1
|
Bonadio JD, Bashiri G, Halligan P, Kegel M, Ahmed F, Wang K. Delivery technologies for therapeutic targeting of fibronectin in autoimmunity and fibrosis applications. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2024; 209:115303. [PMID: 38588958 PMCID: PMC11111362 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2024.115303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 02/29/2024] [Accepted: 04/03/2024] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
Fibronectin (FN) is a critical component of the extracellular matrix (ECM) contributing to various physiological processes, including tissue repair and immune response regulation. FN regulates various cellular functions such as adhesion, proliferation, migration, differentiation, and cytokine release. Alterations in FN expression, deposition, and molecular structure can profoundly impact its interaction with other ECM proteins, growth factors, cells, and associated signaling pathways, thus influencing the progress of diseases such as fibrosis and autoimmune disorders. Therefore, developing therapeutics that directly target FN or its interaction with cells and other ECM components can be an intriguing approach to address autoimmune and fibrosis pathogenesis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jacob D Bonadio
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Ghazal Bashiri
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Patrick Halligan
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Michael Kegel
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Fatima Ahmed
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Karin Wang
- Department of Bioengineering, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Liu J, Guo Y, Zhang Y, Zhao X, Fu R, Hua S, Xu S. Astrocytes in ischemic stroke: Crosstalk in central nervous system and therapeutic potential. Neuropathology 2024; 44:3-20. [PMID: 37345225 DOI: 10.1111/neup.12928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
In the central nervous system (CNS), a large group of glial cells called astrocytes play important roles in both physiological and disease conditions. Astrocytes participate in the formation of neurovascular units and interact closely with other cells of the CNS, such as microglia and neurons. Stroke is a global disease with high mortality and disability rate, most of which are ischemic stroke. Significant strides in understanding astrocytes have been made over the past few decades. Astrocytes respond strongly to ischemic stroke through a process known as activation or reactivity. Given the important role played by reactive astrocytes (RAs) in different spatial and temporal aspects of ischemic stroke, there is a growing interest in the potential therapeutic role of astrocytes. Currently, interventions targeting astrocytes, such as mediating astrocyte polarization, reducing edema, regulating glial scar formation, and reprogramming astrocytes, have been proven in modulating the progression of ischemic stroke. The aforementioned potential interventions on astrocytes and the crosstalk between astrocytes and other cells of the CNS will be summarized in this review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jueling Liu
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Yuying Guo
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Translational Research of TCM Prescription and Syndrome, Tianjin, China
| | - Yunsha Zhang
- School of Integrative Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Xiaoxiao Zhao
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Rong Fu
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Shengyu Hua
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
| | - Shixin Xu
- First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- National Clinical Research Center for Chinese Medicine Acupuncture and Moxibustion, First Teaching Hospital of Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, China
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Translational Research of TCM Prescription and Syndrome, Tianjin, China
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Chu PH, Chen SC, Chen HY, Wu CB, Huang WT, Chiang HY. Astrocyte-associated fibronectin promotes the proinflammatory phenotype of astrocytes through β1 integrin activation. Mol Cell Neurosci 2023; 125:103848. [PMID: 36948232 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2023.103848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2023] [Indexed: 03/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Astrocytes are key players in neuroinflammation. In response to central nervous system (CNS) injury or disease, astrocytes undergo reactive astrogliosis, which is characterized by increased proliferation, migration, and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) expression. Activation of the transcription factor nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and upregulation of downstream proinflammatory mediators in reactive astrocytes induce a proinflammatory phenotype in astrocytes, thereby exacerbating neuroinflammation by establishing an inflammatory loop. In this study, we hypothesized that excessive fibronectin (FN) derived from reactive astrocytes would induce this proinflammatory phenotype in astrocytes in an autocrine manner. We exogenously treated astrocytes with monomer FN, which can be incorporated into the extracellular matrix (ECM), to mimic plasma FN extravasated through a compromised blood-brain barrier in neuroinflammation. We also induced de novo synthesis and accumulation of astrocyte-derived FN through tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) stimulation. The excessive FN deposition resulting from both treatments initiated reactive astrogliosis and triggered NF-κB signaling in the cultured astrocytes. In addition, inhibition of FN accumulation in the ECM by the FN inhibitor pUR4 strongly attenuated the FN- and TNF-α-induced GFAP expression, NF-κB activation, and proinflammatory mediator production of astrocytes by interrupting FN-β1 integrin coupling and thus the inflammatory loop. In an in vivo experiment, intrathecal injection of pUR4 considerably ameliorated FN deposition, GFAP expression, and NF-κB activation in inflamed spinal cord, suggesting the therapeutic potential of pUR4 for attenuating neuroinflammation and promoting neuronal function restoration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pao-Hsien Chu
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan; College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Institute of Stem Cell and Translational Cancer Research, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
| | - Shao-Chi Chen
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Yung Chen
- Department of Occupational Therapy, Graduate Institute of Behavioral Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Bei Wu
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Ting Huang
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Hou-Yu Chiang
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan; Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Ping J, Fu H, Xiong YJ, Soomro S, Huang ZH, Yu PP. Poly-L-ornithine blocks the inhibitory effects of fibronectin on oligodendrocyte differentiation and promotes myelin repair. Neural Regen Res 2023; 18:832-839. [DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.353493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
|
5
|
Yamada M, Iwase M, Sasaki B, Suzuki N. The molecular regulation of oligodendrocyte development and CNS myelination by ECM proteins. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:952135. [PMID: 36147746 PMCID: PMC9488109 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.952135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Oligodendrocytes are myelin-forming cells in the central nervous system (CNS). The development of oligodendrocytes is regulated by a large number of molecules, including extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins that are relatively less characterized. Here, we review the molecular functions of the major ECM proteins in oligodendrocyte development and pathology. Among the ECM proteins, laminins are positive regulators in oligodendrocyte survival, differentiation, and/or myelination in the CNS. Conversely, fibronectin, tenascin-C, hyaluronan, and chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans suppress the differentiation and myelination. Tenascin-R shows either positive or negative functions in these activities. In addition, the extracellular domain of the transmembrane protein teneurin-4, which possesses the sequence homology with tenascins, promotes the differentiation of oligodendrocytes. The activities of these ECM proteins are exerted through binding to the cellular receptors and co-receptors, such as integrins and growth factor receptors, which induces the signaling to form the elaborated and functional structure of myelin. Further, the ECM proteins dynamically change their structures and functions at the pathological conditions as multiple sclerosis. The ECM proteins are a critical player to serve as a component of the microenvironment for oligodendrocytes in their development and pathology.
Collapse
|
6
|
van Schaik PEM, Zuhorn IS, Baron W. Targeting Fibronectin to Overcome Remyelination Failure in Multiple Sclerosis: The Need for Brain- and Lesion-Targeted Drug Delivery. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23158418. [PMID: 35955549 PMCID: PMC9368816 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23158418] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative disease with unknown etiology that can be characterized by the presence of demyelinated lesions. Prevailing treatment protocols in MS rely on the modulation of the inflammatory process but do not impact disease progression. Remyelination is an essential factor for both axonal survival and functional neurological recovery but is often insufficient. The extracellular matrix protein fibronectin contributes to the inhibitory environment created in MS lesions and likely plays a causative role in remyelination failure. The presence of the blood–brain barrier (BBB) hinders the delivery of remyelination therapeutics to lesions. Therefore, therapeutic interventions to normalize the pathogenic MS lesion environment need to be able to cross the BBB. In this review, we outline the multifaceted roles of fibronectin in MS pathogenesis and discuss promising therapeutic targets and agents to overcome fibronectin-mediated inhibition of remyelination. In addition, to pave the way for clinical use, we reflect on opportunities to deliver MS therapeutics to lesions through the utilization of nanomedicine and discuss strategies to deliver fibronectin-directed therapeutics across the BBB. The use of well-designed nanocarriers with appropriate surface functionalization to cross the BBB and target the lesion sites is recommended.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Pauline E. M. van Schaik
- Section Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Inge S. Zuhorn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: (I.S.Z.); (W.B.); Tel.: +31-50-3616178 (I.S.Z.); +31-503611652 (W.B.); Fax: +31-503616190 (W.B.)
| | - Wia Baron
- Section Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands;
- Correspondence: (I.S.Z.); (W.B.); Tel.: +31-50-3616178 (I.S.Z.); +31-503611652 (W.B.); Fax: +31-503616190 (W.B.)
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Cheng N, Xiong Y, Zhang W, Wu X, Sun Z, Zhang L, Wu H, Tang Y, Peng Y. Astrocytes promote the proliferation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells through connexin 47-mediated LAMB2 secretion in exosomes. Mol Biol Rep 2022; 49:7263-7273. [PMID: 35596050 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-022-07508-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) can proliferate and differentiate into oligodendrocytes, the only myelin-forming cells in the central nervous system. Proliferating OPCs promotes remyelination in neurodegenerative diseases. Astrocytes (ASTs) are the most widespread cells in the brain and play a beneficial role in the proliferation of OPCs. Connexin 47 (Cx47) is the main component of AST-OPC gap junctions to regulate OPC proliferation. Nonetheless, the specific mechanism remains unclear. METHODS AND RESULTS This study investigates the proliferation mechanism of OPCs connected to ASTs via Cx47. Cx47 siRNA significantly inhibited OPCs from entering the proliferation cycle. Transcriptome sequencing of OPCs and gene ontology enrichment analysis revealed that ASTs enhanced the exosome secretion by OPCs via Cx47. Transmission electron microscopy, Western blot, and nanoparticle tracking analysis indicated that the OPC proliferation was related to extracellular exosomes. Cx47 siRNA decreased the OPC proliferation and exosome secretion in AST-OPC cocultures. Exogenous exosome supplementation alleviated the inhibitory effect of Cx47 siRNA and significantly improved OPC proliferation. Mass spectrometry revealed that LAMB2 was abundant in exosomes. The administration of exogenous LAMB2 induced DNA replication in the S phase in OPCs by activating cyclin D1. CONCLUSIONS Collectively, ASTs induce the secretion of exosomes that carry LAMB2 by OPCs via Cx47 to upregulate cyclin D1 thereby accelerating OPC proliferation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nannan Cheng
- Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Stem Cell, Department of Histology and Embryology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuanfeng Xiong
- Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Stem Cell, Department of Histology and Embryology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenjin Zhang
- Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Stem Cell, Department of Histology and Embryology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaohong Wu
- Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Stem Cell, Department of Histology and Embryology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhongxiang Sun
- Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Stem Cell, Department of Histology and Embryology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Stem Cell, Department of Histology and Embryology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Wu
- Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Stem Cell, Department of Histology and Embryology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China
| | - Yong Tang
- Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Stem Cell, Department of Histology and Embryology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yan Peng
- Laboratory of Tissue Engineering and Stem Cell, Department of Histology and Embryology, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Fibrosis in the central nervous system: from the meninges to the vasculature. Cell Tissue Res 2022; 387:351-360. [PMID: 34189605 PMCID: PMC8717837 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-021-03491-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Formation of a collagenous connective tissue scar after penetrating injuries to the brain or spinal cord has been described and investigated for well over 100 years. However, it was studied almost exclusively in the context of penetrating injuries that resulted in infiltration of meningeal fibroblasts, which raised doubts about translational applicability to most CNS injuries where the meninges remain intact. Recent studies demonstrating the perivascular niche as a source of fibroblasts have debunked the traditional view that a fibrotic scar only forms after penetrating lesions that tear the meninges. These studies have led to a renewed interest in CNS fibrosis not only in the context of axon regeneration after spinal cord injury, but also across a spectrum of CNS disorders. Arising with this renewed interest is some discrepancy about which perivascular cell gives rise to the fibrotic scar, but additional studies are beginning to provide some clarity. Although mechanistic studies on CNS fibrosis are still lacking, the similarities to fibrosis of other organs should provide important insight into how CNS fibrosis can be therapeutically targeted to promote functional recovery.
Collapse
|
9
|
Gorter RP, Dijksman NS, Baron W, Colognato H. Investigating demyelination, efficient remyelination and remyelination failure in organotypic cerebellar slice cultures: Workflow and practical tips. Methods Cell Biol 2022; 168:103-123. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mcb.2021.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
|
10
|
Ghorbani S, Yong VW. The extracellular matrix as modifier of neuroinflammation and remyelination in multiple sclerosis. Brain 2021; 144:1958-1973. [PMID: 33889940 PMCID: PMC8370400 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awab059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2020] [Revised: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Remyelination failure contributes to axonal loss and progression of disability in multiple sclerosis. The failed repair process could be due to ongoing toxic neuroinflammation and to an inhibitory lesion microenvironment that prevents recruitment and/or differentiation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells into myelin-forming oligodendrocytes. The extracellular matrix molecules deposited into lesions provide both an altered microenvironment that inhibits oligodendrocyte progenitor cells, and a fuel that exacerbates inflammatory responses within lesions. In this review, we discuss the extracellular matrix and where its molecules are normally distributed in an uninjured adult brain, specifically at the basement membranes of cerebral vessels, in perineuronal nets that surround the soma of certain populations of neurons, and in interstitial matrix between neural cells. We then highlight the deposition of different extracellular matrix members in multiple sclerosis lesions, including chondroitin sulphate proteoglycans, collagens, laminins, fibronectin, fibrinogen, thrombospondin and others. We consider reasons behind changes in extracellular matrix components in multiple sclerosis lesions, mainly due to deposition by cells such as reactive astrocytes and microglia/macrophages. We next discuss the consequences of an altered extracellular matrix in multiple sclerosis lesions. Besides impairing oligodendrocyte recruitment, many of the extracellular matrix components elevated in multiple sclerosis lesions are pro-inflammatory and they enhance inflammatory processes through several mechanisms. However, molecules such as thrombospondin-1 may counter inflammatory processes, and laminins appear to favour repair. Overall, we emphasize the crosstalk between the extracellular matrix, immune responses and remyelination in modulating lesions for recovery or worsening. Finally, we review potential therapeutic approaches to target extracellular matrix components to reduce detrimental neuroinflammation and to promote recruitment and maturation of oligodendrocyte lineage cells to enhance remyelination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samira Ghorbani
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and the Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - V Wee Yong
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and the Department of Clinical Neuroscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Rayatpour A, Javan M. Targeting the brain lesions using peptides: A review focused on the possibility of targeted drug delivery to multiple sclerosis lesions. Pharmacol Res 2021; 167:105441. [PMID: 33503478 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2021.105441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
As described by Jean Martin Charcot in 1868, multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory, demyelinating and neurodegenerative disease of the central nervous system (CNS) which leads to permanent disability in patients. Following CNS insults, astrocytes and microglial cells undergo changes, which lead to scar formation in the site of injury. Owning to the pathophysiology of MS lesions, changes in both cellular and extracellular matrix (ECM) components occur over the progression of disease. In spite of advances in therapeutic approaches, drug delivery to MS lesions appears of great interest with big challenges and limitations. Targeting with peptides is a novel promising approach in the field of drug delivery. Recently peptides have been used for active targeting of different pathological disorders in which specific peptides make targeted accumulation of cargos to enhance local drug concentration at the pathological area, lead to increased therapeutic efficacy and decreased side effects. However, specific approaches for targeting the lesion in MS are still lacking. In this review, we discuss the changes of the ECM components as well as the cellular characteristics of demyelinated lesions and emphasis on opportunities for peptide based targeted drug delivery to highlight the possibility of such approaches for neurodegenerative disease with specific focus on MS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Atefeh Rayatpour
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Javan
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran; Institute for Brain and Cognition, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran; Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Su M, Soomro SH, Jie J, Fu H. Effects of the extracellular matrix on myelin development and regeneration in the central nervous system. Tissue Cell 2021; 69:101444. [PMID: 33450651 DOI: 10.1016/j.tice.2020.101444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular matrix (ECM) is a collection of extracellular molecules secreted by cells, providing structural and biochemical support for surrounding tissues. The ECM exerts biological effects by interacting with growth factors, signal receptors or adhesion molecules. In the case of myelin formation and regeneration, the combination of ECM and its receptors (for example, integrins) modulates signaling pathways such as PI3K, MAPK, etc., which in turn induces complex biological effects throughout various stages of myelination and regeneration. Studies have also found that myelin injury would cause changes in ECM composition and thus affecting the myelin regeneration process. Research on the ECM will provide a better understanding of how myelin is formed and regenerated, which will help to develop new therapies for demyelinating diseases. Future progress in this field will provide important information on how to modify the ECM to promote proliferation and differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPC), thereby stimulating myelin formation and regeneration and restoring normal neural function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Min Su
- Wuhan University, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, China.
| | | | - Jifu Jie
- Health School of Bayinguoleng Mongolian Autonomous Prefecture, Xinjiang, China.
| | - Hui Fu
- Wuhan University, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Wuhan, China.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Nowack L, Teschers CS, Albrecht S, Gilmour R. Oligodendroglial glycolipids in (Re)myelination: implications for multiple sclerosis research. Nat Prod Rep 2021; 38:890-904. [PMID: 33575689 DOI: 10.1039/d0np00093k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Covering: up to 2020 This short review surveys aspects of glycolipid-based natural products and their biological relevance in multiple sclerosis (MS). The role of isolated gangliosides in disease models is discussed together with an overview of ganglioside-inspired small molecule drugs and imaging probes. The discussion is extended to neurodegeneration in a more general context and addresses the need for more efficient synthetic methods to generate (glyco)structures that are of therapeutic relevance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luise Nowack
- Institute for Organic Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 36, 48149 Münster, Germany. and Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital Münster, Pottkamp 2, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Charlotte S Teschers
- Institute for Organic Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 36, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Stefanie Albrecht
- Institute of Neuropathology, University Hospital Münster, Pottkamp 2, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| | - Ryan Gilmour
- Institute for Organic Chemistry, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstraße 36, 48149 Münster, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Werkman IL, Dubbelaar ML, van der Vlies P, de Boer-Bergsma JJ, Eggen BJL, Baron W. Transcriptional heterogeneity between primary adult grey and white matter astrocytes underlie differences in modulation of in vitro myelination. J Neuroinflammation 2020; 17:373. [PMID: 33308248 PMCID: PMC7733297 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-020-02045-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammation-mediated demyelinating disease of the central nervous system that eventually results in secondary axonal degeneration due to remyelination failure. Successful remyelination is orchestrated by astrocytes (ASTRs) and requires sequential activation, recruitment, and maturation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs). In both MS and experimental models, remyelination is more robust in grey matter (GM) than white matter (WM), which is likely related to local differences between GM and WM lesions. Here, we investigated whether adult gmASTRs and wmASTRs per se and in response to MS relevant Toll-like receptor (TLR) activation differently modulate myelination. Methods Differences in modulation of myelination between adult gmASTRs and wmASTRs were examined using an in vitro myelinating system that relies on a feeding layer of ASTRs. Transcriptional profiling and weighted gene co-expression network analysis were used to analyze differentially expressed genes and gene networks. Potential differential modulation of OPC proliferation and maturation by untreated adult gmASTRs and wmASTRs and in response to TLR3 and TLR4 agonists were assessed. Results Our data reveal that adult wmASTRs are less supportive to in vitro myelination than gmASTRs. WmASTRs more abundantly express reactive ASTR genes and genes of a neurotoxic subtype of ASTRs, while gmASTRs have more neuro-reparative transcripts. We identified a gene network module containing cholesterol biosynthesis enzyme genes that positively correlated with gmASTRs, and a network module containing extracellular matrix-related genes that positively correlated with wmASTRs. Adult wmASTRs and gmASTRs responding to TLR3 agonist Poly(I:C) distinctly modulate OPC behavior, while exposure to TLR4 agonist LPS of both gmASTRs and wmASTRs results in a prominent decrease in myelin membrane formation. Conclusions Primary adult gmASTRs and wmASTRs are heterogeneous at the transcriptional level, differed in their support of in vitro myelination, and their pre-existing phenotype determined TLR3 agonist responses. These findings point to a role of ASTR heterogeneity in regional differences in remyelination efficiency between GM and WM lesions. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-020-02045-3.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Inge L Werkman
- Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9713, AV, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Marissa L Dubbelaar
- Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9713, AV, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Pieter van der Vlies
- Department of Genetics, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jelkje J de Boer-Bergsma
- Department of Genetics, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Bart J L Eggen
- Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9713, AV, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Wia Baron
- Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9713, AV, Groningen, the Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Pooyan P, Karamzadeh R, Mirzaei M, Meyfour A, Amirkhan A, Wu Y, Gupta V, Baharvand H, Javan M, Salekdeh GH. The Dynamic Proteome of Oligodendrocyte Lineage Differentiation Features Planar Cell Polarity and Macroautophagy Pathways. Gigascience 2020; 9:5945159. [PMID: 33128372 PMCID: PMC7601170 DOI: 10.1093/gigascience/giaa116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Generation of oligodendrocytes is a sophisticated multistep process, the mechanistic underpinnings of which are not fully understood and demand further investigation. To systematically profile proteome dynamics during human embryonic stem cell differentiation into oligodendrocytes, we applied in-depth quantitative proteomics at different developmental stages and monitored changes in protein abundance using a multiplexed tandem mass tag-based proteomics approach. Findings Our proteome data provided a comprehensive protein expression profile that highlighted specific expression clusters based on the protein abundances over the course of human oligodendrocyte lineage differentiation. We identified the eminence of the planar cell polarity signalling and autophagy (particularly macroautophagy) in the progression of oligodendrocyte lineage differentiation—the cooperation of which is assisted by 106 and 77 proteins, respectively, that showed significant expression changes in this differentiation process. Furthermore, differentially expressed protein analysis of the proteome profile of oligodendrocyte lineage cells revealed 378 proteins that were specifically upregulated only in 1 differentiation stage. In addition, comparative pairwise analysis of differentiation stages demonstrated that abundances of 352 proteins differentially changed between consecutive differentiation time points. Conclusions Our study provides a comprehensive systematic proteomics profile of oligodendrocyte lineage cells that can serve as a resource for identifying novel biomarkers from these cells and for indicating numerous proteins that may contribute to regulating the development of myelinating oligodendrocytes and other cells of oligodendrocyte lineage. We showed the importance of planar cell polarity signalling in oligodendrocyte lineage differentiation and revealed the autophagy-related proteins that participate in oligodendrocyte lineage differentiation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Paria Pooyan
- Department of Molecular Systems Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, Banihashem St., ACECR, Tehran 16635-148, Iran.,Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, Banihashem St., ACECR, Tehran 16635-148, Iran.,Department of Brain and Cognitive Science, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, Banihashem St., ACECR, Tehran 16635-148, Iran
| | - Razieh Karamzadeh
- Department of Molecular Systems Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, Banihashem St., ACECR, Tehran 16635-148, Iran.,Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, Banihashem St., ACECR, Tehran 16635-148, Iran.,Department of Brain and Cognitive Science, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, Banihashem St., ACECR, Tehran 16635-148, Iran
| | - Mehdi Mirzaei
- Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia.,Australian Proteome Analysis Facility, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Anna Meyfour
- Basic and Molecular Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Disorders Research Center, Research Institute for Gastroenterology and Liver Diseases, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Daneshjoo Blv., Velenjak, Tehran 19839-63113, Iran
| | - Ardeshir Amirkhan
- Australian Proteome Analysis Facility, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Yunqi Wu
- Australian Proteome Analysis Facility, Macquarie University, North Ryde, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Vivek Gupta
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| | - Hossein Baharvand
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, Banihashem St., ACECR, Tehran 16635-148, Iran.,Department of Brain and Cognitive Science, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, Banihashem St., ACECR, Tehran 16635-148, Iran.,Department of Developmental Biology, University of Science and Culture, Ashrafi Esfahani, Tehran 1461968151, Iran
| | - Mohammad Javan
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Science, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, Banihashem St., ACECR, Tehran 16635-148, Iran.,Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Tarbiat Modares University, Jalal AleAhmad, Tehran 14115-111, Iran
| | - Ghasem Hosseini Salekdeh
- Department of Molecular Systems Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, Banihashem St., ACECR, Tehran 16635-148, Iran.,Department of Molecular Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Werkman IL, Lentferink DH, Baron W. Macroglial diversity: white and grey areas and relevance to remyelination. Cell Mol Life Sci 2020; 78:143-171. [PMID: 32648004 PMCID: PMC7867526 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-020-03586-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2020] [Revised: 06/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Macroglia, comprising astrocytes and oligodendroglial lineage cells, have long been regarded as uniform cell types of the central nervous system (CNS). Although regional morphological differences between these cell types were initially described after their identification a century ago, these differences were largely ignored. Recently, accumulating evidence suggests that macroglial cells form distinct populations throughout the CNS, based on both functional and morphological features. Moreover, with the use of refined techniques including single-cell and single-nucleus RNA sequencing, additional evidence is emerging for regional macroglial heterogeneity at the transcriptional level. In parallel, several studies revealed the existence of regional differences in remyelination capacity between CNS grey and white matter areas, both in experimental models for successful remyelination as well as in the chronic demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis (MS). In this review, we provide an overview of the diversity in oligodendroglial lineage cells and astrocytes from the grey and white matter, as well as their interplay in health and upon demyelination and successful remyelination. In addition, we discuss the implications of regional macroglial diversity for remyelination in light of its failure in MS. Since the etiology of MS remains unknown and only disease-modifying treatments altering the immune response are available for MS, the elucidation of macroglial diversity in grey and white matter and its putative contribution to the observed difference in remyelination efficiency between these regions may open therapeutic avenues aimed at enhancing endogenous remyelination in either area.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Inge L Werkman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, the Netherlands
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22904, USA
| | - Dennis H Lentferink
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Wia Baron
- Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells and Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, the Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Gorter RP, Baron W. Matrix metalloproteinases shape the oligodendrocyte (niche) during development and upon demyelination. Neurosci Lett 2020; 729:134980. [PMID: 32315713 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2020.134980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2019] [Revised: 04/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The oligodendrocyte lineage cell is crucial to proper brain function. During central nervous system development, oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) migrate and proliferate to populate the entire brain and spinal cord, and subsequently differentiate into mature oligodendrocytes that wrap neuronal axons in an insulating myelin layer. When damage occurs to the myelin sheath, OPCs are activated and recruited to the demyelinated site, where they differentiate into oligodendrocytes that remyelinate the denuded axons. The process of OPC attraction and differentiation is influenced by a multitude of factors from the cell's niche. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are powerful and versatile enzymes that do not only degrade extracellular matrix proteins, but also cleave cell surface receptors, growth factors, signaling molecules, proteases and other precursor proteins, leading to their activation or degradation. MMPs are markedly upregulated during brain development and upon demyelinating injury, where their broad functions influence the behavior of neural progenitor cells (NPCs), OPCs and oligodendrocytes. In this review, we focus on the role of MMPs in (re)myelination. We will start out in the developing brain with describing the effects of MMPs on NPCs, OPCs and eventually oligodendrocytes. Then, we will outline their functions in oligodendrocyte process extension and developmental myelination. Finally, we will review their potential role in demyelination, describe their significance in remyelination and discuss the evidence for a role of MMPs in remyelination failure, focusing on multiple sclerosis. In conclusion, MMPs shape the oligodendrocyte (niche) both during development and upon demyelination, and thus are important players in directing the fate and behavior of oligodendrocyte lineage cells throughout their life cycle.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rianne P Gorter
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Wia Baron
- University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Department of Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, Section Molecular Neurobiology, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, 9713 AV, Groningen, the Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Oncostatin M-induced astrocytic tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 drives remyelination. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:5028-5038. [PMID: 32071226 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1912910117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain's endogenous capacity to restore damaged myelin deteriorates during the course of demyelinating disorders. Currently, no treatment options are available to establish remyelination. Chronic demyelination leads to damaged axons and irreversible destruction of the central nervous system (CNS). We identified two promising therapeutic candidates which enhance remyelination: oncostatin M (OSM), a member of the interleukin-6 family, and downstream mediator tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1). While remyelination was completely abrogated in OSMRβ knockout (KO) mice, OSM overexpression in the chronically demyelinated CNS established remyelination. Astrocytic TIMP-1 was demonstrated to play a pivotal role in OSM-mediated remyelination. Astrocyte-derived TIMP-1 drove differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells into mature oligodendrocytes in vitro. In vivo, TIMP-1 deficiency completely abolished spontaneous remyelination, phenocopying OSMRβ KO mice. Finally, TIMP-1 was expressed by human astrocytes in demyelinated multiple sclerosis lesions, confirming the human value of our findings. Taken together, OSM and its downstream mediator TIMP-1 have the therapeutic potential to boost remyelination in demyelinating disorders.
Collapse
|
19
|
Marangon D, Boccazzi M, Lecca D, Fumagalli M. Regulation of Oligodendrocyte Functions: Targeting Lipid Metabolism and Extracellular Matrix for Myelin Repair. J Clin Med 2020; 9:E470. [PMID: 32046349 PMCID: PMC7073561 DOI: 10.3390/jcm9020470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 02/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
: Myelin is an essential structure that protects axons, provides metabolic support to neurons and allows fast nerve transmission. Several neurological diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, are characterized by myelin damage, which is responsible of severe functional impairment. Myelin repair requires the timely recruitment of adult oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) at the lesion sites, their differentiation and maturation into myelinating oligodendrocytes. As a consequence, OPCs undergo profound changes in their morphology, functions, and interactions with other cells and extracellular environment, thus requiring the reorganization of both their lipid metabolism and their membrane composition, which is substantially different compared to other plasma membranes. Despite the growing knowledge in oligodendroglia biology and in the mechanisms involved in OPC-mediated regeneration, the identification of strategies to promote remyelination still remains a challenge. Here, we describe how altered lipid metabolism in oligodendrocytes influences the pathogenesis of demyelination, and we show that several FDA-approved drugs with a previously unknown remyelination potential do act on cholesterol and lipid biosynthetic pathways. Since the interplay between myelin lipids and axons is strictly coordinated by the extracellular matrix (ECM), we also discuss the role of different ECM components, and report the last findings on new ECM-modifiers able to foster endogenous remyelination.
Collapse
|
20
|
de Jong JM, Wang P, Oomkens M, Baron W. Remodeling of the interstitial extracellular matrix in white matter multiple sclerosis lesions: Implications for remyelination (failure). J Neurosci Res 2020; 98:1370-1397. [PMID: 31965607 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2019] [Revised: 11/29/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) provides protection, rigidity, and structure toward cells. It consists, among others, of a wide variety of glycoproteins and proteoglycans, which act together to produce a complex and dynamic environment, most relevant in transmembrane events. In the brain, the ECM occupies a notable proportion of its volume and maintains the homeostasis of central nervous system (CNS). In addition, remodeling of the ECM, that is transient changes in ECM proteins regulated by matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), is an important process that modulates cell behavior upon injury, thereby facilitating recovery. Failure of ECM remodeling plays an important role in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS), a neurodegenerative demyelinating disease of the CNS with an inflammatory response against protective myelin sheaths that surround axons. Remyelination of denuded axons improves the neuropathological conditions of MS, but this regeneration process fails over time, leading to chronic disease progression. In this review, we uncover abnormal ECM remodeling in MS lesions by discussing ECM remodeling in experimental demyelination models, that is when remyelination is successful, and compare alterations in ECM components to the ECM composition and MMP expression in the parenchyma of demyelinated MS lesions, that is when remyelination fails. Inter- and intralesional differences in ECM remodeling in the distinct white matter MS lesions are discussed in terms of consequences for oligodendrocyte behavior and remyelination (failure). Hence, the review will aid to understand how abnormal ECM remodeling contributes to remyelination failure in MS lesions and assists in developing therapeutic strategies to promote remyelination.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jody M de Jong
- Section Molecular Neurobiology, Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Peng Wang
- Section Molecular Neurobiology, Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Michelle Oomkens
- Section Molecular Neurobiology, Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Wia Baron
- Section Molecular Neurobiology, Biomedical Sciences of Cells & Systems, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
TLR3 agonists induce fibronectin aggregation by activated astrocytes: a role of pro-inflammatory cytokines and fibronectin splice variants. Sci Rep 2020; 10:532. [PMID: 31953424 PMCID: PMC6969115 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-57069-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic demyelinating disease of the central nervous system which eventually results in axonal loss mainly due to failure of remyelination. Previously we have shown that the persistent presence of stable astrocyte-derived fibronectin aggregates in MS lesions impairs OPC differentiation, and thereby remyelination. Here we set out to discern whether and, if so, how inflammatory mediators as present in MS lesions trigger astrocytes to form fibronectin aggregates. Our findings revealed that in slice cultures only upon demyelination, the TLR3 agonist Poly(I:C) evoked astrocytes to form fibronectin aggregates. Consistently, pro-inflammatory cytokine-pretreated astrocytes were more susceptible to Poly(I:C)-induced fibronectin aggregation, indicating that astrocytes form fibronectin aggregates upon a double hit by inflammatory mediators. The underlying mechanism involves disrupted fibronectin fibrillogenesis at the cell surface as a result of a cytokine-induced increase in relative mRNA levels of EIIIApos-Fn over EIIIBpos-Fn and a Poly(I:C)-mediated decrease in integrin affinity. Remarkably, fibronectin aggregation is exacerbated by white matter astrocytes compared to grey matter astrocytes, which may be a reflection of higher expression levels of EIIIApos-fibronectin in white matter astrocytes. Hence, interfering with alternative fibronectin splicing and/or TLR3-mediated signaling may prevent fibronectin aggregation and overcome remyelination failure in MS lesions.
Collapse
|
22
|
Wang S, Millward JM, Hanke-Vela L, Malla B, Pilch K, Gil-Infante A, Waiczies S, Mueller S, Boehm-Sturm P, Guo J, Sack I, Infante-Duarte C. MR Elastography-Based Assessment of Matrix Remodeling at Lesion Sites Associated With Clinical Severity in a Model of Multiple Sclerosis. Front Neurol 2020; 10:1382. [PMID: 31998225 PMCID: PMC6970413 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2019.01382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with gadolinium based contrast agents (GBCA) is routinely used in the clinic to visualize lesions in multiple sclerosis (MS). Although GBCA reveal endothelial permeability, they fail to expose other aspects of lesion formation such as the magnitude of inflammation or tissue changes occurring at sites of blood-brain barrier (BBB) disruption. Moreover, evidence pointing to potential side effects of GBCA has been increasing. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop GBCA-independent imaging tools to monitor pathology in MS. Using MR-elastography (MRE), we previously demonstrated in both MS and the animal model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) that inflammation was associated with a reduction of brain stiffness. Now, using the relapsing-remitting EAE model, we show that the cerebellum—a region with predominant inflammation in this model—is especially prone to loss of stiffness. We also demonstrate that, contrary to GBCA-MRI, reduction of brain stiffness correlates with clinical disability and is associated with enhanced expression of the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin (FN). Further, we show that FN is largely expressed by activated astrocytes at acute lesions, and reflects the magnitude of tissue remodeling at sites of BBB breakdown. Therefore, MRE could emerge as a safe tool suitable to monitor disease activity in MS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuangqing Wang
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute for Medical Immunology, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Neurology, Shenzhen University General Hospital, Shenzhen University Clinical Medical Academy, Shenzhen, China
| | - Jason M Millward
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute for Medical Immunology, Berlin, Germany.,Berlin Ultrahigh Field Facility, Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Laura Hanke-Vela
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute for Medical Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bimala Malla
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute for Medical Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kjara Pilch
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute for Medical Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ana Gil-Infante
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute for Medical Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sonia Waiczies
- Berlin Ultrahigh Field Facility, Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Susanne Mueller
- Department of Experimental Neurology and Center for Stroke Research, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence and Charité Core Facility 7T Experimental MRIs, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Philipp Boehm-Sturm
- Department of Experimental Neurology and Center for Stroke Research, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany.,NeuroCure Cluster of Excellence and Charité Core Facility 7T Experimental MRIs, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jing Guo
- Department of Radiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ingolf Sack
- Department of Radiology, Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Berlin, Germany
| | - Carmen Infante-Duarte
- Charité - Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute for Medical Immunology, Berlin, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Yahn SL, Li J, Goo I, Gao H, Brambilla R, Lee JK. Fibrotic scar after experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis inhibits oligodendrocyte differentiation. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 134:104674. [PMID: 31731043 PMCID: PMC7547849 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2019.104674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Remyelination failure is a crucial component of disease progression in the autoimmune demyelinating disease Multiple Sclerosis (MS). The regenerative capacity of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) to replace myelinating oligodendrocytes is likely influenced by many aspects of the lesion environment including inflammatory signaling and extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition. These features of MS lesions are typically attributed to infiltrating leukocytes and reactive astrocytes. Here we demonstrate that fibroblasts also contribute to the inhibitory environment in the animal model of MS, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Using Col1α1GFP transgenic mice, we show that perivascular fibroblasts are activated in the spinal cord at EAE onset, and infiltrate the parenchyma by the peak of behavioral deficits where they are closely associated with areas of demyelination, myeloid cell accumulation, and ECM deposition. We further show that both fibroblast conditioned media and fibroblast ECM inhibit the differentiation of OPCs into mature oligodendrocytes. Taken together, our results indicate that the fibrotic scar is a major component of EAE pathology that leads to an inhibitory environment for remyelination, thus raising the possibility that anti-fibrotic mechanisms may serve as novel therapeutic targets for MS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie L Yahn
- Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, United States of America
| | - Jiajun Li
- Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, United States of America
| | - Irene Goo
- Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, United States of America
| | - Han Gao
- Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, United States of America
| | - Roberta Brambilla
- Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, United States of America
| | - Jae K Lee
- Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, United States of America.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Astrocytes in multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis: Star-shaped cells illuminating the darkness of CNS autoimmunity. Brain Behav Immun 2019; 80:10-24. [PMID: 31125711 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2019.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuropathology in the human autoimmune disease multiple sclerosis (MS) is considered to be mediated by autoreactive leukocytes, such as T cells, B cells, and macrophages. However, the inflammation and tissue damage in MS and its animal model experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) is also critically regulated by astrocytes, the most abundant cell population in the central nervous system (CNS). Under physiological conditions, astrocytes are integral to the development and function of the CNS, whereas in CNS autoimmunity, astrocytes influence the pathogenesis, progression, and recovery of the diseases. In this review, we summarize recent advances in astrocytic functions in the context of MS and EAE, which are categorized into two opposite aspects, one being detrimental and the other beneficial. Inhibition of the detrimental functions and/or enhancement of the beneficial functions of astrocytes might be favorable for the treatment of MS.
Collapse
|
25
|
Lee TH, Hsieh ST, Chiang HY. Fibronectin inhibitor pUR4 attenuates tumor necrosis factor α-induced endothelial hyperpermeability by modulating β1 integrin activation. J Biomed Sci 2019; 26:37. [PMID: 31096970 PMCID: PMC6521375 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-019-0529-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2018] [Accepted: 05/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) is composed of a monolayer of endothelium linked with tight junctions and extracellular matrix (ECM)-rich basement membranes and is surrounded by astrocyte foot processes. Endothelial permeability is regulated by interaction between endothelial cells and ECM proteins. Fibronectin (FN) is a principal ECM component of microvessels. Excessive FN deposition disrupts cell-cell adhesion in fibroblasts through β1 integrin ligation. To determine whether excessive FN deposition contributes to the disruption of endothelial integrity, we used an in vitro model of the endothelial monolayer to investigate whether the FN inhibitor pUR4 prevents FN deposition into the subendothelial matrix and attenuates endothelial leakage. METHODS To correlate the effects of excessive FN accumulation in microvessels on BSCB disruption, spinal nerve ligation-which induces BSCB leakage-was applied, and FN expression in the spinal cord was evaluated through immunohistochemistry and immunoblotting. To elucidate the effects by which pUR4 modulates endothelial permeability, brain-derived endothelial (bEND.3) cells treated with tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α were used to mimic a leaky BSCB. A bEND.3 monolayer was preincubated with pUR4 before TNF-α treatment. The transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) measurement and transendothelial permeability assay were applied to assess the endothelial integrity of the bEND.3 monolayer. Immunofluorescence analysis and immunoblotting were performed to evaluate the inhibitory effects of pUR4 on TNF-α-induced FN deposition. To determine the mechanisms underlying pUR4-mediated endothelial permeability, cell morphology, stress fiber formation, myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation, and β1 integrin-mediated signaling were evaluated through immunofluorescence analysis and immunoblotting. RESULTS Excessive FN was accumulated in the microvessels of the spinal cord after spinal nerve ligation; moreover, pUR4 inhibited TNF-α-induced FN deposition in the bEND.3 monolayer and maintained intact TEER and endothelial permeability. Furthermore, pUR4 reduced cell morphology alteration, actin stress fiber formation, and MLC phosphorylation, thereby attenuating paracellular gap formation. Moreover, pUR4 reduced β1 integrin activation and downstream signaling. CONCLUSIONS pUR4 reduces TNF-α-induced β1 integrin activation by depleting ECM FN, leading to a decrease in endothelial hyperpermeability and maintenance of monolayer integrity. These findings suggest therapeutic benefits of pUR4 in pathological vascular leakage treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ting-Hein Lee
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, 259 Wenhua 1st Rd., Guishan Dist, Taoyuan City, 33302, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan.,Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan
| | - Sung-Tsang Hsieh
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Graduate Institute of Brain and Mind Sciences, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Neurology, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hou-Yu Chiang
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, 259 Wenhua 1st Rd., Guishan Dist, Taoyuan City, 33302, Taiwan. .,Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan, Taiwan. .,Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Linkou, Taiwan.
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Madadi S, Pasbakhsh P, Tahmasebi F, Mortezaee K, Khanehzad M, Boroujeni FB, Noorzehi G, Kashani IR. Astrocyte ablation induced by La-aminoadipate (L-AAA) potentiates remyelination in a cuprizone demyelinating mouse model. Metab Brain Dis 2019; 34:593-603. [PMID: 30652255 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-019-0385-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Chronic demyelination in the central nervous system (CNS) is accompanied by an increase in the number of reactive astrocytes and astrogliosis. There are controversial issues regarding astrocytes and their roles in demyelinating diseases in particular for multiple sclerosis (MS). We aimed to evaluate possible roles for pharmacologic astrocyte ablation strategy using La-aminoadipate (L-AAA) on remyelination in a cuprizone model of demyelination. Male C57BL/6 mice were fed with 0.2% cuprizone for 12 weeks followed by 2-week administration of L-AAA through a cannula inserted 1 mm above the corpus callosum. Rotarod test showed a significant decrease in the range of motor coordination deficits after ablation of astrocytes in mice receiving cuprizone. Results of Luxol fast blue (LFB) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) for evaluation of myelin content within the corpus callosum revealed a noticeable rise in the percentage of myelinated areas and in the number of myelinated fibers after L-AAA administration in the animals. Astrocyte ablation reduced protein expressions for GFAP (an astrocyte marker) and Iba-1 (a microglial marker), but increased expression of Olig2 (an oligodendrocyte marker) assessed by immunofluorescence. Finally, expression of genes related to recruitment of microglia (astrocyte chemokines CXCL10 and CXCL12) and suppression of oligodendrocyte progenitor cell (OPC) differentiation (astrocyte peptides ET-1 and EDNRB) showed a considerable decrease after administration of L-AAA (for all p < 0.05). These results are indicative of improved remyelination after ablation of astrocytes possibly through hampering microgliosis and astrogliosis and a further rise in the number of matured Olig2+ cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Soheila Madadi
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Poursina Street, Tehran, Iran
| | - Parichehr Pasbakhsh
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Poursina Street, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Tahmasebi
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Poursina Street, Tehran, Iran
| | - Keywan Mortezaee
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Kurdistan University of Medical Sciences, Sanandaj, Iran
| | - Maryam Khanehzad
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Poursina Street, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Beigi Boroujeni
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Poursina Street, Tehran, Iran
| | - Golaleh Noorzehi
- Laboratory Technology Faculty, Khatam Al-Nabieen University, Kabul, Afghanistan
| | - Iraj Ragerdi Kashani
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Poursina Street, Tehran, Iran.
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Wilems T, Vardhan S, Wu S, Sakiyama-Elbert S. The influence of microenvironment and extracellular matrix molecules in driving neural stem cell fate within biomaterials. Brain Res Bull 2019; 148:25-33. [PMID: 30898579 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2019.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Transplantation of stem cells is a promising potential therapy for central nervous system disease and injury. The capacity for self-renewal, proliferation of progenitor cells, and multi-lineage potential underscores the need for controlling stem cell fate. Furthermore, transplantation within a hostile environment can lead to significant cell death and limited therapeutic potential. Tissue-engineered materials have been developed to both regulate stem cell fate, increase transplanted cell viability, and improve therapeutic outcomes. Traditionally, regulation of stem cell differentiation has been driven through soluble signals, such as growth factors. While these signals are important, insoluble factors from the local microenvironment or extracellular matrix (ECM) molecules also contribute to stem cell activity and fate. Understanding the microenvironment factors that influence stem cell fate, such as mechanical properties, topography, and presentation of specific ECM ligands, is necessary for designing improved biomaterials. Here we review some of the microenvironment factors that regulate stem cell fate and how they can be incorporated into biomaterials as part of potential CNS therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Wilems
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, 78712, USA
| | - Sangamithra Vardhan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, 78712, USA
| | - Siliang Wu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, 78712, USA
| | - Shelly Sakiyama-Elbert
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas, 78712, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Acute and chronic demyelinated CNS lesions exhibit opposite elastic properties. Sci Rep 2019; 9:999. [PMID: 30700777 PMCID: PMC6354022 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37745-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) is a known inhibitor of axonal regrowth and remyelination. Recent in vitro studies have demonstrated that oligodendrocyte differentiation is impacted by the physical properties of the ECM. However, characterization of the mechanical properties of the healthy and injured CNS myelin is challenging, and has largely relied on non-invasive, low-resolution methods. To address this, we have employed atomic force microscopy to perform micro-indentation measurements of demyelinated tissue at cellular scale. Analysis of mouse and human demyelinated brains indicate that acute demyelination results in decreased tissue stiffness that recovers with remyelination; while chronic demyelination is characterized by increased tissue stiffness, which correlates with augmented ECM deposition. Thus, changes in the mechanical properties of the acutely (softer) or chronically (stiffer) demyelinated brain might contribute to differences in their regenerative capacity. Our findings are relevant to the optimization of cell-based therapies aimed at promoting CNS regeneration and remyelination.
Collapse
|
29
|
Wang P, Gorter RP, de Jonge JC, Nazmuddin M, Zhao C, Amor S, Hoekstra D, Baron W. MMP7 cleaves remyelination-impairing fibronectin aggregates and its expression is reduced in chronic multiple sclerosis lesions. Glia 2018; 66:1625-1643. [PMID: 29600597 PMCID: PMC6099312 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2017] [Revised: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Upon demyelination, transient expression of fibronectin precedes successful remyelination. However, in chronic demyelination observed in multiple sclerosis (MS), aggregates of fibronectin persist and contribute to remyelination failure. Accordingly, removing fibronectin (aggregates) would constitute an effective strategy for promoting remyelination. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are enzymes known to remodel extracellular matrix components, including fibronectin. Here, we examined the ability of MMPs to degrade fibronectin aggregates. Our findings reveal that MMP7 cleaved fibronectin aggregates resulting into a prominent 13 kDa EIIIA (16 kDa EDA)‐containing fragment. MMP7 was upregulated during lysolecithin‐induced demyelination, indicating its potential for endogenous fibronectin clearance. In contrast, the expression of proMMP7 was substantially decreased in chronic active and inactive MS lesions compared with control white matter and remyelinated MS lesions. Microglia and macrophages were major cellular sources of proMMP7 and IL‐4‐activated, but not IFNγ+LPS‐activated, microglia and macrophages secreted significant levels of proMMP7. Also, conditioned medium of IL‐4‐activated macrophages most efficiently cleaved fibronectin aggregates upon MMP‐activating conditions. Yet, coatings of MMP7‐cleaved fibronectin aggregate fragments inhibited oligodendrocyte maturation, indicating that further degradation and/or clearance by phagocytosis is essential. These findings suggest that MMP7 cleaves fibronectin aggregates, while reduced (pro)MMP7 levels in MS lesions contribute to their persistent presence. Therefore, upregulating MMP7 levels may be key to remove remyelination‐impairing fibronectin aggregates in MS lesions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Peng Wang
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Rianne P Gorter
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jenny C de Jonge
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Muhammad Nazmuddin
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Chao Zhao
- Wellcome Trust - Medical Research Council Cambridge Stem Cell Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Sandra Amor
- Department of Pathology, VU Medical Center, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.,Queen Mary University of London, Blizard Institute, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dick Hoekstra
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Wia Baron
- Department of Cell Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
The extracellular matrix: Focus on oligodendrocyte biology and targeting CSPGs for remyelination therapies. Glia 2018; 66:1809-1825. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.23333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2017] [Revised: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
|
31
|
GD1a Overcomes Inhibition of Myelination by Fibronectin via Activation of Protein Kinase A: Implications for Multiple Sclerosis. J Neurosci 2017; 37:9925-9938. [PMID: 28899916 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0103-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2017] [Revised: 07/07/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Remyelination failure by oligodendrocytes contributes to the functional impairment that characterizes the demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis (MS). Since incomplete remyelination will irreversibly damage axonal connections, treatments effectively promoting remyelination are pivotal in halting disease progression. Our previous findings suggest that fibronectin aggregates, as an environmental factor, contribute to remyelination failure by perturbing oligodendrocyte progenitor cell (OPC) maturation. Here, we aim at elucidating whether exogenously added gangliosides (i.e., cell surface lipids with a potential to modulate signaling pathways) could counteract fibronectin-mediated inhibition of OPC maturation. Exclusive exposure of rat oligodendrocytes to GD1a, but not other gangliosides, overcomes aggregated fibronectin-induced inhibition of myelin membrane formation, in vitro, and OPC differentiation in fibronectin aggregate containing cuprizone-induced demyelinated lesions in male mice. GD1a exerts its effect on OPCs by inducing their proliferation and, at a late stage, by modulating OPC maturation. Kinase activity profiling revealed that GD1a activated a protein kinase A (PKA)-dependent signaling pathway and increased phosphorylation of the transcription factor cAMP response element-binding protein. Consistently, the effect of GD1a in restoring myelin membrane formation in the presence of fibronectin aggregates was abolished by the PKA inhibitor H89, whereas the effect of GD1a was mimicked by the PKA activator dibutyryl-cAMP. Together, GD1a overcomes the inhibiting effect of aggregated fibronectin on OPC maturation by activating a PKA-dependent signaling pathway. Given the persistent presence of fibronectin aggregates in MS lesions, ganglioside GD1a might act as a potential novel therapeutic tool to selectively modulate the detrimental signaling environment that precludes remyelination.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT As an environmental factor, aggregates of the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin perturb the maturation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs), thereby impeding remyelination, in the demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis (MS). Here we demonstrate that exogenous addition of ganglioside GD1a overcomes the inhibiting effect of aggregated fibronectin on OPC maturation, both in vitro and in vivo, by activating a PKA-dependent signaling pathway. We propose that targeted delivery of GD1a to MS lesions may act as a potential novel molecular tool to boost maturation of resident OPCs to overcome remyelination failure and halt disease progression.
Collapse
|
32
|
Dulamea AO. Role of Oligodendrocyte Dysfunction in Demyelination, Remyelination and Neurodegeneration in Multiple Sclerosis. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 958:91-127. [PMID: 28093710 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-47861-6_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Oligodendrocytes (OLs) are the myelinating cells of the central nervous system (CNS) during development and throughout adulthood. They result from a complex and well controlled process of activation, proliferation, migration and differentiation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) from the germinative niches of the CNS. In multiple sclerosis (MS), the complex pathological process produces dysfunction and apoptosis of OLs leading to demyelination and neurodegeneration. This review attempts to describe the patterns of demyelination in MS, the steps involved in oligodendrogenesis and myelination in healthy CNS, the different pathways leading to OLs and myelin loss in MS, as well as principles involved in restoration of myelin sheaths. Environmental factors and their impact on OLs and pathological mechanisms of MS are also discussed. Finally, we will present evidence about the potential therapeutic targets in re-myelination processes that can be accessed in order to develop regenerative therapies for MS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Octaviana Dulamea
- Neurology Clinic, University of Medicine and Pharmacy "Carol Davila", Fundeni Clinical Institute, Building A, Neurology Clinic, Room 201, 022328, Bucharest, Romania.
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Wheeler NA, Fuss B. Extracellular cues influencing oligodendrocyte differentiation and (re)myelination. Exp Neurol 2016; 283:512-30. [PMID: 27016069 PMCID: PMC5010977 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Revised: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
There is an increasing number of neurologic disorders found to be associated with loss and/or dysfunction of the CNS myelin sheath, ranging from the classic demyelinating disease, multiple sclerosis, through CNS injury, to neuropsychiatric diseases. The disabling burden of these diseases has sparked a growing interest in gaining a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms regulating the differentiation of the myelinating cells of the CNS, oligodendrocytes (OLGs), and the process of (re)myelination. In this context, the importance of the extracellular milieu is becoming increasingly recognized. Under pathological conditions, changes in inhibitory as well as permissive/promotional cues are thought to lead to an overall extracellular environment that is obstructive for the regeneration of the myelin sheath. Given the general view that remyelination is, even though limited in human, a natural response to demyelination, targeting pathologically 'dysregulated' extracellular cues and their downstream pathways is regarded as a promising approach toward the enhancement of remyelination by endogenous (or if necessary transplanted) OLG progenitor cells. In this review, we will introduce the extracellular cues that have been implicated in the modulation of (re)myelination. These cues can be soluble, part of the extracellular matrix (ECM) or mediators of cell-cell interactions. Their inhibitory and permissive/promotional roles with regard to remyelination as well as their potential for therapeutic intervention will be discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Natalie A Wheeler
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298, United States
| | - Babette Fuss
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA 23298, United States.
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Seehusen F, Al-Azreg SA, Raddatz BB, Haist V, Puff C, Spitzbarth I, Ulrich R, Baumgärtner W. Accumulation of Extracellular Matrix in Advanced Lesions of Canine Distemper Demyelinating Encephalitis. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0159752. [PMID: 27441688 PMCID: PMC4956304 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0159752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2016] [Accepted: 07/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In demyelinating diseases, changes in the quality and quantity of the extracellular matrix (ECM) may contribute to demyelination and failure of myelin repair and axonal sprouting, especially in chronic lesions. To characterize changes in the ECM in canine distemper demyelinating leukoencephalitis (DL), histochemical and immunohistochemical investigations of formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded cerebella using azan, picrosirius red and Gomori`s silver stain as well as antibodies directed against aggrecan, type I and IV collagen, fibronectin, laminin and phosphacan showed alterations of the ECM in CDV-infected dogs. A significantly increased amount of aggrecan was detected in early and late white matter lesions. In addition, the positive signal for collagens I and IV as well as fibronectin was significantly increased in late lesions. Conversely, the expression of phosphacan was significantly decreased in early and more pronounced in late lesions compared to controls. Furthermore, a set of genes involved in ECM was extracted from a publically available microarray data set and was analyzed for differential gene expression. Gene expression of ECM molecules, their biosynthesis pathways, and pro-fibrotic factors was mildly up-regulated whereas expression of matrix remodeling enzymes was up-regulated to a relatively higher extent. Summarized, the observed findings indicate that changes in the quality and content of ECM molecules represent important, mainly post-transcriptional features in advanced canine distemper lesions. Considering the insufficiency of morphological regeneration in chronic distemper lesions, the accumulated ECM seems to play a crucial role upon regenerative processes and may explain the relatively small regenerative potential in late stages of this disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Frauke Seehusen
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
| | - Seham A. Al-Azreg
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
| | - Barbara B. Raddatz
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
| | - Verena Haist
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
- Boehringer Ingelheim Veterinary Research Center GmbH & Co. KG, Hannover, Germany
| | - Christina Puff
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
| | - Ingo Spitzbarth
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
| | - Reiner Ulrich
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald - Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Baumgärtner
- Department of Pathology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
35
|
Domingues HS, Portugal CC, Socodato R, Relvas JB. Oligodendrocyte, Astrocyte, and Microglia Crosstalk in Myelin Development, Damage, and Repair. Front Cell Dev Biol 2016; 4:71. [PMID: 27551677 PMCID: PMC4923166 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2016.00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Oligodendrocytes are the myelinating glia of the central nervous system. Myelination of axons allows rapid saltatory conduction of nerve impulses and contributes to axonal integrity. Devastating neurological deficits caused by demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, illustrate well the importance of the process. In this review, we focus on the positive and negative interactions between oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and microglia during developmental myelination and remyelination. Even though many lines of evidence support a crucial role for glia crosstalk during these processes, the nature of such interactions is often neglected when designing therapeutics for repair of demyelinated lesions. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying glial cell communication and how they influence oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination is fundamental to uncover novel therapeutic strategies for myelin repair.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helena S Domingues
- Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal; Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal
| | - Camila C Portugal
- Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal; Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal
| | - Renato Socodato
- Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal; Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal
| | - João B Relvas
- Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal; Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
Hu X, Yuan Y, Wang D, Su Z. Heterogeneous astrocytes: Active players in CNS. Brain Res Bull 2016; 125:1-18. [PMID: 27021168 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2016.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2016] [Revised: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Astrocytes, the predominant cell type that are broadly distributed in the brain and spinal cord, play key roles in maintaining homeostasis of the central nerve system (CNS) in physiological and pathological conditions. Increasing evidence indicates that astrocytes are a complex colony with heterogeneity on morphology, gene expression, function and many other aspects depending on their spatio-temporal distribution and activation level. In pathological conditions, astrocytes differentially respond to all kinds of insults, including injury and disease, and participate in the neuropathological process. Based on current studies, we here give an overview of the roles of heterogeneous astrocytes in CNS, especially in neuropathologies, which focuses on biological and functional diversity of astrocytes. We propose that a precise understanding of the heterogeneous astrocytes is critical to unlocking the secrets about pathogenesis and treatment of the mazy CNS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xin Hu
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology of Ministry of Education, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yimin Yuan
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology of Ministry of Education, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Dan Wang
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology of Ministry of Education, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhida Su
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology of Ministry of Education, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.
| |
Collapse
|
37
|
Domingues HS, Portugal CC, Socodato R, Relvas JB. Oligodendrocyte, Astrocyte, and Microglia Crosstalk in Myelin Development, Damage, and Repair. Front Cell Dev Biol 2016. [PMID: 27551677 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2016.00071.ecollection2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Oligodendrocytes are the myelinating glia of the central nervous system. Myelination of axons allows rapid saltatory conduction of nerve impulses and contributes to axonal integrity. Devastating neurological deficits caused by demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, illustrate well the importance of the process. In this review, we focus on the positive and negative interactions between oligodendrocytes, astrocytes, and microglia during developmental myelination and remyelination. Even though many lines of evidence support a crucial role for glia crosstalk during these processes, the nature of such interactions is often neglected when designing therapeutics for repair of demyelinated lesions. Understanding the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying glial cell communication and how they influence oligodendrocyte differentiation and myelination is fundamental to uncover novel therapeutic strategies for myelin repair.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Helena S Domingues
- Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal; Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal
| | - Camila C Portugal
- Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal; Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal
| | - Renato Socodato
- Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal; Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal
| | - João B Relvas
- Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Biologia Molecular e Celular, Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal; Glial Cell Biology Group, Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde (I3S), Universidade do PortoPorto, Portugal
| |
Collapse
|
38
|
Zhao C, Ma D, Zawadzka M, Fancy SPJ, Elis-Williams L, Bouvier G, Stockley JH, de Castro GM, Wang B, Jacobs S, Casaccia P, Franklin RJM. Sox2 Sustains Recruitment of Oligodendrocyte Progenitor Cells following CNS Demyelination and Primes Them for Differentiation during Remyelination. J Neurosci 2015; 35:11482-99. [PMID: 26290228 PMCID: PMC6605237 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3655-14.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Revised: 05/27/2015] [Accepted: 06/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The Sox family of transcription factors have been widely studied in the context of oligodendrocyte development. However, comparatively little is known about the role of Sox2, especially during CNS remyelination. Here we show that the expression of Sox2 occurs in oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) in rodent models during myelination and in activated adult OPCs responding to demyelination, and is also detected in multiple sclerosis lesions. In normal adult white matter of both mice and rats, it is neither expressed by adult OPCs nor by oligodendrocytes (although it is expressed by a subpopulation of adult astrocytes). Overexpression of Sox2 in rat OPCs in vitro maintains the cells in a proliferative state and inhibits differentiation, while Sox2 knockout results in decreased OPC proliferation and survival, suggesting that Sox2 contributes to the expansion of OPCs during the recruitment phase of remyelination. Loss of function in cultured mouse OPCs also results in an impaired ability to undergo normal differentiation in response to differentiation signals, suggesting that Sox2 expression in activated OPCs also primes these cells to eventually undergo differentiation. In vivo studies on remyelination following experimental toxin-induced demyelination in mice with inducible loss of Sox2 revealed impaired remyelination, which was largely due to a profound attenuation of OPC recruitment and likely also due to impaired differentiation. Our results reveal a key role of Sox2 expression in OPCs responding to demyelination, enabling them to effectively contribute to remyelination. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Understanding the mechanisms of CNS remyelination is central to developing effective means by which this process can be therapeutically enhanced in chronic demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis. In this study, we describe the role of Sox2, a transcription factor widely implicated in stem cell biology, in CNS myelination and remyelination. We show how Sox2 is expressed in oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) preparing to undergo differentiation, allowing them to undergo proliferation and priming them for subsequent differentiation. Although Sox2 is unlikely to be a direct therapeutic target, these data nevertheless provide more information on how OPC differentiation is controlled and therefore enriches our understanding of this important CNS regenerative process.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chao Zhao
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0AH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Dan Ma
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0AH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Malgorzata Zawadzka
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0AH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Stephen P J Fancy
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0AH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Lowri Elis-Williams
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0AH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Guy Bouvier
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0AH, United Kingdom, and
| | - John H Stockley
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0AH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Glaucia Monteiro de Castro
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0AH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Bowei Wang
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0AH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Sabrina Jacobs
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0AH, United Kingdom, and
| | - Patrizia Casaccia
- Department of Neuroscience and Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York 10029-6574
| | - Robin J M Franklin
- Wellcome Trust-Medical Research Council Stem Cell Institute and Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge Biomedical Campus, Cambridge CB2 0AH, United Kingdom, and
| |
Collapse
|