- Western Australian School of Mines: Minerals, Energy and Chemical Engineering, Curtin University, Perth, WA, Australia
| | - Mohammed M Rahman
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
- Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR), King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
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3
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Wang Y, Xu M, Wang X, Ge R, Zhu YQ, Li AZ, Zhou H, Chen F, Zheng L, Duan H. Unraveling the potential-dependent structure evolution in CuO for electrocatalytic biomass valorization. Sci Bull (Beijing) 2023; 68:2982-2992. [PMID: 37798176 DOI: 10.1016/j.scib.2023.09.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023]
Abstract
Electrocatalytic oxidation of renewable biomass (such as glucose) into high-value-added chemicals provides an effective approach to achieving carbon neutrality. CuO-derived materials are among the most promising electrocatalysts for biomass electrooxidation, but the identification of their active sites under electrochemical conditions remains elusive. Herein, we report a potential-dependent structure evolution over CuO in the glucose oxidation reaction (GOR). Through systematic electrochemical and spectroscopic characterizations, we unveil that CuO undergoes Cu2+/Cu+ and Cu3+/Cu2+ redox processes at increased potentials with successive generation of Cu(OH)2 and CuOOH as the active phases. In addition, these two structures have distinct activities in the GOR, with Cu(OH)2 being favorable for aldehyde oxidation, and CuOOH showed faster kinetics in carbon-carbon cleavage and alcohol/aldehyde oxidation. This work deepens our understanding of the dynamic reconstruction of Cu-based catalysts under electrochemical conditions and may guide rational material design for biomass valorization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ming Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Xi Wang
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Ruixiang Ge
- Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yu-Quan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - An-Zhen Li
- Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Center of Basic Molecular Science (CBMS), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Hua Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Fengen Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Lirong Zheng
- Beijing Synchrotron Radiation Facility, Institute of High Energy Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Haohong Duan
- Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Engineering Research Center of Advanced Rare Earth Materials (Ministry of Education), Department of Chemistry, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China.
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Lenar N, Piech R, Wardak C, Paczosa-Bator B. Application of Metal Oxide Nanoparticles in the Field of Potentiometric Sensors: A Review. MEMBRANES 2023; 13:876. [PMID: 37999362 PMCID: PMC10672869 DOI: 10.3390/membranes13110876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/04/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Recently, there has been rapid development of electrochemical sensors, and there have been numerous reports in the literature that describe new constructions with improved performance parameters. Undoubtedly, this is due to the fact that those sensors are characterized by very good analytical parameters, and at the same time, they are cheap and easy to use, which distinguishes them from other analytical tools. One of the trends observed in their development is the search for new functional materials. This review focuses on potentiometric sensors designed with the use of various metal oxides. Metal oxides, because of their remarkable properties including high electrical capacity and mixed ion-electron conductivity, have found applications as both sensing layers (e.g., of screen-printing pH sensors) or solid-contact layers and paste components in solid-contact and paste-ion-selective electrodes. All the mentioned applications of metal oxides are described in the scope of the paper. This paper presents a survey on the use of metal oxides in the field of the potentiometry method as both single-component layers and as a component of hybrid materials. Metal oxides are allowed to obtain potentiometric sensors of all-solid-state construction characterized by remarkable analytical parameters. These new types of sensors exhibit properties that are competitive with those of the commonly used conventional electrodes. Different construction solutions and various metal oxides were compared in the scope of this review based on their analytical parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikola Lenar
- Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH University of Krakow, Mickiewicza 30, PL-30059 Krakow, Poland; (N.L.)
| | - Robert Piech
- Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH University of Krakow, Mickiewicza 30, PL-30059 Krakow, Poland; (N.L.)
| | - Cecylia Wardak
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Maria Curie-Sklodowska Square 3, PL-20031 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Beata Paczosa-Bator
- Faculty of Materials Science and Ceramics, AGH University of Krakow, Mickiewicza 30, PL-30059 Krakow, Poland; (N.L.)
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Wardak C, Pietrzak K, Morawska K, Grabarczyk M. Ion-Selective Electrodes with Solid Contact Based on Composite Materials: A Review. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:5839. [PMID: 37447689 DOI: 10.3390/s23135839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Revised: 06/14/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023]
Abstract
Potentiometric sensors are the largest and most commonly used group of electrochemical sensors. Among them, ion-selective electrodes hold a prominent place. Since the end of the last century, their re-development has been observed, which is a consequence of the introduction of solid contact constructions, i.e., electrodes without an internal electrolyte solution. Research carried out in the field of potentiometric sensors primarily focuses on developing new variants of solid contact in order to obtain devices with better analytical parameters, and at the same time cheaper and easier to use, which has been made possible thanks to the achievements of material engineering. This paper presents an overview of new materials used as a solid contact in ion-selective electrodes over the past several years. These are primarily composite and hybrid materials that are a combination of carbon nanomaterials and polymers, as well as those obtained from carbon and polymer nanomaterials in combination with others, such as metal nanoparticles, metal oxides, ionic liquids and many others. Composite materials often have better mechanical, thermal, electrical, optical and chemical properties than the original components. With regard to their use in the construction of ion-selective electrodes, it is particularly important to increase the capacitance and surface area of the material, which makes them more effective in the process of charge transfer between the polymer membrane and the substrate material. This allows to obtain sensors with better analytical and operational parameters. Brief characteristics of electrodes with solid contact, their advantages and disadvantages, as well as research methods used to assess their parameters and analytical usefulness were presented. The work was divided into chapters according to the type of composite material, while the data in the table were arranged according to the type of ion. Selected basic analytical parameters of the obtained electrodes have been collected and summarized in order to better illustrate and compare the achievements that have been described till now in this field of analytical chemistry, which is potentiometry. This comprehensive review is a compendium of knowledge in the research area of functional composite materials and state-of-the-art SC-ISE construction technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecylia Wardak
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Maria Curie-Sklodowska Square. 3, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
| | - Karolina Pietrzak
- Department of Food and Nutrition, Medical University of Lublin, 4a Chodzki Str., 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Klaudia Morawska
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Maria Curie-Sklodowska Square. 3, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
| | - Malgorzata Grabarczyk
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Institute of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Chemistry, Maria Curie-Sklodowska University, Maria Curie-Sklodowska Square. 3, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
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6
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Lenar N, Piech R, Paczosa-Bator B. Hydrous Cerium Dioxide-Based Materials as Solid-Contact Layers in Potassium-Selective Electrodes. MEMBRANES 2022; 12:membranes12040349. [PMID: 35448319 PMCID: PMC9032862 DOI: 10.3390/membranes12040349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Revised: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
This paper introduces hydrous cerium dioxide applied for the first time as a solid-contact layer in ion-selective electrodes. Cerium dioxide belongs to the group of metal oxides that exhibit both redox activity and a large surface area and therefore was considered to be an appropriate material for the solid-contact layer in potentiometric sensors. The material was examined both standalone and as a component of composite materials (with the addition of carbon nanomaterial or conducting polymer). Three cerium dioxide-based materials were tested as solid-contact layers in potentiometric sensors in the context of their microstructure, wettability, and electrical properties. The addition of hydrous cerium dioxide was shown to enhance the properties of carbon nanotubes and poly(3-octylthiophene-2,5-diyl) by increasing the value of electrical capacitance (798 μF and 112 μF for hCeO2-NTs and hCeO2-POT material, respectively) and the value of contact angle (100° and 120° for hCeO2-NTs and hCeO2-POT material, respectively). The proposed sensor preparation method is easy, without the need to use an advanced apparatus or specific conditions, and fast; sensors can be prepared within an hour. Designed hCeO2-based electrodes exhibit competitive linear range and potential stability within the wide range of pH values (2.0–11.5). Designed electrodes are dedicated to potassium determination in environmental and clinical samples.
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Lenar N, Piech R, Wyrwa J, Paczosa-Bator B. Potassium-Selective Solid-Contact Electrode with High-Capacitance Hydrous Iridium Dioxide in the Transduction Layer. MEMBRANES 2021; 11:membranes11040259. [PMID: 33916506 PMCID: PMC8067067 DOI: 10.3390/membranes11040259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 03/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
This work presents new material for solid-contact layers-hydrous iridium dioxide IrO2·2H2O, characterized by high electrical capacitance value, evaluated using chronopotentiometry (1.22 mF) and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (1.57 mF). The remarkable electrical parameters of layers resulted in great analytical parameters of IrO2·2H2O-contacted potassium-selective electrodes. Various parameters of ion-selective electrodes were examined in the scope of this work using a potentiometry method including: linear range, repeatability, stability of potentiometric response and sensitivity to varying measurement conditions. The analytical parameters obtained for solid-contact electrodes were compared with the ones obtained for coated disc electrodes to evaluate the influence of the iridium dioxide layer. The linear range of the IrO2·2H2O-contacted K+-selective electrodes covered concentrations of K+ ions from 10-6 to 10-1 M and the potential stability was estimated at 0.097 mV/h. The IrO2·2H2O-contacted electrodes turned out to be insensitive to varying light exposure and changes in the pH values of measured solutions (in the pH range of 2 to 10.5). A water layer test proved that, contrary to the coated disc electrode, the substantial water film is not formed between the ion-selective membrane and iridium dioxide layer.
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Green synthesis of nonprecious metal-doped copper hydroxide nanoparticles for construction of a dopamine sensor. Future Med Chem 2021; 13:715-729. [PMID: 33709796 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2020-0333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Copper oxide nanoparticles doped with nonprecious metal species (Ni and Mn) were synthesized. Method: A glassy carbon electrode (GCE) was modified by drop-casting of nanostructure suspensions, constructing Ni:Cu(OH)2/GCE, Mn:Cu(OH)2/GCE and Cu(OH)2/GCE. Results: The voltammetric oxidation of dopamine (DA) by the constructed electrodes confirmed that the electrocatalytic oxidation of DA is a reversible, pH-dependent, diffusion-controlled process; the best response was obtained by Mn:Cu(OH)2/GCE. A sensitive calibration graph (0.664 μA/μM) was produced for DA in the concentration range of 0.3-10.0 μM, with a detection limit of 79 nM using Mn:Cu(OH)2/GCE. Conclusion: The Mn:Cu(OH)2/GCE possessed an accurate response toward DA with an acceptable selectivity, stability and antifouling effect, revealing the applicability of the Mn:Cu(OH)2/GCE for DA analysis in biological samples.
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Shao Y, Ying Y, Ping J. Recent advances in solid-contact ion-selective electrodes: functional materials, transduction mechanisms, and development trends. Chem Soc Rev 2020; 49:4405-4465. [DOI: 10.1039/c9cs00587k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 143] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
This article presents a comprehensive overview of recent progress in the design and applications of solid-contact ion-selective electrodes (SC-ISEs).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzhou Shao
- Laboratory of Agricultural Information Intelligent Sensing
- School of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou
- China
| | - Yibin Ying
- Laboratory of Agricultural Information Intelligent Sensing
- School of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou
- China
| | - Jianfeng Ping
- Laboratory of Agricultural Information Intelligent Sensing
- School of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science
- Zhejiang University
- Hangzhou
- China
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Wang F, Li H, Yuan Z, Sun Y, Chang F, Deng H, Xie L, Li H. A highly sensitive gas sensor based on CuO nanoparticles synthetized via a sol–gel method. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra13876d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In this paper, CuO nanoparticles were synthetized via a sol–gel method and their corresponding gas sensor was achieved simultaneously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Wang
- School of Physical Science and Technology
- Lanzhou University
- Lanzhou 730000
- China
| | - Hairong Li
- School of Physical Science and Technology
- Lanzhou University
- Lanzhou 730000
- China
- Key Laboratory for Magnetism and Magnetic Materials of the Ministry of Education
| | - Zhaoxin Yuan
- School of Physical Science and Technology
- Lanzhou University
- Lanzhou 730000
- China
| | - Yongzhe Sun
- School of Physical Science and Technology
- Lanzhou University
- Lanzhou 730000
- China
| | - Fangzhi Chang
- School of Physical Science and Technology
- Lanzhou University
- Lanzhou 730000
- China
| | - Heng Deng
- School of Physical Science and Technology
- Lanzhou University
- Lanzhou 730000
- China
| | - Longzhen Xie
- School of Physical Science and Technology
- Lanzhou University
- Lanzhou 730000
- China
| | - Haiyan Li
- School of Life Science
- Lanzhou University
- Lanzhou
- China
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Bakker
- Department of Inorganic and
Analytical Chemistry, University of Geneva, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland
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12
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Metal oxide nanosensors using polymeric membranes, enzymes and antibody receptors as ion and molecular recognition elements. SENSORS 2014; 14:8605-32. [PMID: 24841244 PMCID: PMC4063009 DOI: 10.3390/s140508605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Revised: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The concept of recognition and biofunctionality has attracted increasing interest in the fields of chemistry and material sciences. Advances in the field of nanotechnology for the synthesis of desired metal oxide nanostructures have provided a solid platform for the integration of nanoelectronic devices. These nanoelectronics-based devices have the ability to recognize molecular species of living organisms, and they have created the possibility for advanced chemical sensing functionalities with low limits of detection in the nanomolar range. In this review, various metal oxides, such as ZnO-, CuO-, and NiO-based nanosensors, are described using different methods (receptors) of functionalization for molecular and ion recognition. These functionalized metal oxide surfaces with a specific receptor involve either a complex formation between the receptor and the analyte or an electrostatic interaction during the chemical sensing of analytes. Metal oxide nanostructures are considered revolutionary nanomaterials that have a specific surface for the immobilization of biomolecules with much needed orientation, good conformation and enhanced biological activity which further improve the sensing properties of nanosensors. Metal oxide nanostructures are associated with certain unique optical, electrical and molecular characteristics in addition to unique functionalities and surface charge features which shows attractive platforms for interfacing biorecognition elements with effective transducing properties for signal amplification. There is a great opportunity in the near future for metal oxide nanostructure-based miniaturization and the development of engineering sensor devices.
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