The effect of antiretroviral therapy on liver disease among adults with HIV and hepatitis C coinfection

Survival of HIV/HCV co-infected patients before introduction of HCV direct acting antivirals (DAA)

HIV/HCV infection is supposed to substantially reduce survival as compared to HIV mono-infection. Here, we compared longtime-survival and causes of death in a cohort of HIV- and HIV/HCV-co-infected patients on combined antiretroviral therapy (cART), before introduction of HCV direct acting antivirals (DAA). 322 Caucasian patients with HIV (n = 176) and HIV/HCV-infection (n = 146) were enrolled into this study. All patients were recruited between 2003 and 2004 and followed until 01.01.2014. We compared overall survival between the two groups by the Kaplan-Meyer method and identified independent factors associated with long-time survival by conditional Cox regression analysis. In total 46 (14.3%) patients died during the observation period (HIV infection: n = 23 (13.1%), HIV/HCV infection: n = 23 (15.8%) but overall-survival did not differ significantly between HIV/HCV-infected and HIV mono-infected patients (p = 0.619). Survival was substantially better in patients with complete suppression of HIV replication below the level of detection than in those with residual viremia (p = 0.001). Age (p = 0.008), γ-glutamyltranspeptidase (p < 0.0001) and bilirubin (p = 0.008) were significant predictors of survival irrespective from HCV co-infection. Complete repression of HIV replication on cART is the key factor determining survival both in HIV- and HIV/HCV-co-infected patients, while HCV co-infection and therapy without DAAs seem to affect survival to a lesser extent. Thus, patients with HIV/HCV co-infection require particularly intensive cART.

Hemophilia Liver Transplantation Observational Study

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection is the leading cause of liver disease in hemophilia patients. In those with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/HCV coinfection, the rate of liver disease progression is greater than in HCV monoinfected individuals. Despite antiretroviral therapy, which slows HCV liver disease progression, some require transplantation. Whether transplant outcomes are worse in hemophilic (H) rather than nonhemophilic (NH) candidates is unknown. In order to determine rates and predictors of pretransplant and posttransplant survival, we conducted a retrospective observational study using United Network for Organ Sharing national transplant registry data, comparing HCV+ H and NH candidates. We identified 2502 HCV+ liver transplant candidates from 8 US university-based transplant centers, between January 1, 2004 to December 31, 2010, including 144 HIV+ (6%) and 2358 HIV-; 36 H (1%) and 2466 NH; 1213 (48%) transplanted and 1289 not transplanted. Other than male predominance and younger age, each were P < 0.001. Baseline data were comparable between H and NH. In univariate analysis, 90-day pretransplant mortality was associated with higher baseline Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD; hazard ratio [HR] = 1.15; P < 0.001), lower baseline platelet count (HR = 0.9 per 25,000/µL; P = 0.04), and having HIV/HCV+ hemophilia (P = 0.003). In multivariate analysis, pretransplant mortality was associated with higher MELD (P < 0.001) and was significantly greater in HIV+ than HIV- groups (P = 0.001). However, it did not differ between HIV+ H and NH (HR = 1.7; P = 0.36). Among HIV/HCV+, posttransplant mortality was similar between H and NH, despite lower CD4 in H (P = 0.04). In conclusion, this observational study confirms that hemophilia per se does not have a specific influence on transplant outcomes and that HIV infection increases the risk of mortality in both H and NH patients. Liver Transplantation 23 762-768 2017 AASLD.

Frontline Science: HIV infection of Kupffer cells results in an amplified proinflammatory response to LPS

End-stage liver disease is a common cause of non-AIDS-related mortality in HIV+ patients, despite effective anti-retroviral therapies (ARTs). HIV-1 infection causes gut CD4 depletion and is thought to contribute to increased gut permeability, bacterial translocation, and immune activation. Microbial products drain from the gut into the liver via the portal vein where Kupffer cells (KCs), the resident liver macrophage, clear translocated microbial products. As bacterial translocation is implicated in fibrogenesis in HIV patients through unclear mechanisms, we tested the hypothesis that HIV infection of KCs alters their response to LPS in a TLR4-dependent manner. We showed that HIV-1 productively infected KCs, enhanced cell-surface TLR4 and CD14 expression, and increased IL-6 and TNF-α expression, which was blocked by a small molecule TLR4 inhibitor. Our study demonstrated that HIV infection sensitizes KCs to the proinflammatory effects of LPS in a TLR4-dependent manner. These findings suggest that HIV-1-infected KCs and their dysregulated innate immune response to LPS may play a role in hepatic inflammation and fibrosis and represent a novel target for therapy.

Cocaine/crack use is not associated with fibrosis progression measured by AST-to-Platelet Ratio Index in HIV-HCV co-infected patients: a cohort study

Background

Cocaine and crack use has been associated with HIV and HCV infections, but its consequences on HCV progression have not been well established. We analyzed the impact of cocaine/crack use on liver fibrosis progression in a cohort of HIV-HCV co-infected patients.

Methods

A Canadian multicenter prospective cohort study followed 1238 HIV-HCV co-infected persons every 6 months between 2003 and 2013. Data were analyzed from 573 patients with positive HCV RNA, not on HCV treatment, without significant liver fibrosis (AST-to-Platelet Ratio Index (APRI) <1.5) or history of end-stage liver disease at baseline, and having at least two study visits. Recent cocaine/crack use was defined as use within 6 months of cohort entry. Incidence rates of progression to significant fibrosis (APRI ≥ 1.5) were determined according to recent cocaine/crack use. Cox Proportional Hazards models were used to assess the association between time-updated cocaine/crack use and progression to APRI ≥ 1.5 adjusting for age, sex, HCV duration, baseline ln(APRI), and time-updated alcohol abuse, history of other drug use and CD4+ cell count.

Results

At baseline, 211 persons (37%) were recent cocaine/crack users and 501 (87%) ever used cocaine/crack. Recent users did not differ from non-recent users on gender, age, and CD4+ T-cell count. Over 1599 person-years of follow up (522 PY in recent users, 887 PY in previous users and 190 PY in never users),158 (28%) persons developed significant fibrosis (9.9/100 PY; 95% CI, 8.3–11.4); 56 (27%) recent users (10.7/100 PY; 7.9–13.5), 81 (28%) previous users (9.1/100 PY; 7.1–11.1), and 21 (29%) never users (11.1/100 PY; 6.3–15.8). There was no association between ever having used or time-updated cocaine/crack use and progression to APRI ≥ 1.5 (adjusted HR (95%CI): 0.96 (0.58, 1.57) and 0.88;(0.63–1.25), respectively).

Conclusions

We could not find evidence that cocaine/crack use is associated with progression to advanced liver fibrosis in our prospective study of HIV-HCV co-infected patients.

Antiretroviral therapy and liver disease progression in HIV and hepatitis C co-infected patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

HIV co-infection exacerbates hepatitis C disease, increasing the risk of cirrhosis and hepatitis C-related mortality. Combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) is the current standard treatment for co-infected individuals, but the impact of cART and antiretroviral (ARV) monotherapy on liver disease in this population is unclear. We aimed to assess the effect of cART and ARV monotherapy on liver disease progression and liver-related mortality in individuals co-infected with HIV and chronic hepatitis C.

Methods

A systematic review with meta-analyses was conducted. MEDLINE and EMBASE bibliographic databases were searched up to September 2015. Study quality was assessed using a modified Newcastle-Ottawa scale. Results were synthesised narratively and by meta-analysis.

Results

Fourteen observational studies were included. In analyses that adjusted for potential confounders, risk of liver-related mortality was significantly lower in patients receiving cART (hazard ratio/odds ratio 0.31, 95 % CI 0.14 to 0.70). Results were similar in unadjusted analyses (relative risk 0.40, 95 % CI 0.29 to 0.55). For outcomes where meta-analysis could not be performed, results were less consistent. Some studies found cART was associated with lower incidence of, or slower progression of liver disease, fibrosis and cirrhosis, while others showed no evidence of benefit. We found no evidence of liver-related harm from cART or ARV monotherapy compared with no HIV therapy.

Conclusions

cART was associated with significantly lower liver-related mortality in patients co-infected with HIV and HCV. Evidence of a positive association between cART and/or ARV monotherapy and liver-disease progression was less clear, but there was no evidence to suggest that the absence of antiretroviral therapy was preferable.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s41124-016-0015-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Adverse Effects Associated With Antiretroviral Therapy and Potential Management Strategies

A variety of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) affecting many organ systems may be observed with antiretroviral therapy (ARV), and they can be differentiated into short- and long- term effects, class effects, or individual drug effects. Commonly seen ADRs include dermatological reactions, associated with nonnucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs) and some protease inhibitors (PIs), and gastrointestinal problems, a major side effect of PIs and of some nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). Metabolic complications are frequently reported in HIV-infected patients on ARV and often coexist. Lipodystrophy, hyperinsulinemia/hyperglycemia, and bone disorders (osteoporosis, osteonecrosis) are mainly associated with PIs, while lactic acidemia/acidosis are primarily a problem of NRTIs. Hyperlipidemia may be caused by almost all PIs, few NRTIs, and NNRTIs. All antiretroviral drug classes may cause both asymptomatic and symptomatic hepatotoxicity, although nevirapine is the agent most implicated in hepatic events. More drug-specific ADRs include nephrotoxicity (indinavir and tenofovir), central nervous system problems (efavirenz), hematological disturbances (zidovudine), and hypersensitivity reactions (abacavir). Anticipation of ADRs may influence a patient’s decision to delay ARV or to choose specific and potentially less active agents. Occurrence of ADRs may significantly impact a patient’s quality of life and drug adherence. Pharmacists counseling HIV-infected patients should be aware of common ADRs with ARV and potential management strategies.

High Prevalence of Liver Fibrosis in Patients with Human Immunodeficiency Virus Monoinfection and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Hepatitis-B Co-infection as Assessed by Shear Wave Elastography: Study at a Teaching Hospital in Kenya

Objectives:

The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of liver fibrosis in patients with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) monoinfection versus those with HIV hepatitis-B virus (HBV) co-infection as assessed with shear wave elastography (SWE) in a tertiary sub-Saharan Africa hospital.

Materials and Methods:

A total of 105 consecutive patients, 70 with HIV monoinfection and 35 with HIV-HBV co-infection, had liver elastography obtained using SWE to assess for the presence of liver fibrosis the cutoff of which was 5.6 kPa. Assessment of aspartate aminotransferase-to-platelet ratio index (APRI) score (a noninvasive serum biomarker of liver fibrosis) in these patients was also done.

Results:

The prevalence of liver fibrosis was significantly higher (P < 0.0001) in patients with HIV-HBV co-infection, 25.7%, compared to those with HIV monoinfection, 7.1%. APRI score was greater in patients with HIV-HBV co-infection than those with HIV monoinfection. HIV co-infection with HBV accelerates progression to liver fibrosis. Association of a low cluster of differentiation 4 (CD-4) count with advanced fibrosis supports earlier starting of antiretroviral therapy to prevent rapid progression of liver disease in HIV-positive patients.

Conclusion:

In view of the high prevalence of liver fibrosis in patients with HIV-HBV co-infection, regular monitoring of the disease progression is recommended.

Natural history of liver disease and effect of hepatitis C virus on HIV disease progression

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Due to high prevalence rates, the hepatitis C virus (HCV) and the HIV cause two viral infections of global importance. Shared routes of transmission lead to a high number of dually infected individuals especially in specific populations such as intravenous drug users or people from highly endemic regions for both viruses. Treatment progress made in the field of HIV in the past three decades diminished the number of HIV patients who die from opportunistic infections and enabled a rise of HCV-associated liver disease in the HIV-HCV-coinfected population.

RECENT FINDINGS

An HIV-HCV coinfection is mainly characterized by a faster progression to liver cirrhosis that may lead to hepatic decompensation or the development of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The treatment of HIV with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) may only partly reverse this effect by the restoration of the immune system. Although no clear deleterious effect of HCV on the course of HIV infection is described, an increased HIV-associated and non-HIV-associated mortality has been described in patients not cured from their HCV infection.

SUMMARY

In this article, we review the latest knowledge on the natural course of HCV in the HIV-infected population, the role of HIV treatment, and the possible effects of HCV on HIV disease progression.

Hepatic histomorphological and biochemical changes following highly active antiretroviral therapy in an experimental animal model: Does Hypoxis hemerocallidea exacerbate hepatic injury?

As the roll-out of antiretroviral therapy continues to drive downwards morbidity and mortality in people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHAs), organ toxicities (especially the liver) are frequently becoming a major concern for researchers, scientists and healthcare planners.

This study was conducted to investigate the possible protective effect of Hypoxis hemerocallidea (AP) against highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)-induced hepatotoxicity. A total of 63 pathogen-free adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 9 groups and treated according to protocols.

While no mortality was reported, animals treated with adjuvant HAART and AP recorded least% body weight gain. Significant derangements in serum lipid profiles were exacerbated by treatment of with AP as LDL (increased p < 0.03), triglycerides (increased p < 0.03) with no change in total cholesterol levels. Adjuvant AP with HAART caused reduction in LDL (p < 0.05 and 0.03), increased HDL (p < 0.05) and TG (p < 0.05 and 0.001 for AP₁₀₀ and AP₂₀₀ doses respectively). Markers of liver injury assayed showed significant increase (p < 0.003, 0.001) in AST in AP alone as well as HAART+ vitamins C and E groups respectively. Adjuvant HAART and AP and vitamins C and E also caused significant declines in ALT and ALP levels. Serum GGT was not markedly altered. Disturbances in histopathology ranged from severe hepatocellular distortions, necrosis and massive fibrosis following co-treatment of HAART with vitamins C and E as well as HAART alone. These results warrant caution on the adjuvant use of AP with HAART by PLWHAs as implications for hepatocellular injuries are suspect with untoward cardiometabolic changes.

Genotypic distribution and hepatic fibrosis among HIV/HCV co-infected individuals in Southern China: a retrospective cross-sectional study

Background

End-stage liver disease and hepatocellular carcinoma due to hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infection are increasingly common causes of death among HIV-infected individuals. However, there are few clinical investigations of HIV/HCV co-infected individuals from low and middle-income nations. Here, we compare the epidemiology of HCV-infected and HIV/HCV co-infected individuals in Southern China and examine hepatic fibrosis scores in co-infected individuals.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective cross-sectional study of treatment-naïve HIV/HCV co-infected and HCV mono-infected subjects. Bivariate and multivariate models were used to examine the association between demographics and HCV genotype. Among co-infected individuals, we also studied the relationship between fibrosis scores derived from non-invasive studies and HCV genotype.

Results

Data were collected from 175 HCV-infected individuals, including 89 (51 %) HIV/HCV co-infected individuals. HIV/HCV co-infection was correlated with intravenous drug use (AOR 46.25, p < 0.001) and not completing high school (AOR 17.39, p < 0.001) in a multivariate model. HIV/HCV co-infected individuals were more likely to be infected with HCV genotype 6a (p < 0.0001) or 3a (p < 0.023), whereas increased fibrosis (FIB-4 score) was associated with HCV genotype 3a infection (β 2.18, p < 0.001).

Discussion

Our results suggest that intravenous drug use is driving HIV/HCV co-infection in Southern China. While additional studies are needed, HCV genotype 6a is more common and genotype 3a appears to be associated with more severe hepatic fibrosis in co-infected individuals.

Conclusions

Future HIV/HCV co-infection research in China should focus on at risk populations, HCV testing uptake, and genotype-specific treatment.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12879-015-1135-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Hepatic Fibrosis Progression in HIV-Hepatitis C Virus Co-Infection--The Effect of Sex on Risk of Significant Fibrosis Measured by Aspartate-to-Platelet Ratio Index

BACKGROUND

In Hepatitis C virus (HCV) mono-infection, male sex is associated with faster liver fibrosis progression but the effects of sex have not been well studied in HIV-HCV co-infected patients. We examined the influence of sex on progression to significant liver fibrosis in HIV-HCV co-infected adults receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) using the aspartate aminotransferase-to-platelet ratio index (APRI) as a surrogate biomarker of liver fibrosis.

METHODS

We evaluated 308 HIV infected, HCV RNA positive participants of a Canadian multicentre prospective cohort receiving antiretrovirals and without significant liver fibrosis or end-stage liver disease at baseline. We used multivariate discrete-time proportional hazards models to assess the effect of sex on time to significant fibrosis (APRI≥1.5) adjusting for baseline age, alcohol use, cigarette smoking, HCV duration, and APRI and time-updated CD4 count and HIV RNA.

RESULTS

Overall, 55 (18%) participants developed an APRI ≥ 1.5 over 544 person-years of at-risk follow-up time; 18 (21%) women (incidence rate (IR)=14.0/100 PY; 7.5-20.4) and 37 (17%) men (IR=8.9/100 PY; 6.0-11.8). Women had more favourable profiles with respect to traditional risk factors for liver disease progression (younger, shorter duration of HCV infection and less alcohol use). Despite this, female sex was associated with a greater than two-fold increased risk of fibrosis progression (adjusted hazard rate (HR) =2.23; 1.22-4.08).

CONCLUSIONS

HIV-HCV co-infected women receiving antiretroviral therapy were at significantly greater risk of progressing to liver fibrosis as measured by APRI compared with men. Enhanced efforts to engage and treat co-infected women for HCV are needed.

Liver stiffness and aspartate aminotransferase levels predict the risk for liver fibrosis progression in hepatitis C virus/HIV-coinfected patients

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the study was to investigate liver fibrosis outcome and the risk factors associated with liver fibrosis progression in hepatitis C virus (HCV)/HIV-coinfected patients.

METHODS

We prospectively obtained liver stiffness measurements by transient elastography in a cohort of 154 HCV/HIV-coinfected patients, mostly Caucasian men on suppressive antiretroviral treatment, with the aim of determining the risk for liver stiffness measurement (LSM) increase and to identify the predictive factors for liver fibrosis progression. To evaluate LSM trends over time, a linear mixed regression model with LSM level as the outcome and duration of follow-up in years as the main covariate was fitted.

RESULTS

After a median follow-up time of 40 months, the median increase in LSM was 1.05 kPa/year [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.72-1.38 kPa/year]. Fibrosis stage progression was seen in 47% of patients, and 17% progressed to cirrhosis. Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels and liver fibrosis stage at baseline were identified as independent predictors of LSM change. Patients with F3 (LSM 9.6-14.5 kPa) or AST levels ≥ 64 IU/L at baseline were at higher risk for accelerated LSM increase (ranging from 1.45 to 2.61 kPa/year), whereas LSM change was very slow among patients with both F0-F1 (LSM  ≤ 7.5 kPa) and AST levels ≤ 64 IU/L at baseline (0.34 to 0.58 kPa/year). An intermediate risk for LSM increase (from 0.78 to 1.03 kPa/year) was seen in patients with F2 (LSM 7.6-9.5 kPa) and AST baseline levels ≤  64 IU/L.

CONCLUSIONS

AST levels and liver stiffness at baseline allow stratification of the risk for fibrosis progression and might be clinically useful to guide HCV treatment decisions in HIV-infected patients.

Use of first-generation HCV protease inhibitors in patients coinfected by HIV and HCV genotype 1

BACKGROUND

In HCV genotype 1-infected patients with HIV co-infection, tritherapy [HCV protease inhibitors (PIs) plus peg-interferon and ribavirin] has been shown to have an increased rate of sustained virological response. However, complex drug-to-drug interactions and tolerability issues remain a concern.

METHODS

Under the auspices of four French scientific societies of medicine, a committee was charged of establishing guidelines on the use of first-generation HCV PIs in these patients. This scientific committee based its work on preliminary results from tritherapy clinical trials in co-infected patients and, since data on these patients are still scarce, on the statements already made by the French Association for the Study of the Liver (AFEF) on the use of tritherapy in HCV mono-infected patients, written in May 2011 and updated in 2012. Each AFEF guideline concerning HCV monoinfection was examined to determine whether it could be used in the context of HIV/HCV coinfection.

RESULTS

These guidelines are addressed for the treatment of coinfected patients with various profiles, including treatment-naïve or patients with failure to previous bitherapy and mention those patients for whom tritherapy should start or those for whom it should be delayed. Preliminary results of triple therapy as well as factors associated to virological response are also discussed. Other issues include virological monitoring, clinical and virological criteria to stop therapy, practical treatment management, treatment adherence and the management of side effects and interactions with antiretroviral drugs. These guidelines were submitted for critical review to independent experts.

Antiretroviral therapy reduces the rate of hepatic decompensation among HIV- and hepatitis C virus-coinfected veterans

BACKGROUND

 Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) coinfection accelerates the rate of liver disease outcomes in individuals chronically infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV). It remains unclear to what degree combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) protects against HCV-associated liver failure.

METHODS

 We evaluated 10 090 HIV/HCV-coinfected males from the Veterans Aging Cohort Study Virtual Cohort, who had not initiated ART at entry, for incident hepatic decompensation between 1996 and 2010. We defined ART initiation as the first pharmacy fill date of a qualifying ART regimen of ≥3 drugs from ≥2 classes. Hepatic decompensation was defined as the first occurrence of 1 hospital discharge diagnosis or 2 outpatient diagnoses for ascites, spontaneous bacterial peritonitis, or esophageal variceal hemorrhage. To account for potential confounding by indication, marginal structural models were used to estimate hazard ratios (HRs) of hepatic decompensation, comparing initiation of ART to noninitiation.

RESULTS

 We observed 645 hepatic decompensation events in 46 444 person-years of follow-up (incidence rate, 1.4/100 person-years). Coinfected patients who initiated ART had a significantly reduced rate of hepatic decompensation relative to noninitiators (HR = 0.72; 95% confidence interval [CI], .54-.94). When we removed individuals with HIV RNA ≤400 copies/mL at baseline from the analysis (assuming that they may have received undocumented ART at entry), the hazard ratio became more pronounced (HR = 0.59; 95% CI, .43-.82).

CONCLUSIONS

 Initiation of ART significantly reduced the rate of hepatic decompensation by 28%-41% on average. These results suggest that ART should be administered to HIV/HCV-coinfected patients to lower the risk of end-stage liver disease.

Progression of liver fibrosis in monoinfected patients by hepatitis C virus and coinfected by HCV and human immunodeficiency virus

CONTEXT

The progression of liver fibrosis in patients coinfected by hepatitis C virus and human immunodeficiency virus (HCV/HIV) has been increasingly studied in the past decade. Studies made before the highly active antiretroviral therapy suggest that HIV can change the natural history of the HCV infection, leading to a faster progression of the liver fibrosis.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate and compare the fibrosis progression in two groups of patients (HCV/HIV coinfected and HCV monoinfected)

METHODS

Seventy patients HCV monoinfected and 26 patients HCV/HIV coinfected who had not undertaken HCV treatment and were submitted to serial percutaneous liver biopsies were retrospectively evaluated. There was no difference in the fibrosis progression between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

The fibrosis grade evolution was not worse in the coinfected patients. The immunosuppression absence and the shortest time period between the biopsies in the coinfected group are possible explanations.

Non-invasive fibrosis biomarkers - APRI and Forns - are associated with liver stiffness in HIV-monoinfected patients receiving antiretroviral drugs

BACKGROUND & AIMS

HIV-monoinfected patients are susceptible to liver injury by different factors and may develop liver fibrosis, which requires adequate clinical management in terms of therapy and disease monitoring. We aimed to evaluate the presence of liver fibrosis identified by transient elastography (TE), its relationships with indirect biochemical markers [the aspartate aminotransferase/platelet ratio index (APRI), the Forns index and FIB-4] and its predictive factors in HIV-monoinfected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART).

METHODS

Seventy-two HIV-monoinfected patients underwent TE and were evaluated using APRI, Forns and FIB-4. The clinical, immunological, virological and other biochemical characteristics were evaluated at the time of TE, together with their history of ART.

RESULTS

Seven patients (10%) had liver stiffness (LS) values predicting cirrhosis, and 12 (17%) had values predicting significant or advanced fibrosis. Higher indirect biochemical scores of liver fibrosis were significantly associated with higher LS values [APRI rs  = 0.4296 (P < 0.001); Forns rs  = 0.4754 (P < 0.001); FIB-4 rs  = 0.285 (P = 0.015)]. At multivariable analysis, APRI (β = 2.7405; P = 0.036), Forns (β = 1.4174; P = 0.029) and triglyceride levels (β = 1.3028; P = 0.007) were independently associated with LS.

CONCLUSIONS

Indirect fibrosis biomarkers may increase the probability to detect liver injury enhancing a specific diagnostic workup and so contribute to improving the clinical management of HIV-monoinfected patients with clinically suspected liver disease.

Hepatitis C Virus and HIV Type 1 Co-Infection

Around 33 million people worldwide are living with Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) infection, and approximately 20-30% of HIV-infected individuals are also infected with Hepatitis C virus (HCV). The main form of HCV transmission is via the blood borne route; high rates of co-infection are found in intravenous drug users with HCV prevalence rates as high as 90%. Introduction of effective antiretroviral therapy (ART) has led to a significant decline in HIV-related morbidity, but at the same time the incidence of HCV related liver disease is increasing in the co-infected population. Meta analysis has revealed that individuals who are co-infected with HIV/HCV harbor three times greater risk of progression to liver disease than those infected with HCV alone. Increased risk of progression to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and AIDS-related deaths is shown among the co-infected patients by some studies, suggesting that HCV infection may accelerate the clinical course of HIV infection. HCV may also affect the incidence of liver toxicity associated with ART, affecting the management of HIV infection. There is a lack of optimal therapeutic approaches to treat HCV infection in HIV co-infected patients. This review discusses recent literature pertaining HIV/HCV co-infection, in addition to providing a snapshot of impact of co-infection on human genome at the level of gene expression and its regulation by microRNAs (miRNAs).

End-stage liver disease: prevalence, risk factors and clinical characteristics in a cohort of HIV-HCV coinfected Han Chinese

INTRODUCTION

Since the advent of combined antiretroviral therapy (cART), liver-related mortality has become the leading cause of non-AIDS-related deaths in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected patients in Western countries.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the incidence, mortality and risk factors of end-stage liver disease (ESLD) in HIV and hepatitis C virus (HCV) coinfected former plasma donors (FPDs) and blood recipients (BRs).

METHOD

A retrospective study was conducted.

RESULTS

Of 321 HIV-HCV coinfected patients, 42 (13.1%) developed ESLD and 40 (12.5%) died. Factors that were independently associated with ESLD included older age at baseline (Odds ratios [OR]: 2.444, P=0.035), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) greater or equal to 2 (the upper limit of normal [ULN]) at the end of follow-up (OR: 16.460, P=0.000), hepatitis B virus (HBV) (OR: 2.525, P=0.043), CDC stage C (OR: 5.806, P=0.001), duration of cART greater than 5 years (OR: 3.256, P=0.010), and CD4 count greater or equal to 200 cells/mm(3) at the end of follow-up (OR: 0.383, P=0.016). The probability of developing ESLD in HIV-HCV coinfected BRs was significantly higher than in FPDs (P=0.008). Mortality was also significantly higher in HIV-HCV coinfected patients with ESLD than in those without ESLD (P=0.000).

CONCLUSION

In the cART era, ESLD was common among HIV-HCV coinfected Han Chinese patients and was responsible for reducing patient survival time.

How important is HIV therapy for preventing liver fibrosis progression in HIV-HCV-coinfected individuals?

Early HIV therapy in HIV-HCV-coinfected individuals appears advisable in order to not only improve HIV outcome but also delay the natural course of liver disease. Indeed, antiretroviral-therapy-induced control of HIV infection with undetectable plasma HIV RNA levels affects HIV-HCV viral interactions and decreases liver inflammation resulting in lower fibrosis progression rates. Although these findings have influenced current revised HIV guidelines, HIV therapy is still started too late in most HCV-coinfected individuals, suggesting that, particularly in special at-risk patient populations, such as intravenous drug users, barriers to treatment uptake are still existing.

Antiretroviral therapy and sustained virological response to HCV therapy are associated with slower liver fibrosis progression in HIV-HCV-coinfected patients: study from the ANRS CO 13 HEPAVIH cohort

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to describe changes in repeated liver stiffness (LS) measurements and to assess the determinants of increase in LS in HIV-HCV-coinfected patients.

METHODS

HIV-HCV-coinfected adults enrolled in the ANRS CO 13 HEPAVIH cohort, for whom two results of LS, evaluated over ≥24 months, were available. Patients with unreliable LS results were not included. LS was measured at baseline and every year thereafter. Determinants of LS increase were assessed using linear (primary outcome: last LS minus first LS value) and logistic (secondary outcome: ≥30% increase in the initial LS value) regression analyses.

RESULTS

A total of 313 patients (mean age 45 years, 67.4% male) were included. Overall, 93.9% were receiving antiretroviral treatment (ART). The mean baseline CD4(+) T-cell count was 471 cells/mm(3) and 72.2% of patients had undetectable plasma HIV RNA. The mean interval between the first and last LS measurements was 33.5 months. No significant difference was found between baseline and follow-up mean LS values (P=0.39). However, a decrease of ≥30% in LS was observed in 48 (15.3%) patients and an increase of ≥30% in 64 (20.5%) patients. In multivariate linear and logistic analyses, excessive alcohol intake (β coefficient 6.8; P=0.0006) and high HCV viral load (OR 1.7, 95% CI 1.1, 2.5; P=0.01) were independently associated with an increase in LS, whereas time on ART>114.5 months (OR 0.5, 95% CI 0.3, 0.9; P=0.03) and achievement of sustained virological response (OR 0.1, 95% CI 0.01, 0.9; P=0.04) were independently associated with no increase in LS.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings show that long-term ART and achieving sustained virological response in HIV-HCV-coinfected patients are both significantly associated with lack of increase in LS over a 33-month period.

Relationship of liver disease stage and antiviral therapy with liver-related events and death in adults coinfected with HIV/HCV

CONTEXT

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) accelerates hepatitis C virus (HCV) disease progression; however, the effect of liver disease stage and antiviral therapy on the risk of clinical outcomes is incompletely understood.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the incidence of end-stage liver disease (ESLD), hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), or death according to baseline hepatic fibrosis and antiviral treatment for HIV/HCV coinfected individuals.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

Prospective cohort of 638 coinfected adults (80% black, 66% men) receiving care at the Johns Hopkins HIV clinic and receiving a liver biopsy and who were prospectively monitored for clinical events between July 1993 and August 2011 (median follow-up, 5.82 years; interquartile range, 3.42-8.85 years). Histological specimens were scored for hepatic fibrosis stage according to the METAVIR scoring system.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE

Incidence of composite outcome of ESLD, HCC, or death.

RESULTS

Patients experienced a graded increased risk in incidence of clinical outcomes based on baseline hepatic fibrosis stage (classification range, F0-F4): F0, 23.63 (95% CI, 16.80-33.24); F1, 36.33 (95% CI, 28.03-47.10); F2, 53.40 (95% CI, 33.65-84.76); F3, 56.14 (95% CI, 31.09-101.38); and F4, 79.43 (95% CI, 55.86-112.95) per 1000 person-years (P < .001). In multivariable negative binomial regression, fibrosis stages F2 through F4 and antiretroviral therapy were independently associated with composite ESLD, HCC, or all-cause mortality after adjustment for demographic characteristics, injection drug use, and CD4 cell count. Compared with F0, the incidence rate ratio (RR) for F2 was 2.31 (95% CI, 1.23-4.34; P = .009); F3, 3.18 (95% CI, 1.47-6.88; P = .003); and F4, 3.57 (95% CI, 2.06-6.19; P < .001). Human immunodeficiency virus treatment was associated with fewer clinical events (incidence RR, 0.27; 95% CI, 0.19-0.38; P < .001). For the 226 patients who underwent HCV treatment, the incidence of clinical events did not significantly differ between treatment nonresponders and untreated patients (incidence RR, 1.27; 95% CI, 0.86-1.86; P = .23). In contrast, no events were observed in the 51 patients with sustained virologic response (n = 36) and relapse (n = 15), including 19 with significant fibrosis.

CONCLUSION

In this cohort of patients with HIV/HCV coinfection, hepatic fibrosis stage was independently associated with a composite outcome of ESLD, HCC, or death.

Antiviral drugs and the treatment of hepatitis C

With effective treatment of HIV-1, hepatitis C virus (HCV) has become increasingly recognized as a major cause of morbidity and mortality in this population. Rapid progression of liver disease and cirrhosis has been documented in HIV/HCV co-infected individuals, particularly with lower CD4-counts (< 200/μL). Therefore, HCV treatment has become a priority for many clinicians, despite the presence of many. An important issue among HIV/HCV co-infected patients is the selection of antiretroviral therapy (ART) during treatment with pegylated interferon, ribavirin (RBV), plus new HCV protease inhibitors. Extensive drug-drug interactions (DDI) and overlapping drug-associated adverse events can impact the outcome of HCV therapy. In this review, we focus on the important data and studies regarding optimizing antiretroviral regimens before starting HCV treatment in HIV/HCV co-infected patients to increase the chance of sustained virologic response (SVR).

Hepatic steatosis in HIV-HCV coinfected patients receiving antiretroviral therapy is associated with HCV-related factors but not antiretrovirals

Background

In HIV and hepatitis C virus (HCV) coinfected patients, the role of antiretroviral therapy (ART) on hepatic steatosis (HS) remains controversial.

Methods

HIV/HCV coinfected patients receiving ART and previously untreated for HCV who underwent a liver biopsy were included. Cumulative duration of exposure to each antiretroviral was recorded up to liver biopsy date. Logistic regression analyses evaluated factors associated with steatosis and its severity.

Results

184 patients were included: median age 41years, 84% male, 89% Caucasian, 61% with a past history of intravenous drug use. HCV genotypes were 1 (55%), 2 (6%), 3 (26%), and 4 (13%). Median HCV-RNA was 6.18 log₁₀ IU/ml. HIV-RNA was undetectable (<400 copies/ml) in 67% of patients. Median CD4 count was 321/mm³. All patients had been exposed to nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (median cumulative exposure 56months); 126 received protease inhibitors (23months), and 79 non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (16months). HS was observed in 102 patients (55%): 41% grade 1; 5% grade 2, and 9% grade 3. In multivariate analysis, HCV genotype 3 and HCV viral load were moderately associated with mild steatosis but strongly with grade 2-3 steatosis. After adjustment for the period of biopsy, no association was detected between HS and exposure to any antiretroviral class or drug, or duration of ART globally or comparing genotype 3 to others.

Conclusions

Among our ART-treated HIV-HCV cohort predominantly infected with genotype 1, 55% of patients had HS which was associated with HCV-related factors, but not ART class or duration of exposure.

HIV and hepatitis C co-infection: the role of HAART in HIV/hepatitis C virus management

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)-related hepatotoxicity, a relevant side effect in HIV/hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infected patients, has evolved over time. Antiretroviral therapy might have a positive effect on the liver of HIV/HCV co-infected patients, but data are conflicting.

RECENT FINDINGS

HIV treatments have evolved and we have currently a drug armamentarium with a good liver safety profile. Most of the current first-line HAART regimens recommended by guidelines fit well to HIV/HCV co-infected patients. There are now multiple retrospective studies that suggest a possible benefit of HIV control and protection of CD4 cell counts to the liver of HIV/HCV co-infected patients. However, data are conflicting at times. This factor along with the methodological limitations of these studies prevent us from drawing definitive conclusions. Even assuming a positive effect, HAART does not appear to fully correct the adverse effect of HIV infection on HCV-related outcomes. In the era of HCV direct antiviral agents, the timing of HIV and HCV therapies has to be individualized in HIV/HCV co-infected patients given the variety of scenarios.

SUMMARY

With current HIV drug armamentarium it is possible to construct HAART regimens with optimal liver safety profile for HCV co-infected patients. The possible positive effect of HAART on the HCV-infected liver should not distract from the main intervention, which is HCV eradication with specific treatment.

The association of HIV viral load with indirect markers of liver injury

This study assessed the association of HIV RNA with indirect markers of liver injury including FIB-4 index, liver enzymes and platelet counts in a high-risk Hispanic population. The data were derived from a prospective study that included 138 HIV/hepatitis C (HCV)-coinfected and 68 HIV-infected participants without hepatitis C or B co-infection (mono-infected). In unadjusted analyses, detectable HIV viral load (vs undetectable, <400 copies/mL) was associated with a 40% greater odds (OR 1.4, 95% CI: 1.1-1.9, P = 0.016) of FIB-4 > 1.45 in the HIV/HCV-coinfected group and 70% greater odds of FIB-4 > 1.45 (OR 1.7, 95% CI: 1.0-2.8; P = 0.046) in the HIV-mono-infected group. In multivariable analyses, a 1 log(10) increase in HIV RNA was associated with a median increase in FIB-4 of 12% in the HIV/HCV-coinfected group and 11% in the HIV-mono-infected group (P < 0.0001). Among the HIV/HCV-coinfected group, the elevating effect of HIV RNA on FIB-4 was strongest at low CD4 counts (P = 0.0037). Among the HIV-mono-infected group, the association between HIV RNA and FIB-4 was independent of CD4 cell counts. HIV RNA was associated with alterations in both liver enzymes and platelet counts. HIV antiretroviral therapy was not associated with any measure of liver injury examined. This study suggests that HIV may have direct, injurious effects on the liver and that HIV viral load should be considered when these indirect markers are used to assess liver function.

Human immunodeficiency virus and liver disease forum 2010: conference proceedings

Liver disease continues to represent a critical mediator of morbidity and mortality in those with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. The frequent presence and overlap of concomitant injurious processes, including hepatitis C virus and hepatitis B virus infections, hepatoxicity associated with antiretroviral therapeutic agents, alcohol, and other toxins, in the setting of immunosuppression lead to rapid fibrotic progression and early development of end-stage liver disease. This conference summary describes the proceedings of a state-of-the-art gathering of international experts designed to highlight the status of current research in epidemiology, natural history, pathogenesis, and treatment of HIV and liver disease.

Management of HIV and hepatitis virus coinfection

IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD

Liver disease related to infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) and/or hepatitis B virus (HBV) is a frequent cause of morbidity and mortality in those infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in this era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Although progress has been made in the treatment of HBV and HCV in the setting of HIV-coinfection, there is a lack of data in certain areas and several aspects of the management are unclear at this time.

AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW

Available data on the treatment of HBV and HCV infections, especially in the HIV-coinfected patient, are presented. Practical aspects of the management of these patients are reviewed, including diagnosis, treatment indications, monitoring, and toxicities. The impact of HAART on liver disease, end-stage-liver disease, and new therapeutic approaches are also reviewed.

WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN

There are two modalities for the treatment of chronic HBV infection: interferon and nucleos(t)ide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI). The latter is the mainstream of therapy for HIV-HBV-coinfected patients. The double antiviral activity of NRTI requires coordination and careful selection of treatment for both viruses to avoid selection of resistance mutations and toxicity. Combination of pegylated interferon and ribavirin, the current standard treatment for chronic hepatitis C, has significant toxicity and limited efficacy in HIV-HCV-coinfected individuals. Oral anti-HCV treatments are currently under development and need to be studied in the HIV-coinfected population. Liver transplantation has a better outcome in HBV- than in HCV-HIV-coinfected patients. HAART seems to have a positive impact on the liver disease of HBV- and/or HCV-coinfected subjects but the CD4 threshold above which the benefit might take place is unknown at this time.

TAKE HOME MESSAGE

Anti-HBV treatment in the HIV-coinfected patient relies on the available NRTIs with activity against both viruses. Whereas HBV suppression can be achieved with this approach, toxicities and the selection of HBV-resistant variants result in challenging clinical scenarios. Current anti-HCV treatment (pegylated interferon and ribavirin) has limited efficacy in the HIV-coinfected patient, and STAT-C drugs are eagerly awaited.

Fibrosis in chronic viral hepatitis

In the last years, several studies have been performed with the aim to evaluate the real impact of antiviral treatments on fibrosis progression in patients with chronic viral hepatitis. The main goal of therapy in patients with chronic hepatitis B is viral suppression. This outcome leads to an important improvement in both hepatic inflammation and fibrosis and reduces the HCC occurrence. An histological improvement has been largely demonstrated in patient treated with oral nucleoside and nucleotide analogs achieving the rate of 72% with entecavir and tenofovir. Similarly, in patients with chronic hepatitis C, sustained virologic response to interferon therapy is associated with regression of fibrosis and lower liver decompensation and HCC occurrence. In the next future further studies will assess the real impact of the new directly anti-viral agents on liver necroinflammation and fibrosis in chronic hepatitis C.

HIV infection and the liver: the importance of HCV-HIV coinfection and drug-induced liver injury

Hepatitis C virus-Human immunodeficiency virus (HCV-HIV) coinfections are identified in up to 30% of patients infected with HIV and in 8% of patients infected with HCV. Now that progression of HIV and deaths due to AIDS can be prevented by highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), it is clear that HCV coinfection is associated with accelerated progression to cirrhosis and increased liver-related morbidity and mortality. Antiviral therapy with pegylated interferon and ribavirin for HCV in HCV-HIV coinfected patients is less successful than in patients with HCV monoinfection, and HAART can cause drug-induced liver injury. Multiple barriers limit the number of HCV-HIV coinfected patients who receive antiviral therapy for HCV, and the role of orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT) in HIV monoinfected and HCV-HIV coinfected patients remains controversial. Clinical trials of HCV-specific protease or polymerase inhibitors combined with pegylated interferon and ribavirin are needed urgently in coinfected patients, both before and after OLT.

Clinical syndromes and consequences of antiretroviral-related hepatotoxicity

Highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART)-related hepatotoxicity complicates the management of patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), increases medical costs, alters the prescription patterns, and affects the guideline recommendations. Among the clinical consequences derived from HAART-related liver toxicity, hypersensitivity reactions and lactic acidosis are recognized as acute events with potential to evolve into fatal cases, whereas there seems to be other syndromes not as well characterized but of equal concern as possible long-term liver complications. Belonging to the latter category of syndrome, HAART-related nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, liver fibrosis, portal hypertension, and nodular regenerative hyperplasia are discussed in this review. Updated information on liver toxicity of current antiretroviral drugs, including the most recently licensed, is provided. Management and prevention of liver toxicity among HIV-infected patients treated with HAART are reviewed as well.

Low frequency of liver enzyme elevation in HIV-infected patients attending a large urban treatment centre in Uganda

Liver enzyme elevations among patients on antiretroviral therapy (ART) were determined by prospectively evaluating aspartate aminotransferase (AST) data in a cohort of patients in Kampala over 36 months. A proportion of patients had hepatitis B virus (HBV) status determined. Hepatotoxicity was graded I to IV according to the AIDS Clinical Trial Group criteria. Of 546 patients, 377 (69%) were women; overall median baseline CD4+ T-cell was 97/μL (interquartile range [IQR] 20-164). Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) was detected in 42 (9%) of 470 persons. ART included lamivudine, with either nevirapine and d4T (74%) or efavirenz and AZT (26%). Median (IQR) AST level at baseline was 35 (27, 53 IU/L). Over 36 months, only eight patients had grade III AST elevation. Neither HBsAg nor ART regimen influenced AST levels. Male gender and CD4+ change from baseline were correlated with AST elevation. Patients with HIV/HBV co-infection were not at an increased risk of AST elevation, which occurred uncommonly in this setting.

Antiretroviral therapy-induced liver alterations

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Antiretroviral drugs are associated with hepatotoxicity. Progress in our knowledge on the prevalence, contributory factors and mechanisms is reviewed.

RECENT FINDINGS

Liver toxicity is highly prevalent and a major cause of hospitalization among HIV-infected individuals. Liver steatosis is probably more frequent in the setting of hepatitis C virus coinfection but is also seen in noncoinfected patients. Among the individual drugs, severe liver toxicity is more strongly associated with nevirapine, and the mitochondrial toxicity of some nucleoside analogues. Mitochondrial toxicity can also induce or contribute to steatohepatitis, with dietary uridine supplementation as a possible strategy of prevention. Atazanavir inhibits UDP-glucuronosyltransferase, which in Gilberts' syndrome has been associated with breast cancer. A UDP-glucuronosyltransferase gene promoter variant predisposes to hyperbilirubinemia. Tipranavir induces elevated transaminases more frequently than boosted comparator protease inhibitors. CCR5 inhibitors may predispose to hepatotoxic events by causing an imbalance in the cytokine response.

SUMMARY

Hepatotoxicity is associated with all classes of antiretroviral agents and continues to contribute to hospitalization.

Highly active antiretroviral therapy improves ESLD-free survival in HIV-HCV co-infection

The impact of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on progression to end-stage liver disease (ESLD) in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)/hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infection remains controversial. We studied 157 HCV+ haemophilic men (85 HIV+ and 72 HIV-), on whom dates of HIV and HCV seroconversion and clinical outcomes were known. Time to ESLD was determined by Kaplan-Meier product-limit methods and risk factors for ESLD progression were analysed by a Cox proportional hazards model. Among HIV+ men, ESLD was more common, 17 of 85 (20.0%) than in HIV-, eight of 72 (11.1%) and median ESLD-free survival significantly shorter, P = 0.009, hazard ratio 3.00 [95% confidence interval (CI): 1.27-7.08]. HAART treated HIV+ had longer ESLD-free survival than HIV+ untreated, 30.3 vs. 20.0 years, P = 0.043, hazard ratio, 3.14 (95% CI: 1.27-7.08), comparable with survival in HIV- men, P = 0.13, hazard ratio 2.20 (95% CI: 0.76-2.35). Progression was unrelated to HAART toxicity (n = 0) or HCV antiviral therapy (n = 7). HIV+ HAART Rx and HIV- did not differ in HCV duration, age at ESLD, age at death or present, overall or AIDS mortality, all P > 0.05. These data suggest that HAART improves ESLD-free survival, approaching that in HIV- men.

Fast fibrosis progression between repeated liver biopsies in patients coinfected with human immunodeficiency virus/hepatitis C virus

A few studies have assessed the observed fibrosis progression between serial liver biopsies (LB) in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) / hepatitis C virus (HCV)-coinfected patients. Approximately half of the patients progressed at least one fibrosis stage over a short period of time. The risk factors for this fast progression need clarification. Because of this, we evaluated the observed fibrosis progression rates of HIV/HCV-coinfected patients and the risk factors for accelerated progression. Overall, 135 HIV-infected patients with positive serum HCV RNA, without other possible causes of liver disease, who underwent two LB, separated at least by 1 year, were included in this retrospective cohort study. The median (Q1-Q3) time between both LBs was 3.3 (2.0-5.2) years. Patients showed the following changes in fibrosis stage: regression >or =1 stage: 23 (17%), no change: 52 (39%), progression 1 stage: 38 (28%), and progression > or =2 stages: 22 (16%). Seventeen (13%) patients had cirrhosis in the second biopsy. Factors independently associated with progression > or =1 stage were undetectable plasma HIV RNA during the follow-up (relative risk [RR] [95% confidence interval, 95% CI] 0.61 [0.39-0.93], P = 0.03), moderate-to-severe lobular necroinflammation (1.77 [1.16-2.7], P = 0.009), time between biopsies (1.11 [1.08-1.2], P = 0.01), and end of treatment response to anti-HCV therapy (0.41 [0.19-0.88], P = 0.02).

CONCLUSION

Fibrosis progresses with high frequency in HIV/HCV-coinfected patients over a period of time of 3 years. Absent-to-mild lobular necroinflammation at baseline, achievement of response with anti-HCV treatment, and effective antiretroviral therapy are associated with slower fibrosis progression.

Co-infections and co-therapies: treatment of HIV in the presence of hepatitis C and hepatitis B

An increasing number of people are chronically infected with HIV and HCV, and/or HBV owing to shared routes of transmission. With the advent of HAART, liver disease secondary to hepatitis co-infections has emerged as a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in HIV-infected persons. There is increasing need to manage dual infection, but treatment is complicated by co-morbidities, overlapping toxicities, drug activities and resistance. A model of treatment that builds on the lessons learned from the treatment of HIV has evolved to maximize success of treating dual infections. This review will address current strategies for the management of HIV in the setting of HCV and HBV co-infection and discuss future treatment directions and challenges.

Is antiretroviral therapy causing long-term liver damage? A comparative analysis of HIV-mono-infected and HIV/hepatitis C co-infected cohorts

The effects of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on progression of hepatic fibrosis in HIV-hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infection are not well understood. Deaths from liver diseases have risen in the post-HAART era, yet some cross-sectional studies have suggested that HAART use is associated with improved fibrosis rates. In a retrospective cohort of 533 HIV mono-infected and 127 HIV/HCV co-infected patients, followed between January 1991 and July 2005 at a university-based HIV clinic, we investigated the relationship between cumulative HAART exposure and hepatic fibrosis, as measured by the aspartate aminotransferase-to-platelet ratio index (APRI). We used a novel methodological approach to estimate the dose-response relationship of the effect of HAART exposure on APRI. HAART was associated with increasing APRI over time in HIV/HCV co-infected patients suggesting that they may be experiencing cumulative hepatotoxicity from antiretrovirals. The estimated median change (95% confidence interval) in APRI per one year of HAART intake was of −0.46% (−1.61% to 0.71%) in HIV mono-infected compared to 2.54% (−1.77% to 7.03%) in HIV/HCV co-infected patients. Similar results were found when the direct effect of HAART intake since the last visit was estimated on the change in APRI. HAART use associated is with increased APRI in patients with HIV/HCV co-infection. Therefore treatment for HCV infection may be required to slow the growing epidemic of end-stage liver disease in this population.

Clinical management of HIV/hepatitis C virus coinfection

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to review the current management of hepatitis C virus (HCV) in persons coinfected with HIV.

DATA SOURCES

Comprehensive review of current scientific literature derived from electronic databases, article bibliographies, and conference abstracts.

CONCLUSIONS

HCV treatment is feasible in the individual coinfected with HIV; however, therapy is complex and requires intensive monitoring and support to achieve the outcome of viral eradication. New strategies to improve HCV treatment rates, adherence to therapy, and virological response rates are needed in this patient population.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

Nurse practitioners are crucial to the management of the HIV/HCV-coinfected patient. This patient population requires detailed clinical monitoring, education, side effect management, and strategies to improve adherence to therapy.

Epidemiology of hepatitis C virus infection in HIV-infected individuals

Many individuals are infected with both HIV and hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection. More rapid progression of liver disease is seen, higher levels of HCV RNA encourage transmission and sustained virological responses are lower in coinfected patients. The management of these patients is further complicated by potential interactions between antiretroviral therapy and peginterferon and ribavirin.

Natural history of hepatitis C virus infection in HIV-infected individuals and the impact of HIV in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: a meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

To estimate stage-specific transition probabilities in individuals coinfected with HIV and hepatitis C virus (HCV), to examine the effect of covariates on these rates, and to investigate the effect of HIV on HCV-related cirrhosis in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).

DESIGN

Systematic review of natural history studies among HCV-infected individuals.

METHODS

Markov maximum likelihood estimation method was used to estimate stage-specific transition probabilities. A meta-analysis was performed to obtain pooled transition probabilities, and a meta-regression to investigate the impact of covariates on these rates. Risk of cirrhosis between individuals monoinfected with HCV and coinfected with HIV/HCV were compared by HAART status.

RESULTS

The estimated mean (95% confidence intervals) annual transition probabilities of 3567 individuals coinfected with HIV/HCV (n = 17 studies) were as follows: fibrosis stage (F) F0 --> F1 0.122 (0.098-0.153); F1 --> F2 0.115 (0.095-0.140); F2 --> F3 0.124 (0.097-0.159); and F3 --> F4 0.115 (0.098-0.135) units/year. The prevalence of cirrhosis after 20 and 30 years of HCV infection was 21% (16-28%) and 49% (40-59%), respectively. Longer duration of HCV infection was significantly associated with slower rate of fibrosis progression. The overall rate ratio of cirrhosis between individuals coinfected with HIV/HCV and monoinfected with HCV (n = 27 studies) was 2.1 (1.5-3.0), 2.5 (1.8-3.4) in the non-HAART group, and 1.7 (1.1-2.8) in the HAART group.

CONCLUSION

The rate of fibrosis progression among individuals coinfected with HIV/HCV appears constant. Our results confirm that chronic hepatitis C outcomes are worse among coinfected individuals. Over the period studied, HAART did not appear to fully correct the adverse effect of HIV infection on HCV prognosis.

Management complexities of HIV/hepatitis C virus coinfection in the twenty-first century

Because of shared routes of transmission, hepatitis C virus (HCV) coinfection is common among HIV-infected persons. Because of the effectiveness of antiretroviral therapy, chronic HCV has now emerged as a major cause of morbidity and mortality in this population. Because chronic HCV is highly prevalent among HIV-infected patients and has a rapid disease progression, antiviral therapy with pegylated interferon plus ribavirin is critical for the long-term survival of HIV/HCV-coinfected patients. In this article, the authors review the (1) epidemiology of HCV among HIV-infected individuals, (2) effect of HIV on the natural history of chronic HCV, (3) impact of antiretroviral therapy on HCV coinfection, and (4) management of chronic HCV in the HIV-infected person.

Hepatic steatosis in patients with HIV-Hepatitis C Virus coinfection: is it associated with antiretroviral therapy and more advanced hepatic fibrosis?

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Patients with HIV and hepatitis C virus (HCV) coinfection are at increased risk of developing hepatic steatosis. The aims of this study were to assess the prevalence of steatosis in a cohort with HIV-HCV coinfection, and to determine an association, if any, between steatosis, antiretroviral therapy (ART), and advanced hepatic fibrosis.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

HIV-HCV coinfected patients were retrospectively identified from the HIV clinic. ART was classified as none, nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) only, highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) only, and sequential therapy (initial NRTIs followed by HAART). Fibrosis stage and necroinflammation grade were assessed by the modified HAI (Ishak) scoring method. Steatosis was graded as 0-3.

RESULTS

Sixty patients were identified. The overall prevalence of hepatic steatosis was 58%. Those that received HAART only had a lower prevalence of steatosis (41%) compared to those on NRTIs only (70%) or sequential therapy (82%). Independent predictors of hepatic steatosis were absence of HAART only therapy, OR 2.9, p = 0.09, and presence of cirrhosis, OR 4.6, p = 0.044. Forty five percent of the patients had advanced fibrosis (fibrosis stage >/= 3). NI grade (OR 1.9, p = 0.030), and steatosis grade (OR 3.6, p = 0.045), were independent predictors of advanced fibrosis.

CONCLUSION

Hepatic steatosis is associated with more advanced hepatic fibrosis in the HIV-HCV coinfected population. HAART only therapy (rather than NRTIs only or sequential therapy) appears to be associated with a lower prevalence of hepatic steatosis. This may be one of the mechanisms by which HAART could attenuate hepatic fibrosis in such a cohort.

Management of hepatic complications in HIV-infected persons

In the era of effective antiretroviral therapy (ART), liver disease is the second most common cause of death among persons with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Liver disease-related deaths mostly result from chronic infection with hepatitis B virus (HBV) and/or hepatitis C virus (HCV). In addition, recent reports suggest that HCV infection may be transmitted sexually between HIV-infected men who have sex with men. Management of these conditions in HIV-infected persons requires careful consideration, balancing the potential benefits of therapy with the potential for significant treatment-related adverse effects (HCV infection) and viral resistance and/or hepatitis flares (HBV infection). Furthermore, several antiretroviral agents are active against HBV infection, including lamivudine, emtricitabine, tenofovir, and, more recently, entecavir. Despite the complexity and potential for antiretroviral-associated hepatotoxicity, ART usually is safe for patients with viral hepatitis coinfection, and, in some cases, treatment for HIV infection may be beneficial for the liver.

Viral hepatitis and HIV coinfection

Persons at high risk for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection are also likely to be at risk for other infectious pathogens, including hepatitis B virus (HBV) or hepatitis C virus (HCV). These are bloodborne pathogens transmitted through similar routes; for example, via injection drug use (IDU), sexual contact, or from mother to child during pregnancy or birth. In some settings, the prevalence of coinfection with HBV and/or HCV is high. In the context of effective antiretroviral therapy (ART), liver disease has emerged as a major cause of morbidity and mortality in HIV-infected persons. Further, coinfection with viral hepatitis may complicate the delivery of ART by increasing the risk of drug-related hepatoxicity and impacting the selection of specific agents (e.g., those dually active against HIV and HBV). Expert guidelines developed in the United States and Europe recommend screening of all HIV-infected persons for infection with HCV and HBV and appropriate management of those found to be chronically infected. Treatment strategies for HBV infection include the use of nucleos(t)ide analogues with or without anti-HIV activity and/or peginterferon alfa (PegIFN) whereas HCV treatment is limited to the combination of PegIFN and ribavirin (RBV). Current approaches to management of HIV-infected persons coinfected with HBV or HCV are discussed in this review.

Intrahepatic mRNA expression in hepatitis C virus and HIV/hepatitis C virus co-infection: infiltrating cells, cytokines, and influence of HAART

OBJECTIVE

Liver disease is more progressive in HIV/hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infection than in HCV infection alone. This accelerated pathogenesis is probably influenced by differences in the composition of infiltrating inflammatory cells and the local release of inflammatory and profibrogenic cytokines.

METHODS

Using quantitative real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) we studied intrahepatic messenger RNA levels of cytokines and cellular markers defining distinct subsets of inflammatory cells in liver biopsies from 33 HCV-mono-infected and 40 HIV/HCV-co-infected patients.

RESULTS

Despite their well preserved peripheral blood CD4 cell counts (median 598 cells/microl), HIV/HCV-co-infected patients displayed significantly lower CD4 mRNA levels than HCV-mono-infected patients, whereas increased mRNA levels of CD3epsilon, TCRalpha, CD8alpha and CD8beta suggested intrahepatic enrichment of CD8 T cells in HIV co-infection. Intrahepatic mRNA levels of the inflammatory cytokines interferon gamma (IFN-gamma), regulated upon activation, normal T-cell expressed and secreted (RANTES, CCL5), macrophage inflammatory protein 1 alpha (CCL3) and interferon-inducible protein 10 (CXCL10) were significantly higher in HIV-positive than in HIV-negative patients, whereas mRNA levels of the profibrogenic cytokines macrophage chemoattractant protein 1 (CCL2), secondary lymphochemokine (CCL21) and stroma-derived factor 1 (CXCL12) did not differ between the two groups. All changes were less pronounced in the subgroup of HIV-positive patients receiving antiretroviral treatment (HAART) than in untreated HIV-positive patients.

CONCLUSION

The accelerated liver disease observed in HIV/HCV-co-infected patients might reflect enhanced intrahepatic inflammatory responses rather than increased local transcription of directly profibrogenic cytokines.