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Huang JY. Complexity Epidemiology in Practice: A Tale of Two Simplicities. Epidemiology 2023; 34:515-519. [PMID: 37042975 DOI: 10.1097/ede.0000000000001623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Yinhao Huang
- From the Singapore Institute for Clinical Sciences (SICS), Agency for Science, Technology, and Research (A*STAR), Singapore, Singapore
- Center for Quantitative Medicine (CQM), Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore
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2
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Safarlou CW, Jongsma KR, Vermeulen R, Bredenoord AL. The ethical aspects of exposome research: a systematic review. EXPOSOME 2023; 3:osad004. [PMID: 37745046 PMCID: PMC7615114 DOI: 10.1093/exposome/osad004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, exposome research has been put forward as the next frontier for the study of human health and disease. Exposome research entails the analysis of the totality of environmental exposures and their corresponding biological responses within the human body. Increasingly, this is operationalized by big-data approaches to map the effects of internal as well as external exposures using smart sensors and multiomics technologies. However, the ethical implications of exposome research are still only rarely discussed in the literature. Therefore, we conducted a systematic review of the academic literature regarding both the exposome and underlying research fields and approaches, to map the ethical aspects that are relevant to exposome research. We identify five ethical themes that are prominent in ethics discussions: the goals of exposome research, its standards, its tools, how it relates to study participants, and the consequences of its products. Furthermore, we provide a number of general principles for how future ethics research can best make use of our comprehensive overview of the ethical aspects of exposome research. Lastly, we highlight three aspects of exposome research that are most in need of ethical reflection: the actionability of its findings, the epidemiological or clinical norms applicable to exposome research, and the meaning and action-implications of bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caspar W. Safarlou
- Department of Global Public Health and Bioethics, Julius Center for
Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The
Netherlands
| | - Karin R. Jongsma
- Department of Global Public Health and Bioethics, Julius Center for
Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The
Netherlands
| | - Roel Vermeulen
- Department of Global Public Health and Bioethics, Julius Center for
Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The
Netherlands
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Utrecht University,
Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Annelien L. Bredenoord
- Department of Global Public Health and Bioethics, Julius Center for
Health Sciences and Primary Care, University Medical Center Utrecht, Utrecht, The
Netherlands
- Erasmus School of Philosophy, Erasmus University Rotterdam,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Pegoraro R, Casalone C, Consolandi M. Role of Vulnerability and Control in Prenatal Testing Ethical Decision-Making. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOETHICS : AJOB 2023; 23:34-36. [PMID: 36919547 DOI: 10.1080/15265161.2023.2169394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
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4
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Cerdeña JP. Epigenetic citizenship and political claims-making: the ethics of molecularizing structural racism. BIOSOCIETIES 2022; 18:1-24. [PMID: 36277423 PMCID: PMC9579599 DOI: 10.1057/s41292-022-00286-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Epigenetics has generated excitement over its potential to inform health disparities research by capturing the molecular signatures of social experiences. This paper highlights the concerns implied by these expectations of epigenetics research and discusses the possible ramifications of 'molecularizing' the forms of social suffering currently examined in epigenetics studies. Researchers working with oppressed populations-particularly racially marginalized groups-should further anticipate how their results might be interpreted to avoid fueling prejudiced claims of biological essentialism. Introducing the concept of 'epigenetic citizenship,' this paper considers the ways environmentally responsive methylation cues may be used in direct-to-consumer testing, healthcare, and biopolitical interactions. The conclusion addresses the future of social epigenetics research and the utility of an epigenetic citizenship framework.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica P. Cerdeña
- Department of Anthropology, Yale University, 10 Sachem Street, New Haven, CT 06511 USA
- Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT USA
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5
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Auroy L, Louvel S. [Epigenetics and oncology: Two faces of the personalization of medicine]. Med Sci (Paris) 2022; 38:296-302. [PMID: 35333168 DOI: 10.1051/medsci/2022025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In this article, we outline the two dominant concepts of personalized medicine put forward by epigenetics in the field of oncology. First, knowledge on the molecular processes involved in tumor progression contributes to molecularize medicine, extending genomic medicine. Then, the identification of epigenetic mechanisms underlying the environmental causes of cancers brings scientific legitimacy to products and services whose advertising promotes the ability of each person to protect herself from cancer by adapting her lifestyle. Lastly, we argue that research in environmental epigenetics could open a new route for personalized medicine in oncology, where epigenetics contributes to an individualized assessment of patients' life paths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lola Auroy
- Laboratoire PACTE de sciences sociales, UMR CNRS 5194, Université Grenoble Alpes, Sciences Po Grenoble, 1030 avenue centrale, Domaine universitaire, 38400 Saint Martin d'Hères, France
| | - Séverine Louvel
- Laboratoire PACTE de sciences sociales, UMR CNRS 5194, Université Grenoble Alpes, Sciences Po Grenoble, 1030 avenue centrale, Domaine universitaire, 38400 Saint Martin d'Hères, France
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Santaló J, Berdasco M. Ethical implications of epigenetics in the era of personalized medicine. Clin Epigenetics 2022; 14:44. [PMID: 35337378 PMCID: PMC8953972 DOI: 10.1186/s13148-022-01263-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Given the increasing research activity on epigenetics to monitor human diseases and its connection with lifestyle and environmental expositions, the field of epigenetics has attracted a great deal of interest also at the ethical and societal level. In this review, we will identify and discuss current ethical, legal and social issues of epigenetics research in the context of personalized medicine. The review covers ethical aspects such as how epigenetic information should impact patient autonomy and the ability to generate an intentional and voluntary decision, the measures of data protection related to privacy and confidentiality derived from epigenome studies (e.g., risk of discrimination, patient re-identification and unexpected findings) or the debate in the distribution of responsibilities for health (i.e., personal versus public responsibilities). We pay special attention to the risk of social discrimination and stigmatization as a consequence of inferring information related to lifestyle and environmental exposures potentially contained in epigenetic data. Furthermore, as exposures to the environment and individual habits do not affect all populations equally, the violation of the principle of distributive justice in the access to the benefits of clinical epigenetics is discussed. In this regard, epigenetics represents a great opportunity for the integration of public policy measures aimed to create healthier living environments. Whether these public policies will coexist or, in contrast, compete with strategies reinforcing the personalized medicine interventions needs to be considered. The review ends with a reflection on the main challenges in epigenetic research, some of them in a technical dimension (e.g., assessing causality or establishing reference epigenomes) but also in the ethical and social sphere (e.g., risk to add an epigenetic determinism on top of the current genetic one). In sum, integration into life science investigation of social experiences such as exposure to risk, nutritional habits, prejudice and stigma, is imperative to understand epigenetic variation in disease. This pragmatic approach is required to locate clinical epigenetics out of the experimental laboratories and facilitate its implementation into society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josep Santaló
- Facultat de Biociències, Unitat de Biologia Cel·lular, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - María Berdasco
- Cancer Epigenetics and Biology Program (PEBC), Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. .,Epigenetic Therapies Group, Experimental and Clinical Hematology Program (PHEC), Josep Carreras Leukaemia Research Institute, Badalona, Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain.
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7
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Meurer A. The end of the 'Bad seed' Era? Epigenetics' contribution to violence prevention initiatives in public health. New Bioeth 2021; 27:159-175. [PMID: 33511920 DOI: 10.1080/20502877.2021.1877450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Despite numerous initiatives and significant resource investment, violence remains a pervasive threat to public health. The burgeoning field of epigenetics may offer an exciting new possibility for violence prevention efforts by illuminating the mechanisms of gene-environment interactions. In particular, it may improve our ability to design more effective primary interventions, facilitate improved intervention tailoring, and better position communities to be active agents in their well-being. However, without attention to the distinction between awareness, self-efficacy, and agency, it risks encouraging a false sense of individual accountability for violence, a perception that may perpetuate or increase existing inequities. Thus, embracing epigenetic insights in public health raises new opportunities but also new concerns. Ultimately, I argue public health should embrace epigenetics' potential, but only with an equal commitment to state responsibility and systemic justice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Meurer
- Center for Global Health Ethics, Duquesne University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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Abstract
This essay compares three models for conceptualizing the political and ethical challenges of contemporary genetics, genomics, and postgenomics. The three analytical approaches are referred to as the state-politics model, the biopolitical model, and the infopolitical model. Each of these models is valuable for different purposes. In terms of their influence in contemporary discussions, the first is by far the dominant approach, the second is gaining in importance, and the third is almost entirely neglected. The widespread neglect of the infopolitical dimensions of genetic sciences that are the focus of the third model is puzzling in light of the fact that genetics, genomics, and postgenomics are all preeminent information sciences. The infopolitical model thus aims to bring into clearer view the specific political and ethical problems engendered by this informational nature of the genetic sciences. This model offers a way of understanding how ethically salient and politically fraught conceptual assumptions can be embedded in informational architectures such as algorithms and the formats (or data structures) upon which they rely.
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Dupras C, Saulnier KM, Joly Y. Epigenetics, ethics, law and society: A multidisciplinary review of descriptive, instrumental, dialectical and reflexive analyses. SOCIAL STUDIES OF SCIENCE 2019; 49:785-810. [PMID: 31366289 PMCID: PMC6801799 DOI: 10.1177/0306312719866007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Epigenetics, defined as 'the study of mitotically and/or meiotically heritable changes in gene function that cannot be explained by changes in DNA sequence', has emerged as a promissory yet controversial field of scientific inquiry over the past decade. Scholars from many disciplines have formulated both optimistic and cautionary claims regarding its potential normative implications. This article provides a comprehensive review of the nascent literature at the crossroads of epigenetics, ethics, law and society. It describes nine emerging areas of discussion, relating to (1) the impact of epigenetics on the nature versus nurture dualism, (2) the potential resulting biologization of the social, (3) the meaning of epigenetics for public health, its potential influence on (4) reproduction and parenting, (5) political theory and (6) legal proceedings, and concerns regarding (7) stigmatization and discrimination, (8) privacy protection and (9) knowledge translation. While there is some degree of similarity between the nature and content of these areas and the abundant literature on ethical, legal and social issues in genetics, the potential implications of epigenetics ought not be conflated with the latter. Critical studies on epigenetics are emerging within a separate space of bioethical and biopolitical investigations and claims, with scholars from various epistemological standpoints utilizing distinct yet complementary analytical approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Dupras
- Centre of Genomics and Policy, McGill University
and Génome Québec Innovation Centre, Canada
| | - Katie Michelle Saulnier
- Centre of Genomics and Policy, McGill University
and Génome Québec Innovation Centre, Canada
| | - Yann Joly
- Centre of Genomics and Policy, McGill University
and Génome Québec Innovation Centre, Canada
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Lappé M. The paradox of care in behavioral epigenetics: Constructing early-life adversity in the lab. BIOSOCIETIES 2018; 13:698-714. [PMID: 31156717 PMCID: PMC6540972 DOI: 10.1057/s41292-017-0090-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Many epigenetic studies focus on how stress, trauma, and care become molecularly embodied, affect gene expression without changing DNA sequence, and produce changes that influence the health and behavior of individuals, their offspring, and future generations. This article describes how care has become central in research on the epigenetic effects of early-life adversity. My analysis draws on two years of ethnographic research in a behavioral epigenetics laboratory in the United States. Building on traditions in feminist theory and the sociology of science, I document how care is enacted with research samples, experimental protocols, and behavioral endpoints in experiments with model organisms. My findings point to tensions between researchers' care for the data and their measurement of adversity as a discrete variable in the form of maternal interaction, neglect, and abuse. I argue that these tensions suggest a "paradox of care" that is actively shaping how epigenetic knowledge is produced and its impacts in society. My analysis shows how decisions in the lab are shaping new understandings of how early-life experiences influence health, with significant impacts on our expectations of mothers and pregnant women. This study suggests that the more complex explanations of health and development promised by epigenetics are simultaneously constructed and constrained by caring practices in the laboratory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martine Lappé
- Columbia University Center for Research on Ethical, Legal and Social Implications of Psychiatric, Neurologic, and Behavioral Genetics
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11
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Penkler M, Müller R. [Not Available]. BERICHTE ZUR WISSENSCHAFTSGESCHICHTE 2018; 41:258-278. [PMID: 32495359 DOI: 10.1002/bewi.201801902] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Penkler
- Munich Center for Technology in Society, Technische Universität München, Arcisstraße 21, D-, 80333, München
| | - Ruth Müller
- Munich Center for Technology in Society, Technische Universität München, Arcisstraße 21, D-, 80333, München
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12
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Dupras C, Song L, Saulnier KM, Joly Y. Epigenetic Discrimination: Emerging Applications of Epigenetics Pointing to the Limitations of Policies Against Genetic Discrimination. Front Genet 2018; 9:202. [PMID: 29937773 PMCID: PMC6002493 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2018.00202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Over more than two decades, various policies have been adopted worldwide to restrict the use of individual genetic information for non-medical reasons by third parties and prevent ‘genetic discrimination’. In this paper, we bring attention to the growing interest for individual epigenetic information by insurers and forensic scientists. We question whether such interest could lead to ‘epigenetic discrimination’ – the differential adverse treatment or abusive profiling of individuals or groups based on their actual or presumed epigenetic characteristics – and argue that we might already be facing the limitations of recently adopted normative approaches against genetic discrimination. First, we highlight some similarities and differences between genetic and epigenetic modifications, and stress potential challenges to regulating epigenetic discrimination. Second, we argue that most existing normative approaches against genetic discrimination fall short in providing oversight into the field of epigenetics. We conclude with a call for discussion on the issue, and the development of comprehensive and forward-looking preventive strategies against epigenetic discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles Dupras
- Centre of Genomics and Policy, McGill University and Genome Quebec Innovation Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Lingqiao Song
- Centre of Genomics and Policy, McGill University and Genome Quebec Innovation Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Katie M Saulnier
- Centre of Genomics and Policy, McGill University and Genome Quebec Innovation Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Yann Joly
- Centre of Genomics and Policy, McGill University and Genome Quebec Innovation Centre, Montreal, QC, Canada
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Dupras C, Williams-Jones B, Ravitsky V. Biopolitical Barriers to a Potterian Bioethics: The (Potentially) Missed Opportunity of Epigenetics. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOETHICS : AJOB 2017; 17:15-17. [PMID: 28829261 DOI: 10.1080/15265161.2017.1353173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
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14
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Saulnier KM, Dupras C. Race in the Postgenomic Era: Social Epigenetics Calling for Interdisciplinary Ethical Safeguards. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOETHICS : AJOB 2017; 17:58-60. [PMID: 28829258 DOI: 10.1080/15265161.2017.1353182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
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Huang JY, King NB. Epigenetics Changes Nothing: What a New Scientific Field Does and Does Not Mean for Ethics and Social Justice. Public Health Ethics 2017; 11:69-81. [PMID: 30619507 DOI: 10.1093/phe/phx013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, ethicists have posited that consideration of epigenetic mechanisms presents novel challenges to concepts of justice and equality of opportunity, such as elevating the importance of environments in bioethics and providing a counterpoint to gross genetic determinism. We argue that new findings in epigenetic sciences, including those regarding intergenerational health effects, do not necessitate reconceptualization of theories of justice or the environment. To the contrary, such claims reflect a flawed understanding of epigenetics and its relation to genetics that may unintentionally undermine appeals to social justice. We provide a brief summary of epigenetic sciences, focusing on phenomena central to the current ethical discourse. We identify three fallacious modes of reasoning arising from the emergent literature on the ethical and policy implications of epigenetics, including mischaracterization, undue extrapolation, and exceptionalism. We end by discussing how these issues may work against mobilizing health equity policies and present a more modest claim regarding the value of new epigenetic knowledge to health justice by setting this discourse within the context of known themes in biomedical ethics and health policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Y Huang
- Institute for Health and Social Policy, Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, McGill University
| | - Nicholas B King
- Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, Department of the Social Studies of Medicine, Biomedical Ethics Unit, McGill University
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Rothstein MA, Harrell HL, Marchant GE. Transgenerational epigenetics and environmental justice. ENVIRONMENTAL EPIGENETICS 2017; 3:dvx011. [PMID: 29492313 PMCID: PMC5804551 DOI: 10.1093/eep/dvx011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2017] [Revised: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Human transmission to offspring and future generations of acquired epigenetic modifications has not been definitively established, although there are several environmental exposures with suggestive evidence. This article uses three examples of hazardous substances with greater exposures in vulnerable populations: pesticides, lead, and diesel exhaust. It then considers whether, if there were scientific evidence of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, there would be greater attention given to concerns about environmental justice in environmental laws, regulations, and policies at all levels of government. To provide a broader perspective on environmental justice the article discusses two of the most commonly cited approaches to environmental justice. John Rawls's theory of justice as fairness, a form of egalitarianism, is frequently invoked for the principle that differential treatment of individuals is justified only if actions are designed to benefit those with the greatest need. Another theory, the capabilities approach of Amartya Sen and Martha Nussbaum, focuses on whether essential capabilities of society, such as life and health, are made available to all individuals. In applying principles of environmental justice the article considers whether there is a heightened societal obligation to protect the most vulnerable individuals from hazardous exposures that could adversely affect their offspring through epigenetic mechanisms. It concludes that unless there were compelling evidence of transgenerational epigenetic harms, it is unlikely that there would be a significant impetus to adopt new policies to prevent epigenetic harms by invoking principles of environmental justice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A. Rothstein
- Institute for Bioethics, Health Policy and Law, University of Louisville School of Medicine, 501 East Broadway #310, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Heather L. Harrell
- Institute for Bioethics, Health Policy and Law, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY 40202, USA
| | - Gary E. Marchant
- Center for Law, Science & Innovation, Sandra Day O'Connor College of Law, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA
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DUPRAS CHARLES. RAPPROCHEMENT DES PÔLES NATURE ET CULTURE PAR LA RECHERCHE EN ÉPIGÉNÉTIQUE : DISSECTION D’UN BOULEVERSEMENT ÉPISTÉMOLOGIQUE ATTENDU. ATELIERS DE L ETHIQUE-THE ETHICS FORUM 2017. [DOI: 10.7202/1051278ar] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Lappé M. Epigenetics, Media Coverage, and Parent Responsibilities in the Post-Genomic Era. CURRENT GENETIC MEDICINE REPORTS 2016; 4:92-97. [PMID: 27867757 PMCID: PMC5111809 DOI: 10.1007/s40142-016-0092-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Environmental epigenetics is the study of how exposures and experiences can turn genes "on" or "off" without changing DNA sequence. By examining the influence that environmental conditions including diet, stress, trauma, toxins, and care can have on gene expression, this science suggests molecular connections between the environment, genetics, and how acquired characteristics may be inherited across generations. The rapid expansion of research in this area has attracted growing media attention. This coverage has implications for how parents and prospective parents understand health and their perceived responsibilities for children's wellbeing. This review provides insight into epigenetic research, its coverage in the media, and the social and ethical implications of this science for patients and clinicians. As epigenetic findings continue to elucidate the complex relationships between nature and nurture, it becomes critical to examine how representations of this science may influence patient experiences of risk and responsibility. This review describes some of the social and ethical implications of epigenetic research today.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martine Lappé
- Postdoctoral Fellow, Columbia University Center for Ethical, Legal and Social Implications of Psychiatric, Neurologic, and Behavioral Genetics, Unit 122 New York State Psychiatric Institute, 1051 Riverside Drive, New York, NY 10032
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