Biocatalytic and Bioelectrocatalytic Approaches for the Reduction of Carbon Dioxide using Enzymes

Lactic Acid from CO2: A Carbon Capture and Utilization Strategy Based on a Biocatalytic Approach

The EU low-carbon economy aims to reduce the level of CO2 emission in the EU to 80% by 2050. High efforts are required to achieve this goal, where successful CCU (Carbon Capture and Utilization) technologies will have a high impact. Biocatalysts offer a greener alternative to chemical catalysts for the development of CCU strategies since biocatalysis conforms 10 of the 12 principles of green chemistry. In this study, a multienzymatic system, based on alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), that converts CO2 and ethanol into lactic acid leading to a 100% atom economy was studied. The system allows cofactor regeneration, thus reducing the process cost. Through reaction media engineering and enzyme ratio study, the performance of the system was able to produce up to 250 μM of lactic acid under the best conditions using 100% CO2, corresponding to the highest concentration of lactic acid obtained up to date using this multienzymatic approach. For the first time, the feasibility of the system to be applied under a real industrial environment has been tested using synthetic gas mimicking real blast furnace off-gases composition from the iron and steel industry. Under these conditions, the system was also capable of producing lactic acid, reaching 62 μM.

Current status of carbon monoxide dehydrogenases (CODH) and their potential for electrochemical applications

Anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) levels are rising to alarming concentrations in earth's atmosphere, causing adverse effects and global climate changes. In the last century, innovative research on CO2 reduction using chemical, photochemical, electrochemical and enzymatic approaches has been addressed. In particular, natural CO2 conversion serves as a model for many processes and extensive studies on microbes and enzymes regarding redox reactions involving CO2 have already been conducted. In this review we focus on the enzymatic conversion of CO2 to carbon monoxide (CO) as the chemical conversion downstream of CO production render CO particularly attractive as a key intermediate. We briefly discuss the different currently known natural autotrophic CO2 fixation pathways, focusing on the reversible reaction of CO2, two electrons and protons to CO and water, catalyzed by carbon monoxide dehydrogenases (CODHs). We then move on to classify the different type of CODHs, involved catalyzed chemical reactions and coupled metabolisms. Finally, we discuss applications of CODH enzymes in photochemical and electrochemical cells to harness CO2 from the environment transforming it into commodity chemicals.

Stable and Reusable Fe3 O4 /ZIF-8 Composite for Encapsulation of FDH Enzyme under Mild Conditions Applicable to CO2 Reduction

The enzymatic reduction of carbon dioxide presents limited applicability due to denaturation and the impossibility of biocatalyst recovery; disadvantages that can be minimized by its immobilization. Here, a recyclable bio-composed system was constructed by in-situ encapsulation under mild conditions using formate dehydrogenase in a ZIF-8 metalorganic framework (MOF) in the presence of magnetite. The partial dissolution of ZIF-8 in the enzyme's operation medium can be relatively inhibited if the concentration of magnetic support used exceeds 10 mg mL-1 . The bio-friendly environment for immobilization does not harm the integrity of the biocatalyst, and the production of formic acid is improved 3.4-fold compared to the free enzyme because the MOFs act as concentrators of the enzymatic cofactor. Furthermore, the bio-composed system retains 86 % of its activity after a long time of five cycles, thus indicating an excellent magnetic recovery and a good reusability.

Redox Biocatalysis: Quantitative Comparisons of Nicotinamide Cofactor Regeneration Methods

Enzymatic processes, particularly those capable of performing redox reactions, have recently been of growing research interest. Substrate specificity, optimal activity at mild temperatures, high selectivity, and yield are among the desirable characteristics of these oxidoreductase catalyzed reactions. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) or NAD(P)H-dependent oxidoreductases have been extensively studied for their potential applications like biosynthesis of chiral organic compounds, construction of biosensors, and pollutant degradation. One of the main challenges associated with making these processes commercially viable is the regeneration of the expensive cofactors required by the enzymes. Numerous efforts have pursued enzymatic regeneration of NAD(P)H by coupling a substrate reduction with a complementary enzyme catalyzed oxidation of a co-substrate. While offering excellent selectivity and high total turnover numbers, such processes involve complicated downstream product separation of a primary product from the coproducts and impurities. Alternative methods comprising chemical, electrochemical, and photochemical regeneration have been developed with the goal of enhanced efficiency and operational simplicity compared to enzymatic regeneration. Despite the goal, however, the literature rarely offers a meaningful comparison of the total turnover numbers for various regeneration methodologies. This comprehensive Review systematically discusses various methods of NAD(P)H cofactor regeneration and quantitatively compares performance across the numerous methods. Further, fundamental barriers to enhanced cofactor regeneration in the various methods are identified, and future opportunities are highlighted for improving the efficiency and sustainability of commercially viable oxidoreductase processes for practical implementation.

Improving the Enzymatic Cascade of Reactions for the Reduction of CO2 to CH3OH in Water: From Enzymes Immobilization Strategies to Cofactor Regeneration and Cofactor Suppression

The need to decrease the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere has led to the search for strategies to reuse such molecule as a building block for chemicals and materials or a source of carbon for fuels. The enzymatic cascade of reactions that produce the reduction of CO2 to methanol seems to be a very attractive way of reusing CO2; however, it is still far away from a potential industrial application. In this review, a summary was made of all the advances that have been made in research on such a process, particularly on two salient points: enzyme immobilization and cofactor regeneration. A brief overview of the process is initially given, with a focus on the enzymes and the cofactor, followed by a discussion of all the advances that have been made in research, on the two salient points reported above. In particular, the enzymatic regeneration of NADH is compared to the chemical, electrochemical, and photochemical conversion of NAD+ into NADH. The enzymatic regeneration, while being the most used, has several drawbacks in the cost and life of enzymes that suggest attempting alternative solutions. The reduction in the amount of NADH used (by converting CO2 electrochemically into formate) or even the substitution of NADH with less expensive mimetic molecules is discussed in the text. Such an approach is part of the attempt made to take stock of the situation and identify the points on which work still needs to be conducted to reach an exploitation level of the entire process.

CO2 to Methanol: A Highly Efficient Enzyme Cascade

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) has been increasingly regarded not only as a greenhouse gas but also as a valuable feedstock for carbon-based chemicals. In particular, biological approaches have drawn attention as models for the production of value-added products, as CO₂ conversion serves many natural processes. Enzymatic CO₂ reduction in vitro is a very promising route to produce fossil free and bio-based fuel alternatives, such as methanol. In this chapter, the advances in constructing competitive multi-enzymatic systems for the reduction of CO₂ to methanol are discussed. Different integrated methods are presented, aiming to address technological challenges, such as the cost effectiveness, need for material regeneration and reuse and improving product yields of the process.

A Review on the Design and Performance of Enzyme-Aided Catalysis of Carbon Dioxide in Membrane, Electrochemical Cell and Photocatalytic Reactors

Multi-enzyme cascade catalysis involved three types of dehydrogenase enzymes, namely, formate dehydrogenase (FDH), formaldehyde dehydrogenase (FaldDH), alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), and an equimolar electron donor, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), assisting the reaction is an interesting pathway to reduce thermodynamically stable molecules of CO₂ from the atmosphere. The biocatalytic sequence is interesting because it operates under mild reaction conditions (low temperature and pressure) and all the enzymes are highly selective, which allows the reaction to produce three basic chemicals (formic acid, formaldehyde, and methanol) in just one pot. There are various challenges, however, in applying the enzymatic conversion of CO₂, namely, to obtain high productivity, increase reusability of the enzymes and cofactors, and to design a simple, facile, and efficient reactor setup that will sustain the multi-enzymatic cascade catalysis. This review reports on enzyme-aided reactor systems that support the reduction of CO₂ to methanol. Such systems include enzyme membrane reactors, electrochemical cells, and photocatalytic reactor systems. Existing reactor setups are described, product yields and biocatalytic productivities are evaluated, and effective enzyme immobilization methods are discussed.

Molecular Transition Metal Oxide Electrocatalysts for the Reversible Carbon Dioxide-Carbon Monoxide Transformation

Carbon monoxide dehydrogenase (CODH) enzymes are active for the reversible CO oxidation-CO₂ reduction reaction and are of interest in the context of CO₂ abatement and carbon-neutral solar fuels. Bioinspired by the active-site composition of the CODHs, polyoxometalates triply substituted with first-row transition metals were modularly synthesized. The polyanions, in short, {SiM₃ W₉ } and {SiM'₂ M''W₉ }, M, M', M''=Cu^II , Ni^II , Fe^III are shown to be electrocatalysts for reversible CO oxidation-CO₂ reduction. A catalytic Tafel plot showed that {SiCu₃ W₉ } was the most reactive for CO₂ reduction, and electrolysis reactions yielded significant amounts of CO with 98 % faradaic efficiency. In contrast, Fe-Ni compounds such as {SiFeNi₂ W₉ } preferably catalyzed the oxidation of CO to CO₂ similar to what is observed for the [NiFe]-CODH enzyme. Compositional control of the heterometal complexes, now and in the future, leads to control of reactivity and selectivity for CO₂ electrocatalytic reduction.

A review: Evolution of enzymatic biofuel cells

Ever-growing demands for energy, the unsustainability of fossil fuel due to its scarcity and massive impact on global economies and the environment, have encouraged the research on alternative power sources to work upon for the governments, companies, and scientists across the world. Enzymatic biofuel cells (eBFCs) is one category of fuel cell that can harvest energy from biological moieties and has the future to be used as an alternative source of energy. The aim of this review is to summarize the background and state-of-the-art in the field of eBFCs. This review article will be very beneficial for a wide audience including students and new researchers in the field. A part of the paper summarized the challenges in the preparation of anode and cathode and the involvement of nanomaterials and conducting polymers to construct the effective bioelectrodes. It will provide an insight for the researchers working in this challenging field. Furthermore, various applications of eBFCs in implantable power devices, tiny electronic gadgets, and self powered biosensors are reported. This review article explains the development in the area of eBFCs for several years from its origin to growth systematically. It reveals the strategies that have been taken for the improvements required for the better electrochemical performance and operational stability of eBFCs. It also mentions the challenges in this field that will require proper attention so that the eBFCs can be utilized commercially in the future. The review article is written and structurized in a way so that it can provide a decent background of eBFCs to its reader. It will definitely help in enhancing the interest of reader in eBFCs.

Harnessing Escherichia coli for Bio-Based Production of Formate under Pressurized H2 and CO2 Gases

Escherichia coli is a Gram-negative bacterium that is a workhorse for biotechnology. The organism naturally performs a mixed-acid fermentation under anaerobic conditions where it synthesizes formate hydrogenlyase (FHL-1). The physiological role of the enzyme is the disproportionation of formate into H₂ and CO₂. However, the enzyme has been observed to catalyze hydrogenation of CO₂ given the correct conditions, and so it has possibilities in bio-based carbon capture and storage if it can be harnessed as a hydrogen-dependent CO₂ reductase (HDCR). In this study, an E. coli host strain was engineered for the continuous production of formic acid from H₂ and CO₂ during bacterial growth in a pressurized batch bioreactor. Incorporation of tungsten, in place of molybdenum, in FHL-1 helped to impose a degree of catalytic bias on the enzyme. This work demonstrates that it is possible to couple cell growth to simultaneous, unidirectional formate production from carbon dioxide and develops a process for growth under pressurized gases. IMPORTANCE Greenhouse gas emissions, including waste carbon dioxide, are contributing to global climate change. A basket of solutions is needed to steadily reduce emissions, and one approach is bio-based carbon capture and storage. Here, we present our latest work on harnessing a novel biological solution for carbon capture. The Escherichia coli formate hydrogenlyase (FHL-1) was engineered to be constitutively expressed. Anaerobic growth under pressurized H₂ and CO₂ gases was established, and aqueous formic acid was produced as a result. Incorporation of tungsten into the enzyme in place of molybdenum proved useful in poising FHL-1 as a hydrogen-dependent CO₂ reductase (HDCR).

Bioelectrocatalytic Cofactor Regeneration Coupled to CO2 Fixation in a Redox-Active Hydrogel for Stereoselective C-C Bond Formation

The sustainable capture and conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is key to achieving a circular carbon economy. Bioelectrocatalysis, which aims at using renewable energies to power the highly specific, direct transformation of CO2 into value added products, holds promise to achieve this goal. However, the functional integration of CO2 -fixing enzymes onto electrode materials for the electrosynthesis of stereochemically complex molecules remains to be demonstrated. Here, we show the electricity-driven regio- and stereoselective incorporation of CO2 into crotonyl-CoA by an NADPH-dependent enzymatic reductive carboxylation. Co-immobilization of a ferredoxin NADP+ reductase and crotonyl-CoA carboxylase/reductase within a 2,2'-viologen-modified hydrogel enabled iterative NADPH recycling and stereoselective formation of (2S)-ethylmalonyl-CoA, a prospective intermediate towards multi-carbon products from CO2 , with 92±6 % faradaic efficiency and at a rate of 1.6±0.4 μmol cm-2  h-1 . This approach paves the way for realizing even more complex bioelectrocatalyic cascades in the future.

Engineering a Highly Efficient Carboligase for Synthetic One-Carbon Metabolism

One of the biggest challenges to realize a circular carbon economy is the synthesis of complex carbon compounds from one-carbon (C1) building blocks. Since the natural solution space of C1–C1 condensations is limited to highly complex enzymes, the development of more simple and robust biocatalysts may facilitate the engineering of C1 assimilation routes. Thiamine diphosphate-dependent enzymes harbor great potential for this task, due to their ability to create C–C bonds. Here, we employed structure-guided iterative saturation mutagenesis to convert oxalyl-CoA decarboxylase (OXC) from Methylobacterium extorquens into a glycolyl-CoA synthase (GCS) that allows for the direct condensation of the two C1 units formyl-CoA and formaldehyde. A quadruple variant MeOXC4 showed a 100 000-fold switch between OXC and GCS activities, a 200-fold increase in the GCS activity compared to the wild type, and formaldehyde affinity that is comparable to natural formaldehyde-converting enzymes. Notably, MeOCX4 outcompetes all other natural and engineered enzymes for C1–C1 condensations by more than 40-fold in catalytic efficiency and is highly soluble in Escherichia coli. In addition to the increased GCS activity, MeOXC4 showed up to 300-fold higher activity than the wild type toward a broad range of carbonyl acceptor substrates. When applied in vivo, MeOXC4 enables the production of glycolate from formaldehyde, overcoming the current bottleneck of C1–C1 condensation in whole-cell bioconversions and paving the way toward synthetic C1 assimilation routes in vivo.

The Future of Carbon Dioxide Chemistry

The utilization of carbon dioxide as building block for chemicals or source of carbon for energy products has been explored for over 40 years now, with varying allure. In correspondence with oil-crises, the use of CO₂ has come into the spotlight, soon set aside when the crisis was over due to the low price of fossil carbon and the convenience of using established technologies. Nowadays, there is a continuous shift from fossil-C-based to perennial (solar, wind, geothermal, hydro-power) energy-driven processes that will also have a great potential to convert large amounts of carbon dioxide. The integration of biotechnology and catalysis will be a key player towards the utilization of CO₂ in several different applications, reducing both the extraction of fossil carbon and the carbon transfer to the atmosphere.

Construction of Thiazolo[5,4-d]thiazole-based Two-Dimensional Network for Efficient Photocatalytic CO2 Reduction

The efficient conversion of CO₂ to chemical fuels driven by solar energy is still a challenging research area in photosynthesis, in which the conversion efficiency greatly relies on photocatalytic coenzyme NADH regeneration. Herein, a photocatalyst/biocatalyst synergetic system based on a conjugated microporous polymer (CMP) was prepared for sustainable and highly selective photocatalytic reduction of CO₂ to methanol. Two thiazolo[5,4-d]thiazole-linked CMPs (TZTZ-TA and TZTZ-TP) were designed and synthesized as photocatalysts. Slight skeleton modification led to a great difference in their photocatalytic performance. Triazine-based TZTZ-TA exhibited an unprecedentedly high NADH regeneration efficiency of 82.0% yield within 5 min. Furthermore, the in situ photocatalytic NADH regeneration system could integrate with three consecutive enzymes for efficient conversion of CO₂ into methanol. This CMP-enzyme hybrid system provides a new avenue for accomplishing the liquid sunshine from CO₂.

Research Progress in Conversion of CO2 to Valuable Fuels

Rapid growth in the world's economy depends on a significant increase in energy consumption. As is known, most of the present energy supply comes from coal, oil, and natural gas. The overreliance on fossil energy brings serious environmental problems in addition to the scarcity of energy. One of the most concerning environmental problems is the large contribution to global warming because of the massive discharge of CO₂ in the burning of fossil fuels. Therefore, many efforts have been made to resolve such issues. Among them, the preparation of valuable fuels or chemicals from greenhouse gas (CO₂) has attracted great attention because it has made a promising step toward simultaneously resolving the environment and energy problems. This article reviews the current progress in CO₂ conversion via different strategies, including thermal catalysis, electrocatalysis, photocatalysis, and photoelectrocatalysis. Inspired by natural photosynthesis, light-capturing agents including macrocycles with conjugated structures similar to chlorophyll have attracted increasing attention. Using such macrocycles as photosensitizers, photocatalysis, photoelectrocatalysis, or coupling with enzymatic reactions were conducted to fulfill the conversion of CO₂ with high efficiency and specificity. Recent progress in enzyme coupled to photocatalysis and enzyme coupled to photoelectrocatalysis were specially reviewed in this review. Additionally, the characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages of different conversion methods were also presented. We wish to provide certain constructive ideas for new investigators and deep insights into the research of CO₂ conversion.

Immobilized Enzymes on Graphene as Nanobiocatalyst

Using enzymes as bioelectrocatalysts is an important step toward the next level of biotechnology for energy production. In such biocatalysts, a sacrificial cofactor as an electron and proton source is needed. This is a great obstacle for upscaling, due to cofactor instability and product separation issues, which increase the costs. Here, we report a cofactor-free electroreduction of CO2 to a high energy density chemical (methanol) catalyzed by enzyme-graphene hybrids. The biocatalyst consists of dehydrogenases covalently bound on a well-defined carboxyl graphene derivative, serving the role of a conductive nanoplatform. This nanobiocatalyst achieves reduction of CO2 to methanol at high current densities, which remain unchanged for at least 20 h of operation, without production of other soluble byproducts. It is thus shown that critical improvements on the stability and rate of methanol production at a high Faradaic efficiency of 12% are possible, due to the effective electrochemical process from the electrode to the enzymes via the graphene platform.

Nitrogenase Bioelectrochemistry for Synthesis Applications

The fixation of atmospheric dinitrogen to ammonia by industrial technologies (such as the Haber Bosch process) has revolutionized humankind. In contrast to industrial technologies, a single enzyme is known for its ability to reduce or "fix" dinitrogen: nitrogenase. Nitrogenase is a complex oxidoreductase enzymatic system that includes a catalytic protein (where dinitrogen is reduced) and an electron-transferring reductase protein (termed the Fe protein) that delivers the electrons necessary for dinitrogen fixation. The catalytic protein most commonly contains a FeMo cofactor (called the MoFe protein), but it can also contain a VFe or FeFe cofactor. Besides their ability to fix dinitrogen to ammonia, these nitrogenases can also reduce substrates such as carbon dioxide to formate. Interestingly, the VFE nitrogenase can also form carbon-carbon bonds. The vast majority of research surrounding nitrogenase employs the Fe protein to transfer electrons, which is also associated with the rate-limiting step of nitrogenase catalysis and also requires the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate. Thus, there is significant interest in artificially transferring electrons to the catalytic nitrogenase proteins. In this Account, we review nitrogenase electrocatalysis whereby electrons are delivered to nitrogenase from electrodes. We first describe the use of an electron mediator (cobaltocene) to transfer electrons from electrodes to the MoFe protein. The reduction of protons to molecular hydrogen was realized, in addition to azide and nitrite reduction to ammonia. Bypassing the rate-limiting step within the Fe protein, we also describe how this approach was used to interrogate the rate-limiting step of the MoFe protein: metal-hydride protonolysis at the FeMo-co. This Account next reviews the use of cobaltocene to mediate electron transfer to the VFe protein, where the reduction of carbon dioxide and the formation of carbon-carbon bonds (yielding the formation of ethene and propene) was realized. This approach also found success in mediating electron transfer to the FeFe catalytic protein, which exhibited improved carbon dioxide reduction in comparison to the MoFe protein. In the final example of mediated electron transfer to the catalytic protein, this Account also reviews recent work where the coupling of infrared spectroscopy with electrochemistry enabled the potential-dependent binding of carbon monoxide to the FeMo-co to be studied. As an alternative to mediated electron transfer, recent work that has sought to transfer electrons to the catalytic proteins in the absence of electron mediators (by direct electron transfer) is also reviewed. This approach has subsequently enabled a thermodynamic landscape to be proposed for the cofactors of the catalytic proteins. Finally, this Account also describes nitrogenase electrocatalysis whereby electrons are first transferred from an electrode to the Fe protein, before being transferred to the MoFe protein alongside the hydrolysis of adenosine triphosphate. In this way, increased quantities of ammonia can be electrocatalytically produced from dinitrogen fixation. We discuss how this has led to the further upgrade of electrocatalytically produced ammonia, in combination with additional enzymes (diaphorase, alanine dehydrogenase, and transaminase), to selective production of chiral amine intermediates for pharmaceuticals. This Account concludes by discussing current and future research challenges in the field of electrocatalytic nitrogen fixation by nitrogenase.

Enhanced Bio‐Electrochemical Reduction of Carbon Dioxide by Using Neutral Red as a Redox Mediator

Microbial electrosynthetic cells containing Methylobacterium extorquens were studied for the reduction of CO₂ to formate by direct electron injection and redox mediator‐assisted approaches, with CO₂ as the sole carbon source. The formation of a biofilm on a carbon felt (CF) electrode was achieved while applying a constant potential of −0.75 V versus Ag/AgCl under CO₂‐saturated conditions. During the biofilm growth period, continuous H₂ evolution was observed. The long‐term performance for CO₂ reduction of the biofilm with and without neutral red as a redox mediator was studied by an applied potential of −0.75 V versus Ag/AgCl. The neutral red was introduced into the systems in two different ways: homogeneous (dissolved in solution) and heterogeneous (electropolymerized onto the working electrode). The heterogeneous approach was investigated in the microbial system, for the first time, where the CF working electrode was coated with poly(neutral red) by the oxidative electropolymerization thereof. The formation of poly(neutral red) was characterized by spectroscopic techniques. During long‐term electrolysis up to 17 weeks, the formation of formate was observed continuously with an average Faradaic efficiency of 4 %. With the contribution of neutral red, higher formate accumulation was observed. Moreover, the microbial electrosynthetic cell was characterized by means of electrochemical impedance spectroscopy to obtain more information on the CO₂ reduction mechanism.

Controlled synthesis of a Bi2O3–CuO catalyst for selective electrochemical reduction of CO2 to formate

The electro-reduction of CO₂ to produce energy sources has been considered as a visionary pathway with the help of renewable electricity, which can achieve carbon neutrality and mitigate global warming.