1
|
Physiopathological Role of Neuroactive Steroids in the Peripheral Nervous System. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21239000. [PMID: 33256238 PMCID: PMC7731236 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21239000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 11/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Peripheral neuropathy (PN) refers to many conditions involving damage to the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Usually, PN causes weakness, numbness and pain and is the result of traumatic injuries, infections, metabolic problems, inherited causes, or exposure to chemicals. Despite the high prevalence of PN, available treatments are still unsatisfactory. Neuroactive steroids (i.e., steroid hormones synthesized by peripheral glands as well as steroids directly synthesized in the nervous system) represent important physiological regulators of PNS functionality. Data obtained so far and here discussed, indeed show that in several experimental models of PN the levels of neuroactive steroids are affected by the pathology and that treatment with these molecules is able to exert protective effects on several PN features, including neuropathic pain. Of note, the observations that neuroactive steroid levels are sexually dimorphic not only in physiological status but also in PN, associated with the finding that PN show sex dimorphic manifestations, may suggest the possibility of a sex specific therapy based on neuroactive steroids.
Collapse
|
2
|
Powrie YSL, Smith C. Central intracrine DHEA synthesis in ageing-related neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration: therapeutic potential? J Neuroinflammation 2018; 15:289. [PMID: 30326923 PMCID: PMC6192186 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-018-1324-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/24/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
It is a well-known fact that DHEA declines on ageing and that it is linked to ageing-related neurodegeneration, which is characterised by gradual cognitive decline. Although DHEA is also associated with inflammation in the periphery, the link between DHEA and neuroinflammation in this context is less clear. This review drew from different bodies of literature to provide a more comprehensive picture of peripheral vs central endocrine shifts with advanced age—specifically in terms of DHEA. From this, we have formulated the hypothesis that DHEA decline is also linked to neuroinflammation and that increased localised availability of DHEA may have both therapeutic and preventative benefit to limit neurodegeneration. We provide a comprehensive discussion of literature on the potential for extragonadal DHEA synthesis by neuroglial cells and reflect on the feasibility of therapeutic manipulation of localised, central DHEA synthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Y S L Powrie
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, Stellenbosch, 7602, South Africa
| | - C Smith
- Department of Physiological Sciences, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, Stellenbosch, 7602, South Africa.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Jefcoate CR, Lee J. Cholesterol signaling in single cells: lessons from STAR and sm-FISH. J Mol Endocrinol 2018; 60:R213-R235. [PMID: 29691317 PMCID: PMC6324173 DOI: 10.1530/jme-17-0281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cholesterol is an important regulator of cell signaling, both through direct impacts on cell membranes and through oxy-metabolites that activate specific receptors (steroids, hydroxy-cholesterols, bile acids). Cholesterol moves slowly through and between cell membranes with the assistance of specific binding proteins and transfer processes. The prototype cholesterol regulator is the Steroidogenesis Acute Regulatory (STAR), which moves cholesterol into mitochondria, where steroid synthesis is initiated by cytochrome P450 11A1 in multiple endocrine cell types. CYP27A1 generates hydroxyl cholesterol metabolites that activate LXR nuclear receptors to control cholesterol homeostatic and transport mechanisms. LXR regulation of cholesterol transport and storage as cholesterol ester droplets is shared by both steroid-producing cells and macrophage. This cholesterol signaling is crucial to brain neuron regulation by astrocytes and microglial macrophage, mediated by ApoE and sensitive to disruption by β-amyloid plaques. sm-FISH delivers appreciable insights into signaling in single cells, by resolving single RNA molecules as mRNA and by quantifying pre-mRNA at gene loci. sm-FISH has been applied to problems in physiology, embryo development and cancer biology, where single cell features have critical impacts. sm-FISH identifies novel features of STAR transcription in adrenal and testis cells, including asymmetric expression at individual gene loci, delayed splicing and 1:1 association of mRNA with mitochondria. This may represent a functional unit for the translation-dependent cholesterol transfer directed by STAR, which integrates into mitochondrial fusion dynamics. Similar cholesterol dynamics repeat with different players in the cycling of cholesterol between astrocytes and neurons in the brain, which may be abnormal in neurodegenerative diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Colin R Jefcoate
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology and the Endocrinology and Reproductive Physiology ProgramUniversity of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Jinwoo Lee
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology and the Endocrinology and Reproductive Physiology ProgramUniversity of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Santos da Rosa JG, Alcântara Barcellos HHD, Fagundes M, Variani C, Rossini M, Kalichak F, Koakoski G, Acosta Oliveira T, Idalencio R, Frandoloso R, Piato AL, José Gil Barcellos L. Muscarinic receptors mediate the endocrine-disrupting effects of an organophosphorus insecticide in zebrafish. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2017; 32:1964-1972. [PMID: 28371364 DOI: 10.1002/tox.22424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2016] [Revised: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 03/20/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The glucocorticoid cortisol, the end product of hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal axis in zebrafish (Danio rerio), is synthesized via steroidogenesis and promotes important physiological regulations in response to a stressor. The failure of this axis leads to inability to cope with environmental challenges preventing adaptive processes in order to restore homeostasis. Pesticides and agrichemicals are widely used, and may constitute an important class of environmental pollutants when reach aquatic ecosystems and nontarget species. These chemical compounds may disrupt hypothalamus-pituitary-interrenal axis by altering synthesis, structure or function of its constituents. We present evidence that organophosphorus exposure disrupts stress response by altering the expression of key genes of the neural steroidogenesis, causing downregulation of star, hsp70, and pomc genes. This appears to be mediated via muscarinic receptors, since the muscarinic antagonist scopolamine blocked these effects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- João Gabriel Santos da Rosa
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima, 1000, Cidade Universitária, Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Heloísa Helena de Alcântara Barcellos
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima, 1000, Cidade Universitária, Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
- Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Passo Fundo (UPF), BR 285, São José, Passo Fundo, RS, 99052-900, Brazil
| | - Michele Fagundes
- Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Passo Fundo (UPF), BR 285, São José, Passo Fundo, RS, 99052-900, Brazil
| | - Cristiane Variani
- Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Passo Fundo (UPF), BR 285, São José, Passo Fundo, RS, 99052-900, Brazil
| | - Mainara Rossini
- Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Passo Fundo (UPF), BR 285, São José, Passo Fundo, RS, 99052-900, Brazil
| | - Fabiana Kalichak
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima, 1000, Cidade Universitária, Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Gessi Koakoski
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima, 1000, Cidade Universitária, Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Thiago Acosta Oliveira
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima, 1000, Cidade Universitária, Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Renan Idalencio
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima, 1000, Cidade Universitária, Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
- Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Passo Fundo (UPF), BR 285, São José, Passo Fundo, RS, 99052-900, Brazil
| | - Rafael Frandoloso
- Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Passo Fundo (UPF), BR 285, São José, Passo Fundo, RS, 99052-900, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Bioexperimentação, Universidade de Passo Fundo (UPF), BR 285, São José, Passo Fundo, RS, 99052-900, Brazil
| | - Angelo L Piato
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Farmacologia e Terapêutica, ICBS, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Rua Sarmento Leite 500, sala 305, Centro Histórico, Porto Alegre, RS, 90050-170, Brazil
| | - Leonardo José Gil Barcellos
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de Santa Maria (UFSM), Av. Roraima, 1000, Cidade Universitária, Camobi, Santa Maria, RS, 97105-900, Brazil
- Faculdade de Agronomia e Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Passo Fundo (UPF), BR 285, São José, Passo Fundo, RS, 99052-900, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Bioexperimentação, Universidade de Passo Fundo (UPF), BR 285, São José, Passo Fundo, RS, 99052-900, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Giatti S, Romano S, Pesaresi M, Cermenati G, Mitro N, Caruso D, Tetel MJ, Garcia-Segura LM, Melcangi RC. Neuroactive steroids and the peripheral nervous system: An update. Steroids 2015; 103:23-30. [PMID: 25824325 PMCID: PMC6314841 DOI: 10.1016/j.steroids.2015.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2014] [Revised: 03/14/2015] [Accepted: 03/17/2015] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
In the present review we summarize observations to date supporting the concept that neuroactive steroids are synthesized in the peripheral nervous system, regulate the physiology of peripheral nerves and exert notable neuroprotective actions. Indeed, neuroactive steroids have been recently proposed as therapies for different types of peripheral neuropathy, like for instance those occurring during aging, chemotherapy, physical injury and diabetes. Moreover, pharmacological tools able to increase the synthesis of neuroactive steroids might represent new interesting therapeutic strategy to be applied in case of peripheral neuropathy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Giatti
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Simone Romano
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Marzia Pesaresi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Gaia Cermenati
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Nico Mitro
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Donatella Caruso
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Marc J Tetel
- Neuroscience Program, Wellesley College, Wellesley, MA, USA
| | | | - Roberto C Melcangi
- Department of Pharmacological and Biomolecular Sciences, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Melcangi RC, Garcia-Segura LM. Therapeutic approaches to peripheral neuropathy based on neuroactive steroids. Expert Rev Neurother 2014; 6:1121-5. [PMID: 16893339 DOI: 10.1586/14737175.6.8.1121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
'...a possible therapeutic approach for peripheral neuropathy might be represented by the treatment with neuroactive steroids themselves, with molecules able to induce their in situ synthesis or with molecules able to interact with their receptors.'
Collapse
|
7
|
|
8
|
Salis C, Davio C, Usach V, Urtasun N, Goitia B, Martinez-Vivot R, Pasquini JM, Setton-Avruj CP. Iron and holotransferrin induce cAMP-dependent differentiation of Schwann cells. Neurochem Int 2012; 61:798-806. [PMID: 22776360 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2012.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2012] [Revised: 06/21/2012] [Accepted: 06/26/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The differentiation of myelin-forming Schwann cells (SC) is completed with the appearance of myelin proteins MBP and P(0) and a concomitant downregulation of markers GFAP and p75NTR, which are expressed by immature and adult non-myelin-forming SC. We have previously demonstrated that holotransferrin (hTf) can prevent SC dedifferentiation in culture (Salis et al., 2002), while apotransferrin (aTf) cannot. As a consequence, we used pure cultured SC and submitted them to serum deprivation in order to promote dedifferentiation and evaluate the prodifferentiating ability of ferric ammonium citrate (FAC) through the expression of MBP, P(0), p75NTR and c-myc. The levels of cAMP, CREB and p-CREB were also measured. Results show that Fe(3+), either in its free form or as hTf, can prevent the dedifferentiation promoted by serum withdrawal. Both FAC and hTf were proven to promote differentiation, probably through the increase in cAMP levels and CREB phosphorylation, as well as levels of reactive oxygen species. This effect was inhibited by deferroxamine (Dfx, an iron chelator), H9 (a cAMP-PKA antagonist) and N-acetylcysteine (NAC, a powerful antioxidant).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Salis
- Instituto de Química y Fisicoquímica Biológica (IQUIFIB), UBA-CONICET, Departamento de Química Biológica, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Junín 956, Buenos Aires C1113AAD, Argentina
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Melcangi RC, Giatti S, Pesaresi M, Calabrese D, Mitro N, Caruso D, Garcia-Segura LM. Role of neuroactive steroids in the peripheral nervous system. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2011; 2:104. [PMID: 22654839 PMCID: PMC3356101 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2011.00104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2011] [Accepted: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Several reviews have so far pointed out on the relevant physiological and pharmacological role exerted by neuroactive steroids in the central nervous system. In the present review we summarize observations indicating that synthesis and metabolism of neuroactive steroids also occur in the peripheral nerves. Interestingly, peripheral nervous system is also a target of their action. Indeed, as here reported neuroactive steroids are physiological regulators of peripheral nerve functions and they may also represent interesting therapeutic tools for different types of peripheral neuropathy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Cosimo Melcangi
- Department of Endocrinology, Pathophysiology and Applied Biology – Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases, Università degli Studi di MilanoMilano, Italy
- *Correspondence: Roberto Cosimo Melcangi, Department of Endocrinology, Pathophysiology and Applied Biology – Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases, Università degli Studi di Milano, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133 Milano, Italy. e-mail:
| | - Silvia Giatti
- Department of Endocrinology, Pathophysiology and Applied Biology – Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases, Università degli Studi di MilanoMilano, Italy
| | - Marzia Pesaresi
- Department of Endocrinology, Pathophysiology and Applied Biology – Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases, Università degli Studi di MilanoMilano, Italy
| | - Donato Calabrese
- Department of Endocrinology, Pathophysiology and Applied Biology – Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases, Università degli Studi di MilanoMilano, Italy
| | - Nico Mitro
- Giovanni Armenise-Harvard Foundation Laboratory, Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Università degli Studi di MilanoMilano, Italy
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology of Lipids and Mass Spectrometry “Giovanni Galli”, Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Università degli Studi di MilanoMilano, Italy
| | - Donatella Caruso
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology of Lipids and Mass Spectrometry “Giovanni Galli”, Department of Pharmacological Sciences, Università degli Studi di MilanoMilano, Italy
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
King SR, Stocco DM. Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression in the central nervous system. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2011; 2:72. [PMID: 22649383 PMCID: PMC3355896 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2011.00072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2011] [Accepted: 10/24/2011] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Locally produced neurosteroids are proposed to have many functions in the central nervous system. The identification of the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein in steroid-producing neural cells provides a new tool to understand the sites, regulation, and importance of their synthesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Steven R. King
- Department of Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University Health Sciences CenterLubbock, TX, USA
| | - Douglas M. Stocco
- Department of Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University Health Sciences CenterLubbock, TX, USA
- *Correspondence: Douglas M. Stocco, Department of Cell Biology and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, 3601 4th Street, Lubbock, TX 79430, USA. e-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Girard C, Eychenne B, Schweizer-Groyer G, Cadepond F. Mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptors in sciatic nerve function and regeneration. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2010; 122:149-58. [PMID: 20678573 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2010.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2010] [Revised: 07/21/2010] [Accepted: 07/24/2010] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The contribution of the two corticosteroid (mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid) receptor (MR and GR) pathways to the function and regeneration of the sciatic nerve was investigated. We found that the corticosterone-inactivating enzyme 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 (HSD2) was up-regulated 7 days after lesion in freeze-injured nerve. The maintenance of a low intracellular level of corticosterone by HSD2 activity in the regenerating nerve is concordant with the improvement of nervous function in injured animals (as measured by walking ability) after treatment by the GR antagonist mifepristone and with the reduction in GR participation in accumulation of the mRNA for numerous endogenous genes (from the renin-angiotensin system and other classical mineralocorticoid-responsive genes), in the same animals. Furthermore, using the MR antagonist spironolactone, we demonstrated that MR plays an active role in the function of the intact sciatic nerve: MR is required for walking ability and participates in the control of the accumulation of the mRNA for several endogenous genes. However, after injury, changes in gene expression cannot be fully explained by changes in MR/GR activity, due to an HSD2 effect, and other signalling pathway(s) induced by the lesion likely combine with the effect of the corticosteroid receptors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christelle Girard
- Unité Mixte de Recherche 788, Inserm and Université Paris-Sud 11, 94276 Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Do Rego JL, Seong JY, Burel D, Leprince J, Luu-The V, Tsutsui K, Tonon MC, Pelletier G, Vaudry H. Neurosteroid biosynthesis: enzymatic pathways and neuroendocrine regulation by neurotransmitters and neuropeptides. Front Neuroendocrinol 2009; 30:259-301. [PMID: 19505496 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2009.05.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 277] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2009] [Revised: 05/12/2009] [Accepted: 05/21/2009] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Neuroactive steroids synthesized in neuronal tissue, referred to as neurosteroids, are implicated in proliferation, differentiation, activity and survival of nerve cells. Neurosteroids are also involved in the control of a number of behavioral, neuroendocrine and metabolic processes such as regulation of food intake, locomotor activity, sexual activity, aggressiveness, anxiety, depression, body temperature and blood pressure. In this article, we summarize the current knowledge regarding the existence, neuroanatomical distribution and biological activity of the enzymes responsible for the biosynthesis of neurosteroids in the brain of vertebrates, and we review the neuronal mechanisms that control the activity of these enzymes. The observation that the activity of key steroidogenic enzymes is finely tuned by various neurotransmitters and neuropeptides strongly suggests that some of the central effects of these neuromodulators may be mediated via the regulation of neurosteroid production.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jean Luc Do Rego
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM) Unité 413, 76821 Mont-Saint-Aignan, France
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Zhu TS, Glaser M. Regulatory role of cytochrome P450scc and pregnenolone in myelination by rat Schwann cells. Mol Cell Biochem 2008; 313:79-89. [PMID: 18373277 DOI: 10.1007/s11010-008-9745-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2007] [Accepted: 03/13/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
To investigate the production of steroid hormones by Schwann cells and to examine the regulation of steroid hormone production during myelination, cultures of rat Schwann cells were differentiated into their myelinating phenotype in the absence of neurons with dibutyryl cAMP (db-cAMP). During this process, the expression of P450scc (involved in steroid biosynthesis) was elevated at both the mRNA and protein levels as evident in RT-PCR, Western blots, and immunostaining. Labeling of the cells with [14C] acetate revealed enhanced production of pregnenolone during differentiation into the myelinating phenotype. Disruption of P450scc's activity with an inhibitor diminished the extent of differentiation into the myelinating phenotype as levels of mRNA and protein expression of myelin protein zero (P0) declined. However, the effect was reversed with the addition of pregnenolone. Furthermore, when the differentiating cultures were treated with pregnenolone, mRNA expression of P0 was upregulated, suggesting the stimulation of the differentiation process. Together, these results provide evidence for Schwann cells as a major producer of steroid hormones and pregnenolone production by P450scc as an important regulatory step during myelination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thant S Zhu
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Illinois, 600 S. Mathews Avenue, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Karri S, Dertien JS, Stocco DM, Syapin PJ. Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression and pregnenolone synthesis in rat astrocyte cultures. J Neuroendocrinol 2007; 19:860-9. [PMID: 17927664 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2826.2007.01600.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Neurosteroids are steroids synthesised by brain cells. The molecular mechanism of neurosteroidogenesis from cholesterol has not yet been revealed. We studied the potential role of the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein in neurosterodogenesis by using rat brain astrocytes. The novelty of the study is that regulation of StAR is described in primary cultures from embryonic mesencephalon and cerebellum regions of the brain. Dibutyryl cyclic AMP (dbcAMP) treatment increased StAR protein expression in astrocyte cultures. This was observed in immunoblots of mitochondrial fractions and by immunocytochemistry. Dual-labelling showed that the cyclic AMP-induced increase in StAR immunofluorescence was localised to mitochondria. In addition, mitochondrial cytochrome P450-side chain cleavage enzyme was demonstrated with a specific antibody, indicating the potential for pregnenolone production in these cells. Radioimmunoassay on ether-extracted conditioned media of control and dbcAMP treated cells demonstrated pregnenolone production by mesencephalic and cerebellar astrocyte cultures. Furthermore, 24-h pregnenolone levels, in the presence of inhibitors of further pregnenolone metabolism, were significantly increased by dbcAMP exposure. A murine StAR promoter-luciferase fusion plasmid was activated by dbcAMP in transiently transfected mesencephalic and cerebellar astrocytes. These novel results indicate that cyclic AMP signalling can regulate StAR expression and pregnenolone production in brain astrocytes, and provide additional insight into the role of StAR in neurosteroidogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Karri
- Department of Internal Medicine, Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Lubbock, TX 79430-0001, USA.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Schumacher M, Guennoun R, Ghoumari A, Massaad C, Robert F, El-Etr M, Akwa Y, Rajkowski K, Baulieu EE. Novel perspectives for progesterone in hormone replacement therapy, with special reference to the nervous system. Endocr Rev 2007; 28:387-439. [PMID: 17431228 DOI: 10.1210/er.2006-0050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 122] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The utility and safety of postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy has recently been put into question by large clinical trials. Their outcome has been extensively commented upon, but discussions have mainly been limited to the effects of estrogens. In fact, progestagens are generally only considered with respect to their usefulness in preventing estrogen stimulation of uterine hyperplasia and malignancy. In addition, various risks have been attributed to progestagens and their omission from hormone replacement therapy has been considered, but this may underestimate their potential benefits and therapeutic promises. A major reason for the controversial reputation of progestagens is that they are generally considered as a single class. Moreover, the term progesterone is often used as a generic one for the different types of both natural and synthetic progestagens. This is not appropriate because natural progesterone has properties very distinct from the synthetic progestins. Within the nervous system, the neuroprotective and promyelinating effects of progesterone are promising, not only for preventing but also for reversing age-dependent changes and dysfunctions. There is indeed strong evidence that the aging nervous system remains at least to some extent sensitive to these beneficial effects of progesterone. The actions of progesterone in peripheral target tissues including breast, blood vessels, and bones are less well understood, but there is evidence for the beneficial effects of progesterone. The variety of signaling mechanisms of progesterone offers exciting possibilities for the development of more selective, efficient, and safe progestagens. The recognition that progesterone is synthesized by neurons and glial cells requires a reevaluation of hormonal aging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Schumacher
- INSERM UMR 788, 80, rue du Général Leclerc, 94276 Kremlin-Bicêtre, France.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Roglio I, Giatti S, Pesaresi M, Bianchi R, Cavaletti G, Lauria G, Garcia-Segura LM, Melcangi RC. Neuroactive steroids and peripheral neuropathy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2007; 57:460-9. [PMID: 17543391 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2007.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2007] [Revised: 04/25/2007] [Accepted: 04/25/2007] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Peripheral neuropathy, either inherited or acquired, represents a very common disorder for which effective clinical treatments are not available yet. Observations here summarized indicate that neuroactive steroids, such as progesterone, testosterone and their reduced metabolites, might represent a promising therapeutic option. Peripheral nerves are able to synthesize and metabolize neuroactive steroids and are a target for these molecules, since they express classical and non-classical steroid receptors. Neuroactive steroids modulate the expression of key transcription factors for Schwann cell function, regulate Schwann cell proliferation and promote the expression of myelin proteins involved in the maintenance of myelin multilamellar structure, such as myelin protein zero and peripheral myelin protein 22. These actions may result in the protection and regeneration of peripheral nerves affected by different forms of pathological alterations. Indeed, neuroactive steroids are able to counteract biochemical, morphological and functional alterations of peripheral nerves in different experimental models of neuropathy, including the alterations caused by aging, diabetic neuropathy and physical injury. Therefore, neuroactive steroids, pharmacological agents able to increase their local synthesis and synthetic ligands for their receptors have a promising potential for the treatment of different forms of peripheral neuropathy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Roglio
- Department of Endocrinology and Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Milan, Via Balzaretti 9, 20133, Milan, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Abstract
Hormonal and locally produced steroids act in the nervous system as neuroendocrine regulators, as trophic factors and as neuromodulators and have a major impact on neural development and function. Glial cells play a prominent role in the local production of steroids and in the mediation of steroid effects on neurons and other glial cells. In this review, we examine the role of glia in the synthesis and metabolism of steroids and the functional implications of glial steroidogenesis. We analyze the mechanisms of steroid signaling on glia, including the role of nuclear receptors and the mechanisms of membrane and cytoplasmic signaling mediated by changes in intracellular calcium levels and activation of signaling kinases. Effects of steroids on functional parameters of glia, such as proliferation, myelin formation, metabolism, cytoskeletal reorganization, and gliosis are also reviewed, as well as the implications of steroid actions on glia for the regulation of synaptic function and connectivity, the regulation of neuroendocrine events, and the response of neural tissue to injury.
Collapse
|
18
|
Groyer G, Eychenne B, Girard C, Rajkowski K, Schumacher M, Cadepond F. Expression and functional state of the corticosteroid receptors and 11 beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 in Schwann cells. Endocrinology 2006; 147:4339-50. [PMID: 16763064 DOI: 10.1210/en.2005-1625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the role of steroid receptors in mediating the reported effects of steroids on Schwann cell (SC) myelination and growth, we determined mRNA contents and transcriptional activities of the corticosteroid (glucocorticosteroid and mineralocorticosteroid) receptors (GR and MR) and sex steroid (progesterone, androgen, and estrogen alpha and beta) receptors in rat SC cultured under proliferative (in the presence of insulin and forskolin, which induces a high intracellular cAMP content) and quiescent conditions. We found no or very low expression and activity of the sex steroid receptors, as shown by mRNA concentrations determined with real-time PCR and transcriptional activities using transient expression of reporter plasmids in SC. These data and binding studies in SC lines demonstrated that the levels of the sex steroid receptors were the limiting factors. GR was clearly expressed (approximately 8000 sequences/ng total RNA) and functional. No significant modification in GR mRNA levels was observed, but an increase in transcriptional efficiency was recorded in proliferating cells compared with quiescent cells. MR was also significantly expressed at the mRNA level (approximately 450 sequences/ng total RNA) under the two culture conditions. No MR transcriptional activity was observed in SC, but a low specific binding of aldosterone was detected in SC lines. 11 beta-Hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase type 2 (HSD2), an enzyme that inactivates glucocorticoids, was strongly expressed and active in quiescent SC, although in proliferating cells, HSD2 exhibited a strong decrease in activity and mRNA concentration. These data support a physiological role for HSD2 regulation of glucocorticosteroid concentrations in nerve SC.
Collapse
MESH Headings
- 11-beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 2/genetics
- 11-beta-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Type 2/metabolism
- Animals
- Cell Division
- Cells, Cultured
- Colforsin/pharmacology
- Estrogen Receptor alpha/genetics
- Estrogen Receptor alpha/metabolism
- Estrogen Receptor beta/genetics
- Estrogen Receptor beta/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic/drug effects
- Genes, Reporter/genetics
- Glucocorticoids/pharmacology
- Gonadal Steroid Hormones/metabolism
- Insulin/pharmacology
- Promoter Regions, Genetic/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/analysis
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Receptors, Androgen/genetics
- Receptors, Androgen/metabolism
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/genetics
- Receptors, Glucocorticoid/metabolism
- Receptors, Mineralocorticoid/genetics
- Receptors, Mineralocorticoid/metabolism
- Receptors, Progesterone/genetics
- Receptors, Progesterone/metabolism
- Receptors, Steroid/genetics
- Receptors, Steroid/metabolism
- Response Elements/genetics
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Schwann Cells/chemistry
- Schwann Cells/cytology
- Schwann Cells/metabolism
- Sciatic Nerve/cytology
- Transcription, Genetic
- Transfection
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ghislaine Groyer
- Unité Mixte de Recherche 788, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale and University Paris-Sud 11, 94276 Le Kremlin-Bicêtre, France
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Lavaque E, Mayen A, Azcoitia I, Tena-Sempere M, Garcia-Segura LM. Sex differences, developmental changes, response to injury and cAMP regulation of the mRNA levels of steroidogenic acute regulatory protein, cytochrome p450scc, and aromatase in the olivocerebellar system. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 66:308-18. [PMID: 16329132 DOI: 10.1002/neu.20221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Compelling evidence has now demonstrated direct biological actions of sex steroids at the cerebellum. Likewise, the expression of key steroidogenic factors, such as the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (StAR), cytochrome P450 side chain cleavage (P450scc), and aromatase, at this neural site has been reported. Little is known, however, about the regulation of their genes in the cerebellum. Assessment of StAR, P450scc, and aromatase mRNAs in the cerebellum of male and female rats revealed that the expression of these genes is developmentally regulated, with the highest levels at early postnatal ages in both sexes and with significantly higher mRNA levels in postnatal males. Expression of these genes in the female remained unaltered after perinatal androgenization and along the estrous cycle. In contrast, damage of cerebellar afferent neurons of the inferior olivary nucleus evoked a significant increase in StAR, P450scc, and aromatase mRNA levels at this site, as well as a transient elevation in StAR mRNA at the cerebellum. Finally, enhancement of cAMP levels in cultured cerebellar neurons induced a significant increase in StAR and aromatase mRNA levels. In summary, we present herein novel evidence for the developmentally regulated and partially sexually dimorphic pattern of expression of StAR, P450scc, and aromatase genes in the rat cerebellum. These observations, together with the finding that the mRNA levels of these steroidogenic molecules are sensitive to injury and are regulated by intracellular cAMP, strongly suggest that local steroidogenesis is likely to play an important role during development and adaptation to neurodegenerative processes in the olivocerebellar system.
Collapse
|
20
|
Lavaque E, Sierra A, Azcoitia I, Garcia-Segura LM. Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein in the brain. Neuroscience 2006; 138:741-7. [PMID: 16338087 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2005.05.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2005] [Accepted: 05/31/2005] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The nervous system synthesizes steroids that regulate the development and function of neurons and glia, and have neuroprotective properties. The first step in steroidogenesis involves the delivery of free cholesterol to the inner mitochondrial membrane where it can be converted into pregnenolone by the enzyme cytochrome P450side chain cleavage. The peripheral-type benzodiazepine receptor and the steroidogenic acute regulatory protein are involved in this process and appear to function in a coordinated manner. Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein mRNA and protein are widely expressed throughout the adult brain. Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression has been detected in many neuronal populations, in ependymocytes, in some astroglial cells, in Schwann cells from peripheral nerves and in proliferating cells of the developing and adult brain. Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein is colocalized in the same neural cells with P450side chain cleavage and with other steroidogenic enzymes. Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression in the brain shows marked changes with development, aging and injury. The steroidogenic acute regulatory protein gene may be under the control of diverse mechanisms in different neural cell types, since its expression is upregulated by cyclic AMP (cAMP) in gliomas and astrocytes in culture and downregulated by cyclic AMP (cAMP) in Schwann cells. In addition, activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors, and the consequent rise in intracellular calcium levels, activates steroidogenic acute regulatory protein and steroidogenesis in hippocampal neurons. In conclusion, steroidogenic acute regulatory protein is regulated in the nervous system by different physiological and pathological conditions and may play an important role during brain development, aging and after injury.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E Lavaque
- Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Melcangi RC, Cavarretta ITR, Ballabio M, Leonelli E, Schenone A, Azcoitia I, Miguel Garcia-Segura L, Magnaghi V. Peripheral nerves: a target for the action of neuroactive steroids. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 48:328-38. [PMID: 15850671 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2004.12.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2004] [Accepted: 12/09/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Peripheral nervous system possesses both classical and non-classical steroid receptors and consequently may represent a target for the action of neuroactive steroids. The present review summarizes the state of art of this intriguing field of research reporting data which indicate that neuroactive steroids, like for instance progesterone, dihydroprogesterone, tetrahydroprogesterone, dihydrotestosterone and 3alpha-diol, stimulate the expression of two important proteins of the myelin of peripheral nerves, the glycoprotein P0 (P0) and the peripheral myelin protein 22 (PMP22). Interestingly, the mechanisms by which neuroactive steroids exert their effects involve classical steroid receptors, like for instance progesterone and androgen receptors, in case of P0 and non-classical steroid receptors, like GABA(A) receptor, in case of PMP22. Moreover, neuroactive steroids not only control the expression of these specific myelin proteins, but also influence the morphology of myelin sheaths and axons suggesting that these molecules may represent an interesting new therapeutic approach to maintain peripheral nerve integrity during neurodegenerative events.
Collapse
|