Interaction of tetraspan(in) TM4SF5 with CD44 promotes self-renewal and circulating capacities of hepatocarcinoma cells

CD44 and its implication in neoplastic diseases

CD44, a nonkinase single span transmembrane glycoprotein, is a major cell surface receptor for many other extracellular matrix components as well as classic markers of cancer stem cells and immune cells. Through alternative splicing of CD44 gene, CD44 is divided into two isoforms, the standard isoform of CD44 (CD44s) and the variant isoform of CD44 (CD44v). Different isoforms of CD44 participate in regulating various signaling pathways, modulating cancer proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and drug resistance, with its aberrant expression and dysregulation contributing to tumor initiation and progression. However, CD44s and CD44v play overlapping or contradictory roles in tumor initiation and progression, which is not fully understood. Herein, we discuss the present understanding of the functional and structural roles of CD44 in the pathogenic mechanism of multiple cancers. The regulation functions of CD44 in cancers-associated signaling pathways is summarized. Moreover, we provide an overview of the anticancer therapeutic strategies that targeting CD44 and preclinical and clinical trials evaluating the pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and drug-related toxicity about CD44-targeted therapies. This review provides up-to-date information about the roles of CD44 in neoplastic diseases, which may open new perspectives in the field of cancer treatment through targeting CD44.

Glucose-mediated mitochondrial reprogramming by cholesterol export at TM4SF5-enriched mitochondria-lysosome contact sites

BACKGROUND

Transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) translocates subcellularly and functions metabolically, although it is unclear how intracellular TM4SF5 translocation is linked to metabolic contexts. It is thus of interests to understand how the traffic dynamics of TM4SF5 to subcellular endosomal membranes are correlated to regulatory roles of metabolisms.

METHODS

Here, we explored the metabolic significance of TM4SF5 localization at mitochondria-lysosome contact sites (MLCSs), using in vitro cells and in vivo animal systems, via approaches by immunofluorescence, proximity labelling based proteomics analysis, organelle reconstitution etc. RESULTS: Upon extracellular glucose repletion following depletion, TM4SF5 became enriched at MLCSs via an interaction between mitochondrial FK506-binding protein 8 (FKBP8) and lysosomal TM4SF5. Proximity labeling showed molecular clustering of phospho-dynamic-related protein I (DRP1) and certain mitophagy receptors at TM4SF5-enriched MLCSs, leading to mitochondrial fission and autophagy. TM4SF5 bound NPC intracellular cholesterol transporter 1 (NPC1) and free cholesterol, and mediated export of lysosomal cholesterol to mitochondria, leading to impaired oxidative phosphorylation but intact tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and β-oxidation. In mouse models, hepatocyte Tm4sf5 promoted mitophagy and cholesterol transport to mitochondria, both with positive relations to liver malignancy.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggested that TM4SF5-enriched MLCSs regulate glucose catabolism by facilitating cholesterol export for mitochondrial reprogramming, presumably while hepatocellular carcinogenesis, recapitulating aspects for hepatocellular carcinoma metabolism with mitochondrial reprogramming to support biomolecule synthesis in addition to glycolytic energetics.

ICAM-1 and VCAM-1: Gatekeepers in various inflammatory and cardiovascular disorders

Leukocyte migration from the vascular compartment is critical fornormal lymphocyte recirculation in specific tissues and immune response in inflammatory locations. Leukocyte recruitment, migration to inflammatory areas, and targeting in the extravascular space are caused by cellular stimulation and local expression of adhesion molecules. Intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) and Vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1) belong to the immunoglobulin superfamily of cell adhesion molecules (CAM) with a crucial role in mediating the strong adherence of leukocytes to endothelial cells in numerous acute as well as chronic diseases. ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 mediate inflammation and promote leukocyte migration during inflammation. ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 have a large role in regulating homeostasis and in pathologic states such as cancer, atherosclerosis, atrial fibrillation, myocardial infarction, stroke, asthma, obesity, kidney diseases, and much more. In inflammatory conditions and infectious disorders, leukocytes move and cling to the endothelium via multiple intracellular adhesive interactions. It is suggested that combining membrane-bound and soluble ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 into a single unit functional system will further our understanding of their immunoregulatory role as well as their pathophysiological effects on disease. This review focuses on the pathophysiological roles of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 in various inflammatory and other diseases as well as their emerging cardiovascular role during the COVID-19 pandemic.

TMPRSS4, a type II transmembrane serine protease, as a potential therapeutic target in cancer

Proteases are involved in almost all biological processes, implying their importance for both health and pathological conditions. Dysregulation of proteases is a key event in cancer. Initially, research identified their role in invasion and metastasis, but more recent studies have shown that proteases are involved in all stages of cancer development and progression, both directly through proteolytic activity and indirectly via regulation of cellular signaling and functions. Over the past two decades, a novel subfamily of serine proteases called type II transmembrane serine proteases (TTSPs) has been identified. Many TTSPs are overexpressed by a variety of tumors and are potential novel markers of tumor development and progression; these TTSPs are possible molecular targets for anticancer therapeutics. The transmembrane protease serine 4 (TMPRSS4), a member of the TTSP family, is upregulated in pancreatic, colorectal, gastric, lung, thyroid, prostate, and several other cancers; indeed, elevated expression of TMPRSS4 often correlates with poor prognosis. Based on its broad expression profile in cancer, TMPRSS4 has been the focus of attention in anticancer research. This review summarizes up-to-date information regarding the expression, regulation, and clinical relevance of TMPRSS4, as well as its role in pathological contexts, particularly in cancer. It also provides a general overview of epithelial-mesenchymal transition and TTSPs.

Portal vein tumor thrombosis in hepatocellular carcinoma: molecular mechanism and therapy

Portal vein tumor thrombosis (PVTT), a common complication of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), remains the bottleneck of the treatments. Liver cancer cells potentially experienced multi-steps during PVTT process, including cancer cells leave from cancer nest, migrate in extracellular matrix, invade the vascular barrier, and colonize in the portal vein. Accumulated evidences have revealed numerous of molecular mechanisms including genetic and epigenetic regulation, cancer stem cells, immunosuppressive microenvironment, hypoxia, et al. contributed to the PVTT formation. In this review, we discuss state-of-the-art PVTT research on the potential molecular mechanisms and experimental models. In addition, we summarize PVTT-associated clinical trials and current treatments for PVTT and suppose perspectives exploring the molecular mechanisms and improving PVTT-related treatment for the future.

Three Members of Transmembrane-4-Superfamily, TM4SF1, TM4SF4, and TM4SF5, as Emerging Anticancer Molecular Targets against Cancer Phenotypes and Chemoresistance

There are six members of the transmembrane 4 superfamily (TM4SF) that have similar topology and sequence homology. Physiologically, they regulate tissue differentiation, signal transduction pathways, cellular activation, proliferation, motility, adhesion, and angiogenesis. Accumulating evidence has demonstrated, among six TM4SF members, the regulatory roles of transmembrane 4 L6 domain family members, particularly TM4SF1, TM4SF4, and TM4SF5, in cancer angiogenesis, progression, and chemoresistance. Hence, targeting derailed TM4SF for cancer therapy has become an emerging research area. As compared to others, this review aimed to present a focused insight and update on the biological roles of TM4SF1, TM4SF4, and TM4SF5 in the progression, metastasis, and chemoresistance of various cancers. Additionally, the mechanistic pathways, diagnostic and prognostic values, and the potential and efficacy of current anti-TM4SF antibody treatment were also deciphered. It also recommended the exploration of other interactive molecules to be implicated in cancer progression and chemoresistance, as well as potential therapeutic agents targeting TM4SF as future perspectives. Generally, these three TM4SF members interact with different integrins and receptors to significantly induce intracellular signaling and regulate the proliferation, migration, and invasion of cancer cells. Intriguingly, gene silencing or anti-TM4SF antibody could reverse their regulatory roles deciphered in different preclinical models. They also have prognostic and diagnostic value as their high expression was detected in clinical tissues and cells of various cancers. Hence, TM4SF1, TM4SF4, and TM4SF5 are promising therapeutic targets for different cancer types preclinically and deserve further investigation.

Systemic TM4SF5 overexpression in ApcMin/+ mice promotes hepatic portal hypertension associated with fibrosis

Mutation of the gene for adenomatous polyposis coli (APC), as seen in Apc^Min/+ mice, leads to intestinal adenomas and carcinomas via stabilization of β-catenin. Transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) is involved in the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, fibrosis, and cancer. However, the functional linkage between TM4SF5 and APC or β-catenin has not been investigated for pathological outcomes. After interbreeding Apc^Min/+ with TM4SF5-overexpressing transgenic (Tg^TM4SF5) mice, we explored pathological outcomes in the intestines and livers of the offspring. The intestines of 26-week-old dual-transgenic mice (Apc^Min/+:Tg^TM4SF5) had intramucosal adenocarcinomas beyond the single-crypt adenomas in Apc^Min/+ mice. Additional TM4SF5 overexpression increased the stabilization of β-catenin via reduced glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) phosphorylation on Ser9. Additionally, the livers of the dualtransgenic mice showed distinct sinusoidal dilatation and features of hepatic portal hypertension associated with fibrosis, more than did the relatively normal livers in Apc^Min/+ mice. Interestingly, TM4SF5 overexpression in the liver was positively linked to increased GSK3β phosphorylation (opposite to that seen in the colon), β-catenin level, and extracellular matrix (ECM) protein expression, indicating fibrotic phenotypes. Consistent with these results, 78-week-old Tg^TM4SF5 mice similarly had sinusoidal dilatation, immune cell infiltration, and fibrosis. Altogether, systemic overexpression of TM4SF5 aggravates pathological abnormalities in both the colon and the liver. [BMB Reports 2022; 55(12): 609-614].

Systemic TM4SF5 overexpression in ApcMin/+ mice promotes hepatic portal hypertension associated with fibrosis

Mutation of the gene for adenomatous polyposis coli (APC), as seen in ApcMin/+ mice, leads to intestinal adenomas and carcinomas via stabilization of β-catenin. Transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) is involved in the development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, fibrosis, and cancer. However, the functional linkage between TM4SF5 and APC or β-catenin has not been investigated for pathological outcomes. After interbreeding ApcMin/+ with TM4SF5-overexpressing transgenic (TgTM4SF5) mice, we explored pathological outcomes in the intestines and livers of the offspring. The intestines of 26-week-old dual-transgenic mice (ApcMin/+:TgTM4SF5) had intramucosal adenocarcinomas beyond the single-crypt adenomas in ApcMin/+ mice. Additional TM4SF5 overexpression increased the stabilization of β-catenin via reduced glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) phosphorylation on Ser9. Additionally, the livers of the dualtransgenic mice showed distinct sinusoidal dilatation and features of hepatic portal hypertension associated with fibrosis, more than did the relatively normal livers in ApcMin/+ mice. Interestingly, TM4SF5 overexpression in the liver was positively linked to increased GSK3β phosphorylation (opposite to that seen in the colon), β-catenin level, and extracellular matrix (ECM) protein expression, indicating fibrotic phenotypes. Consistent with these results, 78-week-old TgTM4SF5 mice similarly had sinusoidal dilatation, immune cell infiltration, and fibrosis. Altogether, systemic overexpression of TM4SF5 aggravates pathological abnormalities in both the colon and the liver. [BMB Reports 2022; 55(12): 609-614].

Cancer Stem Cells in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Intrinsic and Extrinsic Molecular Mechanisms in Stemness Regulation

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) remains the most predominant type of liver cancer with an extremely poor prognosis due to its late diagnosis and high recurrence rate. One of the culprits for HCC recurrence and metastasis is the existence of cancer stem cells (CSCs), which are a small subset of cancer cells possessing robust stem cell properties within tumors. CSCs play crucial roles in tumor heterogeneity constitution, tumorigenesis, tumor relapse, metastasis, and resistance to anti-cancer therapies. Elucidation of how these CSCs maintain their stemness features is essential for the development of CSCs-based therapy. In this review, we summarize the present knowledge of intrinsic molecules and signaling pathways involved in hepatic CSCs, especially the CSC surface markers and associated signaling in regulating the stemness characteristics and the heterogeneous subpopulations within the CSC pool. In addition, we recapitulate the effects of crucial extrinsic cellular components in the tumor microenvironment, including stromal cells and immune cells, on the modulation of hepatic CSCs. Finally, we synopsize the currently valuable CSCs-targeted therapy strategies based on intervention in these intrinsic and extrinsic molecular mechanisms, in the hope of shedding light on better clinical management of HCC patients.

Machine learning-assisted elucidation of CD81-CD44 interactions in promoting cancer stemness and extracellular vesicle integrity

Tumor-initiating cells with reprogramming plasticity or stem-progenitor cell properties (stemness) are thought to be essential for cancer development and metastatic regeneration in many cancers; however, elucidation of the underlying molecular network and pathways remains demanding. Combining machine learning and experimental investigation, here we report CD81, a tetraspanin transmembrane protein known to be enriched in extracellular vesicles (EVs), as a newly identified driver of breast cancer stemness and metastasis. Using protein structure modeling and interface prediction-guided mutagenesis, we demonstrate that membrane CD81 interacts with CD44 through their extracellular regions in promoting tumor cell cluster formation and lung metastasis of triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) in human and mouse models. In-depth global and phosphoproteomic analyses of tumor cells deficient with CD81 or CD44 unveils endocytosis-related pathway alterations, leading to further identification of a quality-keeping role of CD44 and CD81 in EV secretion as well as in EV-associated stemness-promoting function. CD81 is coexpressed along with CD44 in human circulating tumor cells (CTCs) and enriched in clustered CTCs that promote cancer stemness and metastasis, supporting the clinical significance of CD81 in association with patient outcomes. Our study highlights machine learning as a powerful tool in facilitating the molecular understanding of new molecular targets in regulating stemness and metastasis of TNBC.

Liver-originated small extracellular vesicles with TM4SF5 target brown adipose tissue for homeostatic glucose clearance

Transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) is involved in chronic liver disease, although its role in glucose homeostasis remains unknown. TM4SF5 deficiency caused age-dependent glucose (in)tolerance with no link to insulin sensitivity. Further, hepatic TM4SF5 binding to GLUT1 promoted glucose uptake and glycolysis. Excessive glucose repletion caused hepatocytes to secrete small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) loaded with TM4SF5 (hep-sEVTm4sf5 ), suggesting a role for sEVTm4sf5 in glucose metabolism and homeostasis. Hep-sEVTm4sf5 were smaller than sEVControl and recruit proteins for efficient organ tropism. Liver-derived sEVs, via a liver-closed vein circuit (LCVC) using hepatic TM4SF5-overexpressing (Alb-Tm4sf5 TG) mice (liv-sEVTm4sf5 ), improved glucose tolerance in Tm4sf5-/- KO mice and targeted brown adipose tissues (BATs), possibly allowing the clearance of blood glucose as heat independent of UCP1. Taken together, hep-sEVTm4sf5 might clear high extracellular glucose levels more efficiently by targeting BAT compared with hep-sEVControl , suggesting an insulin-like role for sEV™4SF5 in affecting age-related metabolic status and thus body weight (BW).

A narrative review of circulating tumor cells clusters: A key morphology of cancer cells in circulation promote hematogenous metastasis

Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) that survive in the blood are playing an important role in the metastasis process of tumor. In addition, they have become a tool for tumor diagnosis, prognosis and recurrence monitoring. CTCs can exist in the blood as individual cells or as clumps of aggregated cells. In recent years, more and more studies have shown that clustered CTCs have stronger metastasis ability compared to single CTCs. With the deepening of studies, scholars have found that cancer cells can combine not only with each other, but also with non-tumor cells present in the blood, such as neutrophils, platelets, etc. At the same time, it was confirmed that non-tumor cells bound to CTCs maintain the survival and proliferation of cancer cells through a variety of ways, thus promoting the occurrence and development of tumor. In this review, we collected information on tumorigenesis induced by CTC clusters to make a summary and a discussion about them. Although CTC clusters have recently been considered as a key role in the transition process, many characteristics of them remain to be deeply explored. A detailed understanding of their vulnerability can prospectively pave the way for new inhibitors for metastasis.

CD44 Glycosylation as a Therapeutic Target in Oncology

The interaction of non-kinase transmembrane glycoprotein CD44 with ligands including hyaluronic acid (HA) is closely related to the occurrence and development of tumors. Changes in CD44 glycosylation can regulate its binding to HA, Siglec-15, fibronectin, TM4SF5, PRG4, FGF2, collagen and podoplanin and activate or inhibit c-Src/STAT3/Twist1/Bmi1, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, ERK/NF-κB/NANOG and other signaling pathways, thereby having a profound impact on the tumor microenvironment and tumor cell fate. However, the glycosylation of CD44 is complex and largely unknown, and the current understanding of how CD44 glycosylation affects tumors is limited. These issues must be addressed before targeted CD44 glycosylation can be applied to treat human cancers.

Therapeutic effects of TM4SF5-targeting chimeric and humanized monoclonal antibodies in hepatocellular and colon cancer models

The transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) is aberrantly expressed in hepatocellular and colorectal cancers, and has been implicated in tumor progression, suggesting that it could serve as a novel therapeutic target. Previously, we screened a murine antibody phage-display library to generate a novel monoclonal antibody, Ab27, that is specific to the extracellular loop 2 of TM4SF5. In this study, we evaluated the effects of chimeric Ab27 using cancer cells expressing endogenous TM4SF5 or stably overexpressing TM4SF5 in vivo and in vitro. Monotherapy with Ab27 significantly decreased tumor growth in liver and colon cancer xenograft models, including a sorafenib-resistant model, and decreased the phosphorylation of focal adhesion kinase (FAK), p27^Kip1, and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3). No general Ab27 toxicity was observed in vivo. Combination treatment with Ab27 and sorafenib or doxorubicin exerted higher antitumor activity than monotherapy. In addition, we humanized the Ab27 sequence by the complementarity-determining region (CDR) grafting method. The humanized antibody Ab27-hz9 had reduced immunogenicity but exhibited target recognition and antitumor activity comparable with those of Ab27. Both Ab27 and Ab27-hz9 efficiently targeted tumor cells expressing TM4SF5 in vivo. These observations strongly support the further development of Ab27-hz9 as a novel therapeutic agent against liver and colorectal cancers.

ZMYM2 restricts 53BP1 at DNA double-strand breaks to favor BRCA1 loading and homologous recombination

An inability to repair DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) threatens genome integrity and can contribute to human diseases, including cancer. Mammalian cells repair DSBs mainly through homologous recombination (HR) and nonhomologous end-joining (NHEJ). The choice between these pathways is regulated by the interplay between 53BP1 and BRCA1, whereby BRCA1 excludes 53BP1 to promote HR and 53BP1 limits BRCA1 to facilitate NHEJ. Here, we identify the zinc-finger proteins (ZnF), ZMYM2 and ZMYM3, as antagonizers of 53BP1 recruitment that facilitate HR protein recruitment and function at DNA breaks. Mechanistically, we show that ZMYM2 recruitment to DSBs and suppression of break-associated 53BP1 requires the SUMO E3 ligase PIAS4, as well as SUMO binding by ZMYM2. Cells deficient for ZMYM2/3 display genome instability, PARP inhibitor and ionizing radiation sensitivity and reduced HR repair. Importantly, depletion of 53BP1 in ZMYM2/3-deficient cells rescues BRCA1 recruitment to and HR repair of DSBs, suggesting that ZMYM2 and ZMYM3 primarily function to restrict 53BP1 engagement at breaks to favor BRCA1 loading that functions to channel breaks to HR repair. Identification of DNA repair functions for these poorly characterized ZnF proteins may shed light on their unknown contributions to human diseases, where they have been reported to be highly dysregulated, including in several cancers.

Crosstalk between TM4SF5 and GLUT8 regulates fructose metabolism in hepatic steatosis

Objective

Transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) is likely involved in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, although its roles and cross-talks with glucose/fructose transporters in phenotypes derived from high-carbohydrate diets remain unexplored. Here, we investigated the modulation of hepatic fructose metabolism by TM4SF5.

Methods

Wild-type or Tm4sf5^−/− knockout mice were evaluated via different diets, including normal chow, high-sucrose diet, or high-fat diet without or with fructose in drinking water (30% w/v). Using liver tissues and blood samples from the mice or hepatocytes, the roles of TM4SF5 in fructose-mediated de novo lipogenesis (DNL) and steatosis via a crosstalk with glucose transporter 8 (GLUT8) were assessed.

Results

Tm4sf5 suppression or knockout in both in vitro and in vivo models reduced fructose uptake, DNL, and steatosis. Extracellular fructose treatment of hepatocytes resulted in an inverse relationship between fructose–uptake activity and TM4SF5-mediated translocalization of GLUT8 through dynamic binding at the cell surface. Following fructose treatment, TM4SF5 binding to GLUT8 transiently decreased with translocation to the plasma membrane (PM), where GLUT8 separated and became active for fructose uptake and DNL.

Conclusions

Overall, hepatic TM4SF5 modulated GLUT8 localization and activity through transient binding, leading to steatosis-related fructose uptake and lipogenesis. Thus, TM4SF5 and/or GLUT8 may be promising treatment targets against liver steatosis resulting from excessive fructose consumption.

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The impact of TM4SF5 in fructose metabolism for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is not documented.

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Hepatic TM4SF5 could be associated with fructose-mediated nonalcoholic fatty liver.

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TM4SF5 regulated intracellular localization and fructose uptake activity of GLUT8.

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TM4SF5 inhibitors may attenuate phenotypes of NAFLD by excessive fructose intake.

Cancer stem cells in hepatocellular carcinoma - from origin to clinical implications

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is an aggressive disease with a poor clinical outcome. The cancer stem cell (CSC) model states that tumour growth is powered by a subset of tumour stem cells within cancers. This model explains several clinical observations in HCC (as well as in other cancers), including the almost inevitable recurrence of tumours after initial successful chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy, as well as the phenomena of tumour dormancy and treatment resistance. The past two decades have seen a marked increase in research on the identification and characterization of liver CSCs, which has encouraged the design of novel diagnostic and treatment strategies for HCC. These studies revealed novel aspects of liver CSCs, including their heterogeneity and unique immunobiology, which are suggestive of opportunities for new research directions and potential therapies. In this Review, we summarize the present knowledge of liver CSC markers and the regulators of stemness in HCC. We also comprehensively describe developments in the liver CSC field with emphasis on experiments utilizing single-cell transcriptomics to understand liver CSC heterogeneity, lineage-tracing and cell-ablation studies of liver CSCs, and the influence of the CSC niche and tumour microenvironment on liver cancer stemness, including interactions between CSCs and the immune system. We also discuss the potential application of liver CSC-based therapies for treatment of HCC.

TM4SF5-mediated liver malignancy involves NK cell exhaustion-like phenotypes

Aberrant extracellular matrix and immune cell alterations within the tumor microenvironment promote the pathological progression of liver carcinogenesis. Although transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) is involved in liver fibrosis and cancer, its mechanism avoiding immune surveillance during carcinogenesis remains unknown. We investigated how TM4SF5-mediated signaling caused immune evasion using in vitro primary cells and in vivo liver tissues from genetic or chemically induced mouse models. TM4SF5-transgenic and diethylnitrosamine (DEN)-induced liver cancer mouse models exhibited fibrotic and cancerous livers, respectively, with enhanced TM4SF5, pY⁷⁰⁵STAT3, collagen I, and laminin γ2 levels. These TM4SF5-mediated effects were abolished by TM4SF5 inhibitor, 4'-(p-toluenesulfonylamido)-4-hydroxychalcone (TSAHC). TM4SF5-dependent tumorigenesis involved natural killer (NK) cell exhaustion-like phenotypes including the reduction of NK cell number or function, which were blocked with TSAHC treatment. TM4SF5 expression in cancer cells downregulated stimulatory ligands and receptors for NK cell cytotoxicity, including SLAMF6, SLAMF7, MICA/B, and others. TM4SF5 suppression or inhibition reduced STAT3 signaling activity and recovered the receptor levels and NK cell surveillance, leading to reduced fibrotic and cancerous phenotypes, and longer survival. Altogether, these findings suggest that TM4SF5-mediated STAT3 activity for extracellular matrix modulation is involved in the progression of liver disease to HCC and that TM4SF5 appears to suppress NK cells during liver carcinogenesis.

Circulating Tumor Cells in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Comprehensive Review and Critical Appraisal

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most common neoplasm and a major cause of cancer-related death worldwide. There is no ideal biomarker allowing early diagnosis of HCC and tumor surveillance in patients receiving therapy. Liquid biopsy, and particularly circulating tumor cells (CTCs), have emerged as a useful tool for diagnosis and monitoring therapeutic responses in different tumors. In the present manuscript, we evaluate the current evidence supporting the quantitative and qualitative assessment of CTCs as potential biomarkers of HCC, as well as technical aspects related to isolation, identification, and classification of CTCs. Although the dynamic assessment of CTCs in patients with HCC may aid the decision-making process, there are still many uncertainties and technical caveats to be solved before this methodology has a true impact on clinical practice guidelines. More studies are needed to identify the optimal combination of surface markers, to increase the efficiency of ex-vivo expansion of CTCs, or even to target CTCs as a potential therapeutic strategy to prevent HCC recurrence after surgery or to hamper tumor progression and extrahepatic spreading.

Aldehyde dehydrogenase expression may be a prognostic biomarker and associated with liver cirrhosis in patients resected for hepatocellular carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Several members of the aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) isoenzyme family have been suggested as prognostic biomarkers in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The aim of the study was to evaluate overall ALDH family member expression by RNA sequencing and hierarchical clustering in tumor and adjacent liver tissue to predict survival and evaluate correlation with liver cirrhosis in patients undergoing liver resection for HCC.

METHODS

We included patients having undergone liver resection for HCC between May 2014 and January 2018 at a tertiary referral university hospital (Copenhagen University Hospital, Rigshospitalet, Denmark). ALDH family member expression was evaluated by RNA sequencing of tumor and non-tumor liver tissue. Hierarchical clustering of ALDH genes was used to identify patient groups and correlations were established with overall survival, recurrence and histological features.

RESULTS

Fifty-two patients were included with 88.5% males, 84.6% with only one HCC and 73.1% with a non-cirrhotic background liver. Median follow-up was 45.7 months. Patients in one cluster defined by its ALDH expression in the tumor tissue showed significantly worse overall survival (log-rank p = 0.015), also when adjusted for age, cirrhosis, microvascular invasion, resection margins and tumor number (hazard ratio 4.2, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.5-11.9, p = 0.007). When evaluated individually, the isoenzyme ALDH1L1 may be of particular importance. Several clusters in non-tumor tissue were correlated with cirrhosis. Especially one cluster had a high discriminative ability (area under receiver operating characteristic curve of 0.839) and remained significantly associated with cirrhosis when corrected for age, microvascular invasion, resection margins and tumor number (odds ratio 44.2, 95% CI 5.5-352.0, p < 0.001). The combination of ALDH and a previously identified candidate biomarker (expression signature of the transcriptional targets of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs)) may add additional prognostic value.

CONCLUSION

The expression of ALDH family members in HCC was correlated with overall survival. Moreover, ALDH expression in non-tumor liver tissue was correlated with cirrhosis. Members of the ALDH family of enzymes may serve as a prognostic biomarker as well as potential targets for systemic treatment.

miR-151a-3p-rich small extracellular vesicles derived from gastric cancer accelerate liver metastasis via initiating a hepatic stemness-enhancing niche

Liver metastasis (LM) severely affects gastric cancer (GC) patients' prognosis. Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) play key roles in intercellular communication. Specific sEV-miRNAs from several types of cancer were found to induce a premetastatic niche in target organs before tumor cell arrive. However, whether the primary GC affects hepatic microenvironment or the role of sEV-miRNAs in GC-LM is yet unclear. We report that GC-derived sEVs are primarily absorbed by Kupffer cells (KCs). sEV-miR-151a-3p is highly expressed in GC-LM patients' plasma and presents poor prognosis. Treating mice with sEVs-enriched in miR-151a-3p promotes GC-LM, whereas has no influence on the proliferation of GC cells in situ. Mechanistically, sEV-miR-151a-3p inhibits SP3 in KCs. Simultaneously, sEV-miR-151a-3p targets YTHDF3 to decrease the transcriptional inhibitory activity of SP3 by reducing SUMO1 translation in a N6-methyladenosine-dependent manner. These factors contribute to TGF-β1 transactivation in KCs, subsequently activating the SMAD2/3 pathway and enhancing the stem cell-like properties of incoming GC cells. Furthermore, sEV-miR-151a-3p induces miR-151a-3p transcription in KCs to form a positive feedback loop. In summary, our results reveal a previously unidentified regulatory axis initiated by sEV-miR-151a-3p that establishes a hepatic stemness-permissive niche to support GC-LM. sEV-miR-151a-3p could be a promising diagnostic biomarker and preventive treatment candidate for GC-LM.

N-terminus-independent activation of c-Src via binding to a tetraspan(in) TM4SF5 in hepatocellular carcinoma is abolished by the TM4SF5 C-terminal peptide application

Active c-Src non-receptor tyrosine kinase localizes to the plasma membrane via N-terminal lipid modification. Membranous c-Src causes cancer initiation and progression. Even though transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5), a tetraspan(in), can be involved in this mechanism, the molecular and structural influence of TM4SF5 on c-Src remains unknown.

Methods: Here, we investigated molecular and structural details by which TM4SF5 regulated c-Src devoid of its N-terminus and how cell-penetrating peptides were able to interrupt c-Src activation via interference of c-Src-TM4SF5 interaction in hepatocellular carcinoma models.

Results: The TM4SF5 C-terminus efficiently bound the c-Src SH1 kinase domain, efficiently to the inactively-closed form. The complex involved protein tyrosine phosphatase 1B able to dephosphorylate Tyr530. The c-Src SH1 domain alone, even in a closed form, bound TM4SF5 to cause c-Src Tyr419 and FAK Y861 phosphorylation. Homology modeling and molecular dynamics simulation studies predicted the directly interfacing residues, which were further validated by mutational studies. Cell penetration of TM4SF5 C-terminal peptides blocked the interaction of TM4SF5 with c-Src and prevented c-Src-dependent tumor initiation and progression in vivo.

Conclusions: Collectively, these data demonstrate that binding of the TM4SF5 C-terminus to the kinase domain of inactive c-Src leads to its activation. Because this binding can be abolished by cell-penetrating peptides containing the TM4SF5 C-terminus, targeting this direct interaction may be an effective strategy for developing therapeutics that block the development and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Association of Preoperative NANOG-Positive Circulating Tumor Cell Levels With Recurrence of Hepatocellular Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) and Circulating tumor cells (CTCs) have been proposed as fundamental causes for the recurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). CTCs isolated from patients with HCC illustrate a unique Nanog expression profile analysis. The aim of this study was to enhance the prediction of recurrence and prognosis of the CTC phenotype in patients with HCC by combining Nanog expression into a combined forecasting model.

SUBJECTS MATERIALS AND METHODS

We collected 320 blood samples from 160 patients with HCC cancer before surgery and used CanPatrol™ CTC enrichment technology and in situ hybridization (ISH) to enrich and detect CTCs and CSCs. Nanog expression in all CTCs was also determined. In addition, RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry were used to study the expression of Nanog, E-Cadherin, and N-Cadherin in liver cancer tissues and to conduct clinical correlation studies.

RESULTS

The numbers of EpCAM mRNA+ CTCs and Nanog mRNA+ CTCs were strongly correlated with postoperative HCC recurrence (CTC number (P = 0.03), the total number of mixed CTCS (P = 0.02), and Nanog> 6.7 (P = 0.001), with Nanog > 6.7 (P = 0.0003, HR = 2.33) being the most crucial marker. There are significant differences in the expression of Nanog on different types of CTC: most Epithelial CTCs do not express Nanog, while most of Mixed CTC and Mesenchymal CTC express Nanog, and their positive rates are 38.7%, 66.7%, and 88.7%, respectively, (P=0.0001). Moreover, both CTC (≤/> 13.3) and Nanog (≤/>6.7) expression were significantly correlated with BCLC stage, vascular invasion, tumor size, and Hbv-DNA (all P < 0.05). In the young group and the old group, patients with higher Nanog expression had a higher recurrence rate. (P < 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

The number of Nanog-positive cells showed positive correlation with the poor prognosis of HCC patients. The detection and analysis of CTC markers (EpCAM and CK8, 18, CD45 Vimentin,Twist and 19) and CSCs markers (NANOG) are of great value in the evaluation of tumor progression.

Extracellular HMGB1 promotes CD44 expression in hepatocellular carcinoma via regulating miR-21

As a member of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), extracellular high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) plays a critical role in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) progression. Cluster differentiation 44 (CD44) has been demonstrated to participate in HCC progression. However, the relationship between extracellular HMGB1 and CD44 remains unclear. In this study, our results indicated that extracellular HMGB1 promoted the invasion, sphere formation and EMT process of HCC by increasing CD44 expression, which was dependent on miR-21. Moreover, miR-21 upregulated CD44 expression via activating OCT4/TGF-β1 signaling. Finally, we demonstrated the activation of Rage/JNK signaling caused by extracellular HMGB1 was responsible for miR-21 overexpression. Together, these findings reveal an important role of extracellular HMGB1 in HCC progression through upregulating miR-21/CD44.

SLAC2B-dependent microtubule acetylation regulates extracellular matrix-mediated intracellular TM4SF5 traffic to the plasma membranes

Transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) translocates intracellularly and promotes cell migration, but how subcellular TM4SF5 traffic is regulated to guide cellular migration is unknown. We investigated the influences of the extracellular environment and intracellular signaling on the TM4SF5 traffic with regard to migration directionality. Cell adhesion to fibronectin (FN) but not poly-l-lysine enhanced the traffic velocity and straightness of the TM4SF5_WT (but not palmitoylation-deficient mutant TM4SF5 Pal - ) toward the leading edges, depending on tubulin acetylation. Acetylated-microtubules in SLAC2B-positive cells reached mostly the juxtanuclear regions, but reached-out toward the leading edges upon SLAC2B suppression. TM4SF5 expression caused SLAC2B not to be localized at the leading edges. TM4SF5 colocalization with HDAC6 depended on paxillin expression. The trimeric complex consisting of TM4SF5, HDAC6, and SLAC2B might, thus, be enriched at the perinuclear cytosols toward the leading edges. More TM4SF5_WT translocation to the leading edges was possible when acetylated-microtubules reached the frontal edges following HDAC6 inhibition by paxillin presumably at new cell-FN adhesions, leading to persistent cell migration. Collectively, this study revealed that cell-FN adhesion and microtubule acetylation could control intracellular traffic of TM4SF5 vesicles to the leading edges via coordinated actions of paxillin, SLAC2B, and HDAC6, leading to TM4SF5-dependent cell migration.

Proteolytic Processing of CD44 and Its Implications in Cancer

CD44 is a transmembrane glycoprotein expressed in several healthy and tumor tissues. Modifications in its structure contribute differently to the activity of this molecule. One modification that has provoked interest is the consecutive cleavage of the CD44 extracellular ectodomain by enzymes that belong mainly to the family of metalloproteases. This process releases biologically active substrates, via alternative splice forms of CD44, that generate CD44v3 or v6 isoforms which participate in the transcriptional regulation of genes and proteins associated to signaling pathways involved in the development of cancer. These include the protooncogene tyrosine-protein kinase Src (c-Src)/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3), the epithelial growth factor receptor, the estrogen receptor, Wnt/βcatenin, or Hippo signaling pathways all of which are associated to cell proliferation, differentiation, or cancer progression. Whereas CD44 still remains as a very useful prognostic cell marker in different pathologies, the main topic is that the generation of CD44 intracellular fragments assists the regulation of transcriptional proteins involved in the cell cycle, cell metabolism, and most importantly, the regulation of some stem cell-associated markers.

Metastatic behavior analyses of tetraspanin TM4SF5-expressing spheres in three-dimensional (3D) cell culture environment

Cancer metastasis involves diverse cellular functions via bidirectional communications between intracellular and extracellular spaces. To achieve development of the anti-metastatic drugs, one needs to consider the efficacy and mode of action (MOA) of the drug candidates to block the metastatic potentials of cancerous cells. Rather than under two-dimensional environment, investigation of the metastatic potentials under three-dimensional environment would be much pharmaceutically beneficent, since it can mimic the in vivo tumor lesions in cancer patients, leading to allowance of drug candidates analyzed in the 3D culture systems to lower failure rates during the anti-metastatic drug development. Here we have reviewed on the analyses of metastatic potentials of certain cancer models in 3D culture systems surrounded with extracellular matrix proteins, which could be supported by TM4SF5- and/or EMT-mediated actions. We particularly focused the initial events of the cancer metastasis, such as invasive outgrowth and dissemination from the cancer cell masses, spheroids, embedded in the 3D gel culture systems. This review summarizes the significance of tetraspanin TM4SF5 and Snail1 that are related to EMT in the metastatic potentials explored in the 3D gel systems.

Targeting Liver Cancer Stem Cells: An Alternative Therapeutic Approach for Liver Cancer

The first report of cancer stem cell (CSC) from Bruce et al. has demonstrated the relatively rare population of stem-like cells in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). The discovery of leukemic CSCs prompted further identification of CSCs in multiple types of solid tumor. Recently, extensive research has attempted to identity CSCs in multiple types of solid tumors in the brain, colon, head and neck, liver, and lung. Based on these studies, we hypothesize that the initiation and progression of most malignant tumors rely largely on the CSC population. Recent studies indicated that stem cell-related markers or signaling pathways, such as aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH), CD133, epithelial cell adhesion molecule (EpCAM), Wnt/β-catenin signaling, and Notch signaling, contribute to the initiation and progression of various liver cancer types. Importantly, CSCs are markedly resistant to conventional therapeutic approaches and current targeted therapeutics. Therefore, it is believed that selectively targeting specific markers and/or signaling pathways of hepatic CSCs is an effective therapeutic strategy for treating chemotherapy-resistant liver cancer. Here, we provide an overview of the current knowledge on the hepatic CSC hypothesis and discuss the specific surface markers and critical signaling pathways involved in the development and maintenance of hepatic CSC subpopulations.

Role of Transmembrane 4 L Six Family 1 in the Development and Progression of Cancer

Transmembrane 4 L six family 1 (TM4SF1) is a protein with four transmembrane domains that belongs to the transmembrane 4 L six family members (TM4SFs). Structurally, TM4SF1 consists of four transmembrane domains (TM1–4), N- and C-terminal intracellular domains, two extracellular domains, a smaller domain between TM1 and TM2, and a larger domain between TM3 and TM4. Within the cell, TM4SF1 is located at the cell surface where it transmits extracellular signals into the cytoplasm. TM4SF1 interacts with tetraspanins, integrin, receptor tyrosine kinases, and other proteins to form tetraspanin-enriched microdomains. This interaction affects the pro-migratory activity of the cells, and thus it plays important roles in the development and progression of cancer. TM4SF1 has been shown to be overexpressed in many malignant tumors, including gliomas; malignant melanomas; and liver, prostate, breast, pancreatic, bladder, colon, lung, gastric, ovarian, and thyroid cancers. TM4SF1 promotes the migration and invasion of cancer cells by inducing epithelial-mesenchymal transition, self-renewal ability, tumor angiogenesis, invadopodia formation, and regulating the related signaling pathway. TM4SF1 is an independent prognostic indicator and biomarker in several cancers. It also promotes drug resistance, which is a major cause of therapeutic failure. These characteristics make TM4SF1 an attractive target for antibody-based immunotherapy. Here, we review the many functions of TM4SF1 in malignant tumors, with the aim to understand the interaction between its expression and the biological behaviors of cancer and to supply a basis for exploring new therapeutic targets.

Liver cancer stem cells as a hierarchical society: yes or no?

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are cells possessing abilities of self-renewal, differentiation, and tumorigenicity in NOD/SCID mice. Based on this definition, multiple cell surface markers (such as CD24, CD133, CD90, and EpCAM) as well as chemical methods are discovered to enrich liver CSCs in the recent decade. Accumulated studies have revealed molecular signatures and signaling pathways involved in regulating different liver CSCs. Among liver CSCs positive for different markers, some molecular features and regulatory pathways are commonly shared, while some are only unique in certain CSC populations. These studies imply that liver CSCs exhibit diverse heterogeneity, while a functional relationship also exists. The aim of this review is to revisit the society of liver CSCs and summarize the common or unique molecular features of known liver CSCs. We hope to call for attention of researchers on the relationship of the liver CSC subgroups and to provide clues on the hierarchical structure of the liver CSC society.

Inhibition of CD133 Overcomes Cisplatin Resistance Through Inhibiting PI3K/AKT/mTOR Signaling Pathway and Autophagy in CD133-Positive Gastric Cancer Cells

Cisplatin is widely used as the standard gastric cancer treatment, but the relapse and metastasis are common as intrinsic or acquired drug resistance. CD133 has been widely known to be associated with chemoresistance in various cancer cells. In this study, we focused on investigating the function and mechanism of CD133 underlying cisplatin resistance in gastric cancer cell line KATO-III. We detected CD133 expression by using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blot and found that expression of CD133 was upregulated in cisplatin resistance of KATO-III cells (Cis-KATO-III) compared with KATO-III cells, indicating the role of CD133 in regulating cisplatin resistance of KATO-III cells. Then we sorted the Cis-KATO-III cells into CD133-positive (CD133⁺) pools and measured the proliferation and apoptosis after the cell is transfected with pc-CD133 and sh-CD133 by 3-(4,5-dimethyl-2-thiazolyl)-2,5-diphenyl-2-H-tetrazolium bromide assay and flow cytometry. The results showed that the inhibition of CD133 inhibited the cell viability and promoted the cell apoptosis after cisplatin treatment. Furthermore, we found that inhibition of CD133 downregulated the expression of PI3K/AKT and promoted the expression of mammalian target of rapamycin, thus inhibited the autophagic activity in the Cis-KATO-III cells after cisplatin treatment. Besides, we also verified the effects of CD133 in vivo. The results indicated that inhibition of CD133 enhanced the Cis-KATO-III cell sensitivity to cisplatin by regulating PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway. In summary, our data provide new insight that CD133 activates the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling transduction pathway, resulting in activation of autophagy and cisplatin resistance of Cis-KATO-III cells. These results may offer a novel therapeutic target in cisplatin-resistant gastric cancer.

LncRNA RUNX1-IT1 which is downregulated by hypoxia-driven histone deacetylase 3 represses proliferation and cancer stem-like properties in hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is characterised by a hypoxic microenvironment and a high rate of heterogeneity and recurrence, and the presence of cancer stem cells (CSCs) in HCC may well explain both of these pathological properties. There is mounting evidence that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) participate in carcinogenesis and maintain cancer stemness of HCC cells. However, the expression modes, regulatory mechanisms and potential roles of stemness-related lncRNAs in HCC are still obscure. LncRNA RUNX1-IT1 is the intronic transcript 1 of the RUNX1, which is also known as chromosome 21 open-reading frame 96 (C21orF96). Although the functions of the RUNX1 have been identified in different diseases, the function and its potential mechanisms of the lncRNA RUNX1-IT1 in HCC still remains to be largely unknown. In this study, we verified that the expression of LncRNA RUNX1-IT1 was decreased in GEO data set, HCC samples and correlated with unfavourable clinicopathologic characteristics and poor prognosis. RUNX1-IT1 repressed HCC cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, invasion and cancer stemness and induced apoptosis in vitro. Overexpression of RUNX1-IT1 impaired the growth, metastasis and stem-like features of HCC cells in vivo. Mechanistically, RUNX1-IT1 directly bound to miR-632 and acted as competing endogenous RNA to facilitate the expression of the miR-632 target gene GSK-3β and subsequently modulate the WNT/β-catenin pathway in HCC cells. Furthermore, hypoxia-driven histone deacetylase 3 (HDAC3), as an upstream regulatory mechanism, was critical for the downregulation of RUNX1-IT1 in HCC. Thus, lncRNA RUNX1-IT1, as a regulator of hypoxia, may function as a potential therapeutic target for conquering HCC.

Shear stress activates ATOH8 via autocrine VEGF promoting glycolysis dependent-survival of colorectal cancer cells in the circulation

Background

Metastasis and recurrence, wherein circulating tumour cells (CTCs) play an important role, are the leading causes of death in colorectal cancer (CRC). Metastasis-initiating CTCs manage to maintain intravascular survival under anoikis, immune attack, and importantly shear stress; however, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood.

Methods

In view of the scarcity of CTCs in the bloodstream, suspended colorectal cancer cells were flowed into the cyclic laminar shear stress (LSS) according to previous studies. Then, we detected these suspended cells with a CK8+/CD45−/DAPI+ phenotype and named them mimic circulating tumour cells (m-CTCs) for subsequent CTCs related researches. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction, western blotting, and immunofluorescence were utilised to analyse gene expression change of m-CTCs sensitive to LSS stimulation. Additionally, we examined atonal bHLH transcription factor 8 (ATOH8) expressions in CTCs among 156 CRC patients and mice by fluorescence in situ hybridisation and flow cytometry. The pro-metabolic and pro-survival functions of ATOH8 were determined by glycolysis assay, live/dead cell vitality assay, anoikis assay, and immunohistochemistry. Further, the concrete up-and-down mechanisms of m-CTC survival promotion by ATOH8 were explored.

Results

The m-CTCs actively responded to LSS by triggering the expression of ATOH8, a fluid mechanosensor, with executive roles in intravascular survival and metabolism plasticity. Specifically, ATOH8 was upregulated via activation of VEGFR2/AKT signalling pathway mediated by LSS induced VEGF release. ATOH8 then transcriptionally activated HK2-mediated glycolysis, thus promoting the intravascular survival of colorectal cancer cells in the circulation.

Conclusions

This study elucidates a novel mechanism that an LSS triggered VEGF-VEGFR2-AKT-ATOH8 signal axis mediates m-CTCs survival, thus providing a potential target for the prevention and treatment of hematogenous metastasis in CRC.

Amino acid transporters as tetraspanin TM4SF5 binding partners

Transmembrane 4 L6 family member 5 (TM4SF5) is a tetraspanin that has four transmembrane domains and can be N-glycosylated and palmitoylated. These posttranslational modifications of TM4SF5 enable homophilic or heterophilic binding to diverse membrane proteins and receptors, including growth factor receptors, integrins, and tetraspanins. As a member of the tetraspanin family, TM4SF5 promotes protein-protein complexes for the spatiotemporal regulation of the expression, stability, binding, and signaling activity of its binding partners. Chronic diseases such as liver diseases involve bidirectional communication between extracellular and intracellular spaces, resulting in immune-related metabolic effects during the development of pathological phenotypes. It has recently been shown that, during the development of fibrosis and cancer, TM4SF5 forms protein-protein complexes with amino acid transporters, which can lead to the regulation of cystine uptake from the extracellular space to the cytosol and arginine export from the lysosomal lumen to the cytosol. Furthermore, using proteomic analyses, we found that diverse amino acid transporters were precipitated with TM4SF5, although these binding partners need to be confirmed by other approaches and in functionally relevant studies. This review discusses the scope of the pathological relevance of TM4SF5 and its binding to certain amino acid transporters.

Role of JAK/STAT3 Signaling in the Regulation of Metastasis, the Transition of Cancer Stem Cells, and Chemoresistance of Cancer by Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition

The JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway plays an essential role in various types of cancers. Activation of this pathway leads to increased tumorigenic and metastatic ability, the transition of cancer stem cells (CSCs), and chemoresistance in cancer via enhancing the epithelial–mesenchymal transition (EMT). EMT acts as a critical regulator in the progression of cancer and is involved in regulating invasion, spread, and survival. Furthermore, accumulating evidence indicates the failure of conventional therapies due to the acquisition of CSC properties. In this review, we summarize the effects of JAK/STAT3 activation on EMT and the generation of CSCs. Moreover, we discuss cutting-edge data on the link between EMT and CSCs in the tumor microenvironment that involves a previously unknown function of miRNAs, and also discuss new regulators of the JAK/STAT3 signaling pathway.

TM4SF5-mediated CD44v8-10 splicing variant promotes survival of type II alveolar epithelial cells during idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) regulate cell fate, although signaling molecules that regulate ROS hormesis remain unclear. Here we show that transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) in lung epithelial cells induced the alternatively spliced CD44v8-10 variant via an inverse ZEB2/epithelial splicing regulatory proteins (ESRPs) linkage. TM4SF5 formed complexes with the cystine/glutamate antiporter system via TM4SF5- and CD44v8-10-dependent CD98hc plasma-membrane enrichment. Dynamic TM4SF5 binding to CD98hc required CD44v8-10 under ROS-generating inflammatory conditions. TM4SF5 and CD44v8-10 upregulated cystine/glutamate antiporter activity and intracellular glutathione levels, leading to ROS modulation for cell survival. Tm4sf5-null mice exhibited attenuated bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis with lower CD44v8-10 and ESRPs levels than wild-type mice. Primary mouse alveolar epithelial cells (AECs) revealed type II AECs (AECII), but not type I, to adapt the TM4SF5-mediated characteristics, suggesting TM4SF5-mediated AECII survival following AECI injury during idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). Thus, the TM4SF5-mediated CD44v8-10 splice variant could be targeted against IPF.

Clinicopathological significance of TM4SF5 expression in human hepatocellular carcinoma tissues

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major cause of cancer-related mortality. Recent studies have indicated that transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) serves a vital role in tumor progression and metastasis in human cell lines and mouse models. However, little is known about the association between TM4SF5 expression and clinicopathological factors. The aim of the current study was to investigate this association and evaluate overall survival (OS) of patients. Immunohistochemistry and clinical record analysis revealed that TM4SF5 expression was significantly downregulated in HCC tissues. In addition, TM4SF5 expression was significantly associated with tumor size, vascular invasion, tumor differentiation, and tumor-node-metastasis stage. The survival analysis also demonstrated that low TM4SF5 expression resulted in shorter OS. In conclusion, the association between TM4SF5 expression and clinicopathologic factors was established, and prognostic significance of TM4SF5 as a potential biomarker was evaluated using human HCC formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples. The results of the present study demonstrated that low TM4SF5 expression was associated with tumor malignant progression and may be a good prognostic biomarker for OS in HCC.

Transmembrane 4 L Six Family Member 5 Senses Arginine for mTORC1 Signaling

The mechanistic target of rapamycin complex (mTORC1) is a signaling hub on the lysosome surface, responding to lysosomal amino acids. Although arginine is metabolically important, the physiological arginine sensor that activates mTOR remains unclear. Here, we show that transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) translocates from plasma membrane to lysosome upon arginine sufficiency and senses arginine, culminating in mTORC1/S6K1 activation. TM4SF5 bound active mTOR upon arginine sufficiency and constitutively bound amino acid transporter SLC38A9. TM4SF5 binding to the cytosolic arginine sensor Castor1 decreased upon arginine sufficiency, thus allowing TM4SF5-mediated sensing of metabolic amino acids. TM4SF5 directly bound free L-arginine via its extracellular loop possibly for the efflux, being supported by mutant study and homology and molecular docking modeling. Therefore, we propose that lysosomal TM4SF5 senses and enables arginine efflux for mTORC1/S6K1 activation, and arginine-auxotroph in hepatocellular carcinoma may be targeted by blocking the arginine sensing using anti-TM4SF5 reagents.

Lysyl-tRNA synthetase-expressing colon spheroids induce M2 macrophage polarization to promote metastasis

Lysyl-tRNA synthetase (KRS) functions canonically in cytosolic translational processes. However, KRS is highly expressed in colon cancer, and localizes to distinct cellular compartments upon phosphorylations (i.e., the plasma membranes after T52 phosphorylation and the nucleus after S207 phosphorylation), leading to probably alternative noncanonical functions. It is unknown how other subcellular KRSs crosstalk with environmental cues during cancer progression. Here, we demonstrate that the KRS-dependent metastatic behavior of colon cancer spheroids within 3D gels requires communication between cellular molecules and extracellular soluble factors and neighboring cells. Membranous KRS and nuclear KRS were found to participate in invasive cell dissemination of colon cancer spheroids in 3D gels. Cancer spheroids secreted GAS6 via a KRS-dependent mechanism and caused the M2 polarization of macrophages, which activated the neighboring cells via secretion of FGF2/GROα/M-CSF to promote cancer dissemination under environmental remodeling via fibroblast-mediated laminin production. Analyses of tissues from clinical colon cancer patients and Krs-/+ animal models for cancer metastasis supported the roles of KRS, GAS6, and M2 macrophages in KRS-dependent positive feedback between tumors and environmental factors. Altogether, KRS in colon cancer cells remodels the microenvironment to promote metastasis, which can thus be therapeutically targeted at these bidirectional KRS-dependent communications of cancer spheroids with environmental cues.

CD133-induced TM4SF5 expression promotes sphere growth via recruitment and blocking of protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type F (PTPRF)

CD133 is a surface marker of liver cancer stem cells. Transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) promotes sphere growth and circulation. However, it is unknown how CD133 and TM4SF5 cross-talk with each other for cancer stem cell properties. Here, we investigated the significance of inter-relationships between CD133, TM4SF5, CD44, and protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type F (PTPRF) in a three-dimensional (3D) sphere growth system. We found that CD133 upregulated TM4SF5 and CD44, whereas TM4SF5 and CD44 did not affect CD133 expression. Signaling activity following CD133 phosphorylation caused TM4SF5 expression and sphere growth. TM4SF5 bound to CD133 and promoted c-Src activity for CD133 phosphorylation as a positive feedback loop, leading to CD133-mediated sphere growth that was inhibited by TM4SF5 inhibition or suppression. TM4SF5 also bound PTPRF and promoted paxillin phosphorylation. Decreased sphere growth upon CD133 suppression was recovered by TM4SF5 expression and partially by PTPRF suppression. TM4SF5 inhibition enhanced PTPRF levels and abolished PTPRF suppression-mediated sphere growth. Altogether, CD133-induced TM4SF5 expression and function were important for liver cancer sphere growth and may be a promising target to block metastasis.

Stem-like plasticity and heterogeneity of circulating tumor cells: current status and prospect challenges in liver cancer

Poor prognosis and high recurrence remain leading causes of primary liver cancerassociated mortality. The spread of circulating tumor cells (CTCs) in the blood plays a major role in the initiation of metastasis and tumor recurrence after surgery. Nevertheless, only a subset of CTCs can survive, migrate to distant sites and establish secondary tumors. Consistent with cancer stem cell (CSC) hypothesis, stem-like CTCs might represent a potential source for cancer relapse and distant metastasis. Thus, identification of stem-like metastasis-initiating CTC-subset may provide useful clinically prognostic information. This review will emphasize the most relevant findings of CTCs in the context of stem-like biology associated to liver carcinogenesis. In this view, the emerging field of stem-like CTCs may deliver substantial contribution in liver cancer field in order to move to personalized approaches for diagnosis, prognosis and therapy.

Involvement of inflammation and its related microRNAs in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most commonly diagnosed type of cancer. The tumor inflammatory microenvironment regulates almost every step towards liver tumorigenesis and subsequent progression, and regulation of the inflammation-related signaling pathways, cytokines, chemokines and non-coding RNAs influences the proliferation, migration and metastasis of liver tumor cells. Inflammation fine-tunes the cancer microenvironment to favor epithelial-mesenchymal transition, in which cancer stem cells maintain tumorigenic potential. Emerging evidence points to inflammation-related microRNAs as crucial molecules to integrate the complex cellular and molecular crosstalk during HCC progression. Thus understanding the mechanisms by which inflammation regulates microRNAs might provide novel and admissible strategies for preventing, diagnosing and treating HCC. In this review, we will update three hypotheses of hepatocarcinogenesis and elaborate the most predominant inflammation signaling pathways, i.e. IL-6/STAT3 and NF-κB. We also try to summarize the crucial tumor-promoting and tumor-suppressing microRNAs and detail how they regulate HCC initiation and progression and collaborate with other critical modulators in this review.

Differential regulation of cellular functions by the C-termini of transmembrane 4 L six family proteins in 2- or 3-dimensional environment

The transmembrane 4 L six family proteins TM4SF1, TM4SF4, and TM4SF5 share 40-50% overall sequence identity, but their C-terminus identity is limited. It may be likely that the C-termini of the members are important and unique for own regulatory functions. We thus examined how the TM4SF5 C-terminus affected cellular functions differentially from other family members. Using colon cancer cells expressing wildtype (WT), C-terminus-deleted, or chimeric mutants, diverse cellular functions were explored in 2-dimensional (2D) and 3-dimensional (3D) condition. The C-termini of the proteins were relatively comparable with respect to 2D cell proliferation, although each C-terminal-deletion mutant exhibited increased proliferation relative to the WT. Using chimeric constructs, we found that the TM4SF5 C-terminus was critical for regulating the diverse metastatic functions of TM4SF5, and could positively replace the C-termini of other family members. Replacement of the TM4SF1 or TM4SF4 C-terminus with that of TM4SF5 increased spheroids growth, transwell migration, and invasive dissemination from spheroids in 3D collagen gels. TM4SF5-mediated effects required its extracellular loop 2 linked to the C-terminus via the transmembrane domain 4, with causing c-Src activation. Altogether, the C-terminus of TM4SF5 appears to mediate pro-migratory roles, depending on a structural relay from the second extracellular loop to the C-terminus.

A rapid and quantitative method to detect human circulating tumor cells in a preclinical animal model

Background

As cancer metastasis is the deadliest aspect of cancer, causing 90% of human deaths, evaluating the molecular mechanisms underlying this process is the major interest to those in the drug development field. Both therapeutic target identification and proof-of-concept experimentation in anti-cancer drug development require appropriate animal models, such as xenograft tumor transplantation in transgenic and knockout mice. In the progression of cancer metastasis, circulating tumor cells (CTCs) are the most critical factor in determining the prognosis of cancer patients. Several studies have demonstrated that measuring CTC-specific markers in a clinical setting (e.g., flow cytometry) can provide a current status of cancer development in patients. However, this useful technique has rarely been applied in the real-time monitoring of CTCs in preclinical animal models.

Methods

In this study, we designed a rapid and reliable detection method by combining a bioluminescent in vivo imaging system (IVIS) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (QPCR)-based analysis to measure CTCs in animal blood. Using the IVIS Spectrum CT System with 3D–imaging on orthotropic-developed breast-tumor-bearing mice.

Results

In this manuscript, we established a quick and reliable method for measuring CTCs in a preclinical animal mode. The key to this technique is the use of specific human and mouse GUS primers on DNA/RNA of mouse peripheral blood under an absolute qPCR system. First, the high sensitivity of cancer cell detection on IVIS was presented by measuring the luciferase carried MDA-MB-231 cells from 5 to 5x10¹¹ cell numbers with great correlation (R² = 0.999). Next, the MDA-MB-231 cell numbers injected by tail vein and their IVIS radiance signals were strongly corrected with qPCR-calculated copy numbers (R² > 0.99). Furthermore, by applying an orthotropic implantation animal model, we successfully distinguished xenograft tumor-bearing mice and control mice with a significant difference (p < 0.001), whereas IVIS Spectrum-CT 3D–visualization showed that blood of mice with lung metastasis contained more than twice the CTC numbers than ordinary tumor-bearing mice. We demonstrated a positive correlation between lung metastasis status and CTC numbers in peripheral mouse blood.

Conclusion

Collectively, the techniques developed for this study resulted in the integration of CTC assessments into preclinical models both in vivo and ex vivo, which will facilitate translational targeted therapy in clinical practice.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12885-017-3419-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

TM4SF5-Mediated Roles in the Development of Fibrotic Phenotypes

Transmembrane 4 L six family member 5 (TM4SF5) can form tetraspanin-enriched microdomains (TERMs) on the cell's surface. TERMs contain protein-protein complexes comprised of tetraspanins, growth factor receptors, and integrins. These complexes regulate communication between extracellular and intracellular spaces to control diverse cellular functions. TM4SF5 influences the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), aberrant multilayer cellular growth, drug resistance, enhanced migration and invasion, circulation through the bloodstream, tumor-initiation property, metastasis, and muscle development in zebrafish. Here, current data on TM4SF5's roles in the development of fibrotic phenotypes are reviewed. TM4SF5 is induced by transforming growth factor β1 (TGFβ1) signaling via a collaboration with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) activation. TM4SF5, by itself or in concert with other receptors, transduces signals intracellularly. In hepatocytes, TM4SF5 expression regulates cell cycle progression, migration, and expression of extracellular matrix components. In CCl₄-treated mice, TM4SF5, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), and collagen I expression are observed together along the fibrotic septa regions of the liver. These fibrotic phenotypes are diminished by anti-TM4SF5 reagents, such as a specific small compound [TSAHC, 4'-(p-toluenesulfonylamido)-4-hydroxychalcone] or a chimeric antibody. This review discusses the antifibrotic strategies that target TM4SF5 and its associated protein networks that regulate the intracellular signaling necessary for fibrotic functions of hepatocytes.

Anti-cancer Activity of Novel TM4SF5-Targeting Antibodies through TM4SF5 Neutralization and Immune Cell-Mediated Cytotoxicity

The transmembrane four L6 family member 5 (TM4SF5) protein is a novel molecular target for the prevention and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. TM4SF5 is highly expressed in liver, colon, esophageal, and pancreatic cancers and is implicated in tumor progression. Here, we screened monoclonal antibodies that specifically bound to the extracellular loop 2 (EC2) of TM4SF5 from a phage-displayed murine antibody (single-chain variable fragment; scFv) library. We constructed and characterized chimeric antibodies, Ab27 and Ab79, of scFv fused with Fc domain of human IgG1. The affinity (K_D) of Ab27 and Ab79 for soluble EC2 was approximately 9.2 nM and 16.9 nM, respectively, as determined by surface plasmon resonance analysis. Ab27 and Ab79 efficiently bound to native TM4SF5 on the cell surface were internalized into the cancer cells, leading to a decrease in cell surface TM4SF5. Ab27 and Ab79 inhibited the proliferation and invasion of TM4SF5-positive liver and colon cancer cells and reduced FAK and c-Src phosphorylation. Ab27 and Ab79 also enhanced anoikis sensitivity and reduced survivin. Ab27 mediated antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity in vitro. Ab27 and Ab79 efficiently inhibited tumor growth in a liver cancer xenograft model. These results strongly support the further development of Ab27 as a novel anti-cancer agent in the clinic.

Dynamic and coordinated single-molecular interactions at TM4SF5-enriched microdomains guide invasive behaviors in 2- and 3-dimensional environments

Membrane proteins sense extracellular cues and transduce intracellular signaling to coordinate directionality and speed during cellular migration. They are often localized to specific regions, as with lipid rafts or tetraspanin-enriched microdomains; however, the dynamic interactions of tetraspanins with diverse receptors within tetraspanin-enriched microdomains on cellular surfaces remain largely unexplored. Here, we investigated effects of tetraspan(in) TM4SF5 (transmembrane 4 L6 family member 5)-enriched microdomains (T₅ERMs) on the directionality of cell migration. Physical association of TM4SF5 with epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) and integrin α5 was visualized by live fluorescence cross-correlation spectroscopy and higher-resolution microscopy at the leading edge of migratory cells, presumably forming TM4SF5-enriched microdomains. Whereas TM4SF5 and EGFR colocalized at the migrating leading region more than at the rear, TM4SF5 and integrin α5 colocalized evenly throughout cells. Cholesterol depletion and disruption in TM4SF5 post-translational modifications, including N-glycosylation and palmitoylation, altered TM4SF5 interactions and cellular localization, which led to less cellular migration speed and directionality in 2- or 3-dimensional conditions. TM4SF5 controlled directional cell migration and invasion, and importantly, these TM4SF5 functions were dependent on cholesterol, TM4SF5 post-translational modifications, and EGFR and integrin α5 activity. Altogether, we showed that TM4SF5 dynamically interacted with EGFR and integrin α5 in migratory cells to control directionality and invasion.-Kim, H.-J., Kwon, S., Nam, S. H., Jung, J. W., Kang, M., Ryu, J., Kim, J. E., Cheong, J.-G., Cho, C. Y., Kim, S., Song, D.-G., Kim, Y.-N., Kim, T. Y., Jung, M.-K., Lee, K.-M., Pack, C.-G., Lee, J. W. Dynamic and coordinated single-molecular interactions at TM4SF5-enriched microdomains guide invasive behaviors in 2- and 3-dimensional environments.

Anti-metastatic effect of the TM4SF5-specific peptide vaccine and humanized monoclonal antibody on colon cancer in a mouse lung metastasis model

Transmembrane 4 superfamily member 5 protein (TM4SF5) is a potential therapeutic target for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and colon cancer. In a previous study, we demonstrated the prophylactic and therapeutic effects of a TM4SF5-specific peptide vaccine and monoclonal antibody in HCC and colon cancer in a mouse model. Here, we designed a cyclic peptide targeting TM4SF5. Cyclic peptide-specific antibodies were produced in mice after immunization with a complex of the peptide, CpG-DNA, and liposomes. Intravenous injection of the CT-26 mouse colon cancer cell line into mice induced tumors in the lung. Immunization with the peptide vaccine improved the survival rate and reduced the growth of lung tumors. We established a monoclonal antibody specific to the cyclic TM4SF5-based peptide and humanized the antibody sequence by complementarity determining region-grafting. The humanized antibody was reactive to the cyclic peptide and TM4SF5 protein. Treatment of CT-26 cells with the humanized antibody reduced cell motility in vitro. Furthermore, direct injection of the humanized anti-TM4SF5 antibody in vivo reduced growth of lung tumors in mouse metastasis model. Therefore, we conclude that the immunization with the cyclic peptide vaccine and injection of the TM4SF5-specifc humanized antibody have an anti-metastatic effect against colon cancer in mice. Importantly, the humanized antibody may serve as a starting platf.