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Tůma P. Progress in on-line, at-line, and in-line coupling of sample treatment with capillary and microchip electrophoresis over the past 10 years: A review. Anal Chim Acta 2023; 1261:341249. [PMID: 37147053 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2023.341249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
The review presents an evaluation of the development of on-line, at-line and in-line sample treatment coupled with capillary and microchip electrophoresis over the last 10 years. In the first part, it describes different types of flow-gating interfaces (FGI) such as cross-FGI, coaxial-FGI, sheet-flow-FGI, and air-assisted-FGI and their fabrication using molding into polydimethylsiloxane and commercially available fittings. The second part deals with the coupling of capillary and microchip electrophoresis with microdialysis, solid-phase, liquid-phase, and membrane based extraction techniques. It mainly focuses on modern techniques such as extraction across supported liquid membrane, electroextraction, single drop microextraction, head space microextraction, and microdialysis with high spatial and temporal resolution. Finally, the design of sequential electrophoretic analysers and fabrication of SPE microcartridges with monolithic and molecularly imprinted polymeric sorbents are discussed. Applications include the monitoring of metabolites, neurotransmitters, peptides and proteins in body fluids and tissues to study processes in living organisms, as well as the monitoring of nutrients, minerals and waste compounds in food, natural and wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Tůma
- Department of Hygiene, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ruská 87, 100 00, Prague 10, Czech Republic.
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2
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Wu Y, Zhong D, Qiu Q, Yan X, Wu D. Nanoporous Polyimide Microspheres Solid Phase Extraction Coupled to Liquid Chromatography with Fluorescence Detection to Determine Fluoroquinolones in Water and Food Samples. Chromatographia 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10337-022-04196-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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3
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Fast and highly efficient liquid chromatographic methods for qualification and quantification of antibiotic residues from environmental waste. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.107573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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4
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Li G, Row KH. Single-drop microextraction technique for the determination of antibiotics in environmental water. J Sep Sci 2021; 45:883-895. [PMID: 34919334 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.202100682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Revised: 12/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Growing concerns related to antibiotic residues in environmental water have encouraged the development of rapid, sensitive, and accurate analytical methods. Single-drop microextraction has been recognized as an efficient approach for the isolation and preconcentration of several analytes from a complex sample matrix. Thus, single-drop microextraction techniques are cost-effective and less harmful to the environment, subscribing to green analytical chemistry principles. Herein, an overview and the current advances in single-drop microextraction for the determination of antibiotics in environmental water are presented were included. In particular, two main approaches used to perform single-drop microextraction (direct immersion-single-drop microextraction and headspace-single-drop microextraction) are reviewed. Furthermore, the impressive analytical features and future perspectives of single-drop microextraction are discussed in this review. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guizhen Li
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Linyi University, Linyi, Shandong, 276005, P. R. China
| | - Kyung Ho Row
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Inha University, Incheon, 402751, Korea
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5
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Capillary coated with three-dimensional covalent organic frameworks for separation of fluoroquinolones by open-tubular capillary electrochromatography. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1656:462549. [PMID: 34543884 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Revised: 09/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The Schiff-base reaction of 1,3,5-triformylphloroglucinol (Tp) and tetra(4-aminophenyl)methane (TAM) was performed for the synthesis of a three-dimensional covalent organic framework named 3D TpTAM, which was obtained by an ultrasound-assisted method for the first time. The morphology and structure of the synthesized TpTAM were characterized through various methods. Then, TpTAM-coated capillary columns were subsequently prepared by a covalent bonding method within a short time and applied for the separation of fluoroquinolones by capillary electrochromatography (CEC) with good resolution and reproducibility. The intraday relative standard deviations (RSDs) of the retention time and peak areas were 0.88%-0.95% and 2.27%-3.81%, respectively. The interday RSDs of retention time and peak areas were 0.71%-0.89% and 0.88%-3.60%, respectively. The column-to-column RSDs of retention time and peak areas were less than 1.90% and 13.56%, respectively. The interbatch RSDs of retention time and peak areas were less than 3.48% and 3.89%, respectively. The TpTAM-coated capillary columns could be used for no less than 100 runs with no observable changes in the separation efficiency. The separation mechanism was also studied, which indicated that π-π stacking effects, hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding were the main factors. The results revealed that 3D TpTAM should have superior potential as the stationary phase in CEC for chromatographic separation.
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6
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Yu K, Yue ME, Xu J, Jiang TF. Determination of fluoroquinolones in milk, honey and water samples by salting out-assisted dispersive liquid-liquid microextraction based on deep eutectic solvent combined with MECC. Food Chem 2020; 332:127371. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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7
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Xu G, Dong X, Hou L, Wang X, Liu L, Ma H, Zhao RS. Room-temperature synthesis of flower-shaped covalent organic frameworks for solid-phase extraction of quinolone antibiotics. Anal Chim Acta 2020; 1126:82-90. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2020.05.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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8
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Purgat K, Olejarz P, Kośka I, Głowacki R, Kubalczyk P. Determination of homocysteine thiolactone in human urine by capillary zone electrophoresis and single drop microextraction. Anal Biochem 2020; 596:113640. [PMID: 32092290 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2020.113640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2019] [Revised: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 02/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
A simple, fast, sensitive and reproducible capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) method with single drop microextraction (SDME) for determination of homocysteine thiolactone (HTL) in human urine has been developed and validated. The method is characterized by good precision, high accuracy, short analysis time and low consumption of reagents. The procedure consists only of few steps: urine sample centrifugation, dilution with phosphate buffer and methanol, chloroform addition onto the top of donor phase, on-line SDME in CE system, sample separation by CZE and ultraviolet detection of HTL at 240 nm. The background electrolyte was 0.1 M pH 4.75 phosphate buffer. Effective separation was achieved within 6.04 min under the separation voltage of 24 kV (~110 μA). The LOQ and LOD for HTL were 50 and 25 nM urine, respectively. The calibration curve in urine showed linearity in the range of 50-200 nM, with R2 0.9995. The intra- and inter-day precision and recovery were 4.0-14.5% (average 8.7% and 9.3%) and 92.7-115.5% (average 103.6% and 104.8%), respectively. The procedure was successfully applied to analysis of urine samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystian Purgat
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Poland
| | - Patrycja Olejarz
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Poland
| | - Izabella Kośka
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Poland; University of Lodz, Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, Poland
| | - Rafał Głowacki
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Poland
| | - Paweł Kubalczyk
- University of Lodz, Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Environmental Chemistry, Poland.
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9
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Advances in the Analysis of Veterinary Drug Residues in Food Matrices by Capillary Electrophoresis Techniques. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24244617. [PMID: 31861089 PMCID: PMC6943715 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24244617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last years, the European Commission has adopted restrictive directives on food quality and safety in order to protect animal and human health. Veterinary drugs represent an important risk and the need to have sensitive and fast analytical techniques to detect and quantify them has become mandatory. Over the years, the availability of different modes, interfaces, and formats has improved the versatility, sensitivity, and speed of capillary electrophoresis (CE) techniques. Thus, CE represents a powerful tool for the analysis of a large variety of food matrices and food-related molecules with important applications in food quality and safety. This review focuses the attention of CE applications over the last decade on the detection of different classes of drugs (used as additives in animal food or present as contaminants in food products) with a potential risk for animal and human health. In addition, considering that the different sample preparation procedures have strongly contributed to CE sensitivity and versatility, the most advanced sample pre-concentration techniques are discussed here.
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Rodríguez Cabal LF, Vargas Medina DA, Martins Lima A, Lanças FM, Santos-Neto ÁJ. Robotic-assisted dynamic large drop microextraction. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1608:460416. [PMID: 31420177 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.460416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
By proper design of an innovative extraction device, a lab-made multipurpose autosampler was exploited in the automated performance of the dynamic large drops based microextraction. The pluses of this new analytical strategy were demonstrated in the determination of sulfonamides and fluoroquinolones in surface water samples, by direct immersion single drop microextraction (SDME) and liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis. Operational autosampler features and critical experimental factors influencing SDME, including the extraction mode (static or dynamic), extraction, stirring rate, salt addition, drop size, number of cycles and drop exposition time, were comprehensively investigated using both univariate and multivariate optimization. The lab-made autosampler allowed to performance challenging dynamic and static large drop based SDMEs in an automated and effortless way and with minimal requirements of hardware and software. Large stable drops provided high surface area, enhancing the phase ratio and in consequence increasing the analytes uptake. The best extraction efficiencies were obtained as a result of the synergic interaction between the use of large drops and the automated dynamic mode of extraction. The developed method proved to be a reliable, sensitive, and robust analytical tool, with intraday RSDs ranging between 4.0 and 7.6% (n = 6), and interday RSDs between 4.8 and 9.3% (n = 6), and, LOD and LOQ in the range of 15-50 and 35-100 ng L-1, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Adriel Martins Lima
- University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Fernando Mauro Lanças
- University of São Paulo, São Carlos, Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, SP, Brazil
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11
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Lu W, Liu J, Li J, Wang X, Lv M, Cui R, Chen L. Dual-template molecularly imprinted polymers for dispersive solid-phase extraction of fluoroquinolones in water samples coupled with high performance liquid chromatography. Analyst 2019; 144:1292-1302. [DOI: 10.1039/c8an02133c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Dual-template molecularly imprinted polymers were synthesized using norfloxacin and enrofloxacin as templates by precipitation polymerization with a multi-template imprinting strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenhui Lu
- School of Light Industry Science and Technology
- Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences)
- Jinan 250353
- China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation
| | - Jie Liu
- School of Environment and Materials Engineering
- Yantai University
- Yantai 264005
- China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation
| | - Jinhua Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation
- Research Center for Coastal Environmental Engineering and Technology
- Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Yantai 264003
| | - Xiaoyan Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation
- Research Center for Coastal Environmental Engineering and Technology
- Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Yantai 264003
| | - Min Lv
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation
- Research Center for Coastal Environmental Engineering and Technology
- Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Yantai 264003
| | - Rong Cui
- School of Environment and Materials Engineering
- Yantai University
- Yantai 264005
- China
| | - Lingxin Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Coastal Environmental Processes and Ecological Remediation
- Research Center for Coastal Environmental Engineering and Technology
- Yantai Institute of Coastal Zone Research
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Yantai 264003
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12
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Synergistic coupling of in-line single-drop microextraction and on-line large-volume sample stacking for capillary electrophoresis/mass spectrometry. Anal Bioanal Chem 2018; 411:1067-1073. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-018-1535-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/03/2018] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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13
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Yue ME, Lin Q, Xu J, Jiang TF. Ionic liquid-based headspace in-tube liquid-phase microextraction coupled with capillary electrophoresis for sensitive detection of phenols. Electrophoresis 2018; 39:1771-1776. [PMID: 29683521 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201800068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2018] [Revised: 04/07/2018] [Accepted: 04/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
An ionic liquid-based headspace in-tube liquid-phase microextraction (IL-HS-ITLPME) in-line coupled with capillary electrophoresis (CE) is proposed. The method is capable of quantifying trace amounts of phenols in environmental water samples. In the newly developed method, simply by placing a capillary injected with IL in the HS above the aqueous sample, volatile phenols were extracted into the IL acceptor phase in the capillary. After extraction, electrophoresis of the phenols in the capillary was carried out. Extraction parameters such as the extraction time, extraction temperature, ionic strength, volume of the sample solution and IL types were systematically investigated. Under the optimized conditions, enrichment factors for four phenols were from 1510 to 1985. The proposed method provided a good linearity, low limits of detection (below 5.0 ng mL-1 ), and good repeatability of the extractions (RSDs below 6.7%, n = 6). This method was then utilized to analyze two real environmental samples of Xiaoxi Lake and tap water, obtaining acceptable recoveries and precisions. Compared with the usual HS-ITLPME for CE, IL-HS-ITLPME-CE is a simple, low-cost, fast and environmentally friendly pre-concentration technique. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-E Yue
- Key Laboratory of Sensor Analysis of Tumor Marker, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Qiaoyan Lin
- Key Laboratory of Sensor Analysis of Tumor Marker, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Jie Xu
- Key Laboratory of Sensor Analysis of Tumor Marker, Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Qingdao University of Science and Technology, Qingdao, China
| | - Ting-Fu Jiang
- School of Medicine and Pharmacy, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, P. R. China
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14
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Kokosa JM. Selecting an Appropriate Solvent Microextraction Mode for a Green Analytical Method. COMPREHENSIVE ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.coac.2016.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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15
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Breadmore MC, Wuethrich A, Li F, Phung SC, Kalsoom U, Cabot JM, Tehranirokh M, Shallan AI, Abdul Keyon AS, See HH, Dawod M, Quirino JP. Recent advances in enhancing the sensitivity of electrophoresis and electrochromatography in capillaries and microchips (2014–2016). Electrophoresis 2016; 38:33-59. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201600331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2016] [Revised: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael C. Breadmore
- Australian Centre of Research on Separation Science, School of Physical Science University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, School of Physical Science University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
- ASTech, ARC Training Centre for Portable Analytical Separation Technologies, School of Physical Science University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
| | - Alain Wuethrich
- Australian Centre of Research on Separation Science, School of Physical Science University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
| | - Feng Li
- Australian Centre of Research on Separation Science, School of Physical Science University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
| | - Sui Ching Phung
- Australian Centre of Research on Separation Science, School of Physical Science University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
| | - Umme Kalsoom
- Australian Centre of Research on Separation Science, School of Physical Science University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
| | - Joan M. Cabot
- Australian Centre of Research on Separation Science, School of Physical Science University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Electromaterials Science, School of Physical Science University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
| | - Masoomeh Tehranirokh
- ASTech, ARC Training Centre for Portable Analytical Separation Technologies, School of Physical Science University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
| | - Aliaa I. Shallan
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy Helwan University Cairo Egypt
| | - Aemi S. Abdul Keyon
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Johor Bahru Johor Malaysia
| | - Hong Heng See
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Johor Bahru Johor Malaysia
- Centre for Sustainable Nanomaterials, Ibnu Sina Institute for Scientific and industrial Research Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Johor Bahru Johor Malaysia
| | - Mohamed Dawod
- Department of Chemistry University of Michigan Ann Arbor MI USA
| | - Joselito P. Quirino
- Australian Centre of Research on Separation Science, School of Physical Science University of Tasmania Hobart Tasmania Australia
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García-Vázquez A, Borrull F, Calull M, Aguilar C. Single-drop microextraction combined in-line with capillary electrophoresis for the determination of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in urine samples. Electrophoresis 2015; 37:274-81. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201500373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2015] [Revised: 09/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/21/2015] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alejandro García-Vázquez
- Department of Analytical and Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry; Universitat Rovira i Virgili; Tarragona Spain
| | - Francesc Borrull
- Department of Analytical and Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry; Universitat Rovira i Virgili; Tarragona Spain
| | - Marta Calull
- Department of Analytical and Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry; Universitat Rovira i Virgili; Tarragona Spain
| | - Carme Aguilar
- Department of Analytical and Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry; Universitat Rovira i Virgili; Tarragona Spain
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Domínguez-Vega E, Montealegre C, Marina ML. Analysis of antibiotics by CE and their use as chiral selectors: An update. Electrophoresis 2015; 37:189-211. [PMID: 26471773 DOI: 10.1002/elps.201500359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 09/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The widespread use of antibiotics in medicine and as growth-promoting agents has increased the demand for suitable analytical techniques for their analysis. Analytical methods based on CE or miniaturized CE systems have proved over the years their ability for the analysis of antibiotics. Since our last review (Electrophoresis 2014, 35, 28-49) several new CE methodologies have been reported for antibiotic analysis. This review presents an update of the literature published from June 2013 to June 2015 for the analysis of antibiotics by CE. UV continues being the most used detection system for antibiotics analysis by CE. Strategies to improve sensitivity as the use of sensitive detection systems and the application of preconcentration techniques appear to be the major developments. Furthermore, the use of portable and miniaturized devices for antibiotic analysis is presented in detail. Applications of the developed methodologies to the determination of residues of antibiotics in biological, food, and environmental samples are carefully described. Finally, new developments and applications of antibiotics as chiral selectors in CE are also included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Domínguez-Vega
- Division of BioAnalytical Chemistry, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | - Maria Luisa Marina
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Physical Chemistry, and Chemical Engineering, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, Spain
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