1
|
Fernandez N, Argueta T, DeLeon IG. Common Practices used to Establish and Implement Token Economies in Clinical and Instructional Settings: A Survey of BACB Certificants. Behav Anal Pract 2023; 16:1151-1162. [PMID: 38076757 PMCID: PMC10700257 DOI: 10.1007/s40617-023-00800-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 05/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Token economies are among the most widely used procedures in behavior analysis and research on token economies has spanned over 80 years. Several textbooks have outlined the essential components of token economies and suggested how they can be trained and implemented in practice. However, procedures evaluated in applied research can vary from how those procedures are implemented in clinical practice. It is conceivable that the way in which token economies are implemented in clinical settings does not resemble the procedures described in research and behavior analytic textbooks. We surveyed 255 board certified behavior analysts and board certified assistant behavior analysts about their commonly used practices when training and implementing token economies with individuals with autism and other neurodevelopmental disorders. Results suggest that certain aspects of token economies in practice often bear only superficial resemblance to how they are described in textbooks. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40617-023-00800-5.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Fernandez
- Department of Behavioral Psychology, Kennedy Krieger Institute, 707 North Broadway, Baltimore, MD 21205 USA
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School, Baltimore, MD USA
| | - Tracy Argueta
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL USA
| | - Iser G. DeLeon
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Burk DC, Taswell C, Tang H, Averbeck BB. Computational mechanisms underlying motivation to earn symbolic reinforcers. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.10.11.561900. [PMID: 37873311 PMCID: PMC10592730 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.11.561900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Reinforcement learning (RL) is a theoretical framework that describes how agents learn to select options that maximize rewards and minimize punishments over time. We often make choices, however, to obtain symbolic reinforcers (e.g. money, points) that can later be exchanged for primary reinforcers (e.g. food, drink). Although symbolic reinforcers are motivating, little is understood about the neural or computational mechanisms underlying the motivation to earn them. In the present study, we examined how monkeys learn to make choices that maximize fluid rewards through reinforcement with tokens. The question addressed here is how the value of a state, which is a function of multiple task features (e.g. current number of accumulated tokens, choice options, task epoch, trials since last delivery of primary reinforcer, etc.), drives value and affects motivation. We constructed a Markov decision process model that computes the value of task states given task features to capture the motivational state of the animal. Fixation times, choice reaction times, and abort frequency were all significantly related to values of task states during the tokens task (n=5 monkeys). Furthermore, the model makes predictions for how neural responses could change on a moment-by-moment basis relative to changes in state value. Together, this task and model allow us to capture learning and behavior related to symbolic reinforcement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Diana C. Burk
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda MD, 20892-4415
| | - Craig Taswell
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda MD, 20892-4415
| | - Hua Tang
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda MD, 20892-4415
| | - Bruno B. Averbeck
- Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda MD, 20892-4415
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Madden GJ, Mahmoudi S, Brown K. Pavlovian learning and conditioned reinforcement. J Appl Behav Anal 2023; 56:498-519. [PMID: 37254881 PMCID: PMC10364091 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.1004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Conditioned reinforcers are widely used in applied behavior analysis. Basic research evidence reveals that Pavlovian learning plays an important role in the acquisition and efficacy of new conditioned-reinforcer functions. Thus, a better understanding of Pavlovian principles holds the promise of improving the efficacy of conditioned reinforcement in applied research and practice. This paper surveys how (and if) Pavlovian principles are presented in behavior-analytic textbooks; imprecisions and knowledge gaps within contemporary Pavlovian empirical findings are highlighted. Thereafter, six practical principles of Pavlovian conditioning are presented along with empirical support and knowledge gaps that should be filled by applied and translational behavior-analytic researchers. Innovative applications of these principles are outlined for research in language acquisition, token reinforcement, and self-control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Saba Mahmoudi
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| | - Katherine Brown
- Department of Psychology, Utah State University, Logan, UT, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Tarifa-Rodriguez A, Virues-Ortega J, Perez-Bustamante Pereira A, Calero-Elvira A, Cowie S. Quantitative Indices of Student Social Media Engagement in Tertiary Education: A Systematic Review and a Taxonomy. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL EDUCATION 2023:1-29. [PMID: 37359171 PMCID: PMC10090751 DOI: 10.1007/s10864-023-09516-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Recent studies have evaluated the use of social media as learning aids in tertiary education. Emerging research in this area has focused primarily on non-quantitative approaches to student social media engagement. However, quantitative engagement outcomes may be extracted from student posts, comments, likes, and views. The goal of the present review was to provide a research-informed taxonomy of quantitative and behavior-based metrics of student social media engagement. We selected 75 empirical studies comprising a pooled sample of 11,605 tertiary education students. Included studies used social media for educational purposes and reported student social media engagement outcomes (source databases: PsycInfo and ERIC). We used independent raters and stringent interrater agreement and data extraction processes to mitigate bias during the screening of references. Over half of the studies (52%, n = 39) utilized ad hoc interviews and surveys to estimate student social media engagement, whereas thirty-three studies (44%) used some form of quantitative analysis of engagement. Based on this literature, we present a selection of count-based, time-based, and text-analysis metrics. The proposed taxonomy of engagement metrics resulting provides the methodological basis for the analysis of social media behavior in educational settings, particularly, for human operant and behavioral education studies. Implications for future research are discussed. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10864-023-09516-6.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Sarah Cowie
- The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Podlesnik CA, Ritchey CM, Waits J, Gilroy SP. A Comprehensive Systematic Review of Procedures and Analyses Used in Basic and Preclinical Studies of Resurgence, 1970-2020. Perspect Behav Sci 2023; 46:137-184. [PMID: 37006602 PMCID: PMC10050505 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-022-00361-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Resurgence is the return of a previously reinforced response as conditions worsen for an alternative response, such as the introduction of extinction, reductions in reinforcement, or punishment. As a procedure, resurgence has been used to model behavioral treatments and understand behavioral processes contributing both to relapse of problem behavior and flexibility during problem-solving. Identifying existing procedural and analytic methods arranged in basic/preclinical research could be used by basic and preclinical researchers to develop novel approaches to study resurgence, whereas translational and clinical researchers could identify potential approaches to combating relapse during behavioral interventions. Despite the study of resurgence for over half a century, there have been no systematic reviews of the basic/preclinical research on resurgence. To characterize the procedural and analytic methods used in basic/preclinical research on resurgence, we performed a systematic review consistent with PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses). We identified 120 articles consisting of 200 experiments that presented novel empirical research, examined operant behavior, and included standard elements of a resurgence procedure. We reported prevalence and trends in over 60 categories, including participant characteristics (e.g., species, sample size, disability), designs (e.g., single subject, group), procedural characteristics (e.g., responses, reinforcer types, control conditions), criteria defining resurgence (e.g., single test, multiple tests, relative to control), and analytic strategies (e.g., inferential statistics, quantitative analysis, visual inspection). We make some recommendations for future basic, preclinical, and clinical research based on our findings of this expanding literature. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40614-022-00361-y.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher A. Podlesnik
- Department of Psychology, University of Florida, 114 Psychology Building, 945 Center Drive, Gainesville, FL 32611-2250 USA
| | | | - Jo Waits
- Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Beahm LA, Ingvarsson ET, Funk N, Haskins L, Frazier J. Using an App-Based Token Economy to Increase Engagement in Daily Living and Vocational Tasks with Adults with Developmental Disabilities. Behav Anal Pract 2023; 16:1-14. [PMID: 36718219 PMCID: PMC9876415 DOI: 10.1007/s40617-023-00774-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The token economy is an evidence-based practice that improves outcomes across populations, settings, and behaviors. Nonetheless, their complex nature frequently leads to ineffective implementation. In addition, little is known about the extent to which token economies are effective for increasing engagement in adults with disabilities. Therefore, we conducted a multiple probe across participants to evaluate the effectiveness of a token economy using an app (i.e., Class Dojo) to increase engagement with daily living and vocational tasks in adults with disabilities. All participants increased their engagement with tasks following the introduction of the intervention and maintained higher than baseline levels of engagement up to 6 weeks after the intervention ended. Staff members completed an anonymous survey to indicate their perception of the feasibility and effectiveness of the intervention. Social validity results indicated that some staff members found the intervention effective, but time-consuming and challenging.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lydia A. Beahm
- University of Virginia, 405 Emmet Street South, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA
| | - Einar T. Ingvarsson
- University of Virginia, 405 Emmet Street South, Charlottesville, VA 22904 USA
- Virginia Institute of Autism, Charlottesville, VA USA
| | - Noelle Funk
- Virginia Institute of Autism, Charlottesville, VA USA
| | | | - Jake Frazier
- Virginia Institute of Autism, Charlottesville, VA USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Sleiman AA, Gravina NE, Portillo D. An evaluation of the teach-back method for training new skills. J Appl Behav Anal 2023; 56:117-130. [PMID: 36454877 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
There are several effective training packages (e.g., behavioral skills training, video modeling, and self-instruction packages) available to train staff. Despite their efficacy, these training procedures require substantial time or preplanning and resources to create materials. Teach-back, an empirically validated method used in the healthcare setting to enhance communication between clinicians and patients, does not require any preplanning or materials. However, this method has yet to be investigated in the context of training and supervision. The purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the efficacy of teach-back in training participants to implement preference assessments and a token economy. The teach-back method improved procedural integrity to at least 88%, and the addition of vocal-verbal feedback resulted in all participants achieving 100% integrity in all skills. We discuss the implications of these findings.
Collapse
|
8
|
Kim JY, Fienup DM, Reed DD, Jahromi LB. A Rapid Assessment of Sensitivity to Reward Delays and Classwide Token Economy Savings for School-Aged Children. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL EDUCATION 2022:1-24. [PMID: 36532843 PMCID: PMC9744369 DOI: 10.1007/s10864-022-09503-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Delay discounting tasks measure the relation between reinforcer delay and efficacy. The present study established the association between delay discounting and classroom behavior and introduced a brief measure quantifying sensitivity to reward delays for school-aged children. Study 1 reanalyzed data collected by Reed and Martens (J Appl Behav Anal 44(1):1-18, https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.2011.44-1, 2011) and found that 1-month delay choices predicted student classroom behavior. Study 2 examined the utility of the 1-month delay indifference point in predicting saving and spending behavior of second-grade students using token economies with two different token production schedules. Collectively, results showed (a) the 1-month delay indifference point predicted classroom behavior, (b) children who discounted less and had greater self-regulation, accrued and saved more tokens, and (c) a variable token production schedule better correlated with discounting than a fixed schedule. Implications are discussed regarding utility of a rapid discounting assessment for applied use.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ji Young Kim
- Psychology Department, Pennsylvania State University—Harrisburg, 777 W Harrisburg Pike, Middletown, PA 17057 USA
- Teachers College, Columbia University, New York, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Regnier SD, Traxler HK, Devoto A, DeFulio A. A Systematic Review of Treatment Maintenance Strategies in Token Economies: Implications for Contingency Management. Perspect Behav Sci 2022; 45:819-861. [PMID: 36618564 PMCID: PMC9712881 DOI: 10.1007/s40614-022-00358-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Contingency management (CM) interventions are based on operant principles and are effective in promoting health behaviors. Despite their success, a common criticism of CM is that its effects to not persist after the intervention is withdrawn. Many CM studies evaluate posttreatment effects, but few investigate procedures for promoting maintenance. Token economy interventions and CM interventions are procedurally and conceptually similar. The token economy literature includes many studies in which procedures for promoting postintervention maintenance are evaluated. A systematic literature review was conducted to synthesize the literature on treatment maintenance in token economies. Search procedures yielded 697 articles, and application of inclusion/exclusion criteria resulted in 37 articles for review. The most successful strategy is to combine procedures. In most cases, thinning or fading was combined with programmed transfer of control via social reinforcement or self-management. Social reinforcement and self-monitoring procedures appear to be especially important, and were included in 70% of studies involving combined approaches. Thus, our primary recommendation is to incorporate multiple maintenance strategies, at least one of which should facilitate transfer of control of the target behavior to other reinforcers. In addition, graded removal of the intervention, which has also been evaluated to a limited extent in CM, is a reasonable candidate for further development and evaluation. Direct comparisons of maintenance procedures are lacking, and should be considered a research priority in both domains. Researchers and clinicians interested in either type of intervention will likely benefit from ongoing attention to developments in both areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sean D. Regnier
- University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY USA
| | | | - Amanda Devoto
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD USA
| | - Anthony DeFulio
- Department of Psychology, Western Michigan University, 1903 West Michigan Avenue, Kalamazoo, MI 49008 USA
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Falligant JM, Kranak MP. Rate Dependence and Token Reinforcement? A Preliminary Analysis. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s40732-022-00521-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
|
11
|
Bonner AC, Weinsztok SC, Fernandez N, Frank‐Crawford MA, DeLeon IG. Effects of reinforcer type on the durability of treatment for escape‐maintained behavior. BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/bin.1876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
|
12
|
Cengher M, Strohmeier CW. Behavioral Assessment and Treatment of Aerophagia. Clin Case Stud 2021. [DOI: 10.1177/15346501211064584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Aerophagia is characterized by excessive air swallowing and can have serious negative effects on one’s health. We present the assessment and treatment of a 16-year-old girl, Khloe, with developmental disabilities and aerophagia. The initial assessment indicated that aerophagia occurred primarily to access attention in a divided attention context; however, our function-based treatment did not result in a clinically significant reduction in problem behavior. We then conducted a second assessment that indicated that Khloe’s aerophagia indeed occurred primarily in a divided attention context, but that it persisted independent of social consequences. We concluded that the divided attention context served as a motivating variable for aerophagia. Our second treatment consisted of differential reinforcement of other behavior, noncontingent access to competing stimuli, and graduated exposure to contextual variables (i.e., people and divided attention) that occasioned aerophagia. The treatment was successful in reducing rates of aerophagia. We discuss implications for assessment and treatment, as well as recommendations for clinicians and students.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mirela Cengher
- University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Craig W. Strohmeier
- Kennedy Krieger Institute, Baltimore, MD, USA
- Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Bergmann S, Toussaint KA, Niland H, Sansing EM, Armshaw G, Baltazar M. Adapting Direct Services for Telehealth: A Practical Tutorial. Behav Anal Pract 2021; 14:1010-1046. [PMID: 34659652 PMCID: PMC8509939 DOI: 10.1007/s40617-020-00529-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to the pandemic brought on by the novel coronavirus (COVID-19), consumers of applied behavior-analytic interventions may be experiencing disrupted access to services. In response to the need for services, behavior analysts and therapists may find themselves treading unchartered waters as they use telehealth to provide direct intervention to consumers. Direct service provision via telehealth extends beyond the bounds of existing telehealth research, which primarily focuses on caregiver training and consultation. In the transition to telehealth, behavior analysts can consider how to adapt an existing evidence base of behavior-analytic strategies from a face-to-face format to intervention via a teleconferencing platform (i.e., Zoom). In this tutorial, we provide practice recommendations, task analyses, and a curated list of Zoom walk-throughs to help behavior analysts construct conceptually systematic learning opportunities in their direct telehealth services. Leveraging teleconferencing features to provide behavior-analytic intervention directly to consumers could spur future research to support these need-inspired practices and guide telehealth applications during and beyond the current pandemic. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40617-020-00529-5.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Bergmann
- Department of Behavior Analysis, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle #310919, Denton, TX 76203 USA
| | - Karen A. Toussaint
- Department of Behavior Analysis, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle #310919, Denton, TX 76203 USA
| | - Haven Niland
- Department of Behavior Analysis, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle #310919, Denton, TX 76203 USA
- UNT Kristin Farmer Autism Center, University of North Texas, Denton, TX USA
| | - Elizabeth M. Sansing
- Department of Behavior Analysis, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle #310919, Denton, TX 76203 USA
- UNT Kristin Farmer Autism Center, University of North Texas, Denton, TX USA
| | - Gabriel Armshaw
- Department of Behavior Analysis, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle #310919, Denton, TX 76203 USA
- UNT Kristin Farmer Autism Center, University of North Texas, Denton, TX USA
| | - Marla Baltazar
- Department of Behavior Analysis, University of North Texas, 1155 Union Circle #310919, Denton, TX 76203 USA
- UNT Kristin Farmer Autism Center, University of North Texas, Denton, TX USA
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Improving Beverage Choice in Adults with Developmental Disabilities: Implementation of a Token Reinforcement System in a Community Residential Setting. J Autism Dev Disord 2021; 52:1523-1535. [PMID: 33961181 DOI: 10.1007/s10803-021-05051-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/25/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Individuals with developmental disabilities (DD) are twice as likely to have obesity than non-disabled individuals. Replacing the consumption of sugar sweetened beverages (SSBs) with water has many health benefits, including weight reduction. In this study, a token reinforcement system was implemented to increase water consumption and decrease the consumption of SSBs with 14 adult participants with DD living in a community-based independent supported living (ISL) center. Token reinforcement reduced the consumption of SSBs, with associated reductions in calorie consumption and body weight. Findings are especially important for treatment settings where resources for individualized meal planning and staffing to support comprehensive behavioral interventions may be limited.
Collapse
|
15
|
Gilroy SP, Waits JA, Feck C. Extending stimulus preference assessment with the operant demand framework. J Appl Behav Anal 2021; 54:1032-1044. [PMID: 33706423 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
This study extended earlier research on stimulus preference (SP) and reinforcer efficacy (RE) using the behavioral economic concept of elasticity. The elasticity of demand for different items can be used to simultaneously compare RE across stimuli and schedules of reinforcement. Highly preferred stimuli were identified via SP assessments and evaluated using progressive-ratio reinforcer assessments. Reinforcers were then evaluated across the ranges of elasticity in individual reinforcer evaluations. Results indicated that schedules associated with the ranges of elasticity (e.g., inelastic vs. elastic) corresponded with rates of the targeted behavior (i.e., work) and these trends were consistent with behavioral economic predictions. These findings encourage further inquiry and replication of operant demand methods to identify potential boundary conditions for stimuli identified using SP assessments. Discussion is provided regarding the efficiency of reinforcer assessment and the utility of schedules found to exist in the elastic and inelastic ranges.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jodie A Waits
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University
| | - Cassie Feck
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Kazdin AE. Single-case experimental designs: Characteristics, changes, and challenges. J Exp Anal Behav 2020; 115:56-85. [PMID: 33205436 DOI: 10.1002/jeab.638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Tactics of Scientific Research (Sidman, 1960) provides a visionary treatise on single-case designs, their scientific underpinnings, and their critical role in understanding behavior. Since the foundational base was provided, single-case designs have proliferated especially in areas of application where they have been used to evaluate interventions with an extraordinary range of clients, settings, and target foci. This article highlights core features of single-case experimental designs, how key and ancillary features of the designs have evolved, the special strengths of the designs, and challenges that have impeded their integration in many areas where their contributions are sorely needed. The article ends by placing the methodological approach in the context of other research traditions. In this way, the discussion moves from the specific designs toward foundations and philosophy of science issues in keeping with the strengths of the person and book we are honoring.
Collapse
|
17
|
Silva E, Wiskow KM. Stimulus presentation versus stimulus removal in the Good Behavior Game. J Appl Behav Anal 2020; 53:2186-2198. [DOI: 10.1002/jaba.709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Revised: 02/19/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
|
18
|
Degli Espinosa F, Metko A, Raimondi M, Impenna M, Scognamiglio E. A Model of Support for Families of Children With Autism Living in the COVID-19 Lockdown: Lessons From Italy. Behav Anal Pract 2020; 13:550-558. [PMID: 32837696 PMCID: PMC7266382 DOI: 10.1007/s40617-020-00438-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Italy has been the European country most affected by the COVID-19 pandemic to date and has been in social lockdown for the longest period of time compared to other countries outside China. Almost overnight, Italian behavior analysts were faced with the challenge of setting up remotely whole-family systems aimed at maintaining adaptive skills and low levels of challenging behavior to be carried out solely by caregivers. Given these extraordinary circumstances, the protocols available from the applied behavior-analytic, parent training, and autism literature did not appear to fully meet the needs of parents having to be with their children under extreme levels of stress in a confined space with limited reinforcers for 24 hr a day, 7 days a week. To meet this unprecedented challenge, we developed a dynamic and holistic protocol that extended to the full day and that recognized the need for sustainable intervention delivered solely by parents, who were often looking after more than one child. These practices are presented in this article, together with a discussion of lessons we have learned thus far, which may be useful for behavior analysts working in other regions in which the effects of the pandemic are not yet fully realized. Although somewhat unorthodox, we include some parent comments at the end with the goal of sharing the parent perspective in real time as this pandemic unfolds across the world.
Collapse
|
19
|
Bonfonte SA, Bourret JC, Lloveras LA. Comparing the reinforcing efficacy of tokens and primary reinforcers. J Appl Behav Anal 2020; 53:1593-1605. [PMID: 31930500 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Token economies are one of the most commonly used behavior-analytic interventions. Despite literature supporting the use of tokens as tools for behavior change, little is known about the efficacy of tokens compared to that of the items for which they are exchanged. Results of previous research comparing the reinforcing efficacy of tokens and primary reinforcers have shown that both produce similar effects on responding. However, published findings have been confounded given the inclusion of primary reinforcers in the token-reinforcer test conditions. In this study, we established novel tokens as reinforcers. We then conducted a conditioned-reinforcer assessment using a tandem control to ensure that the tokens functioned as reinforcers. We used progressive-ratio schedules to compare the reinforcing efficacy of the tokens to high- and low-preference edibles that were also used as backup reinforcers. For both participants, we found that high-preference primary reinforcers maintained higher response frequencies than did tokens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason C Bourret
- New England Center for Children and Western New England University
| | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Falligant JM, Pence ST, Bedell SB. Preferences for token exchange‐production schedules: Effects of task difficulty and token‐production schedules. BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTIONS 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/bin.1706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Sacha T. Pence
- Department of Leadership and CounsellingDrake University Des Moines Iowa
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Glodowski KR, Bourret J, Ivy JW, Seaver JP, Jackson J, Stine JM, Nuzzolilli AE. A comparison of token and tandem schedules of reinforcement on response patterns for adolescents with autism. BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTIONS 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/bin.1704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason Bourret
- Western New England University Springfield Massachusetts
- New England Center for Children Southborough Massachusetts
| | - Jonathan W. Ivy
- The Pennsylvania State University – Harrisburg Middletown Pennsylvania
| | - Jonathan P. Seaver
- Northeastern University Boston Massachusetts
- New England Center for Children Southborough Massachusetts
| | - Joshua Jackson
- Western New England University Springfield Massachusetts
- New England Center for Children Southborough Massachusetts
| | - Julie M. Stine
- Northeastern University Boston Massachusetts
- New England Center for Children Southborough Massachusetts
| | - Andrew E. Nuzzolilli
- Western New England University Springfield Massachusetts
- New England Center for Children Southborough Massachusetts
| |
Collapse
|
22
|
Briggs AM, Dozier CL, Lessor AN, Kamana BU, Jess RL. Further investigation of differential reinforcement of alternative behavior without extinction for escape-maintained destructive behavior. J Appl Behav Anal 2019; 52:956-973. [DOI: 10.1002/jaba.648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
|
23
|
Fiske KE, Isenhower RW, Bamond MJ, Lauderdale-Littin S. An analysis of the value of token reinforcement using a multiple-schedule assessment. J Appl Behav Anal 2019; 53:563-571. [PMID: 31329284 DOI: 10.1002/jaba.613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Token systems are widely used in clinical settings, necessitating the development of methods to evaluate the reinforcing value of these systems. In the current paper, we replicated the use of a multiple-schedule reinforcer assessment (MSA; Smaby, MacDonald, Ahearn, & Dube, 2007) to evaluate the components of a token economy system for 4 learners with autism. Token systems had reinforcing value similar to primary reinforcers for 2 of the 4 learners, but resulted in lower rates of responding than primary reinforcers for the other 2 learners. Differentiated responding across learners may warrant variation in clinical recommendations on the use of tokens. The results of this study support formal assessment of token system effectiveness, and the MSA procedure provides an efficient method by which to conduct such assessments.
Collapse
|
24
|
Romo L, Julien Sweerts S, Ordonneau P, Blot E, Gicquel L. Road accidents in young adults with ADHD: Which factors can explain the occurrence of injuries in drivers with ADHD and how to prevent it? APPLIED NEUROPSYCHOLOGY-ADULT 2019; 28:372-377. [PMID: 31311322 DOI: 10.1080/23279095.2019.1640697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Some 1.35 million people die and more than 50 million are injured or disabled from road accidents annually across the globe. Driving is a complex task with multiple complex cognitive functions, including perception, motor coordination, and executive function. Thus, driving can be a significant challenge for patients suffering from attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), a common neurodevelopmental disorder with cognitive symptoms such as inattention, impulsivity, and executive dysfunction. Undoubtedly, risk of car accidents is higher in people with ADHD. The aim of this article is to explore factors that could explain the occurrence of road accidents in patients with ADHD and to highlight prevention points. Indeed, reduction of risky driving is an important priority for public health.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lucia Romo
- EA 4430 Clipsyd, Paris Nanterre University, Nanterre Cedex, France.,Clinique des Maladies Mentales et de l'Encéphale (CMME) Sainte Anne Hospital Center, INSERM unit U-894, Paris, France
| | | | - Pauline Ordonneau
- University Center of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Research Unit, Henri Laborit Hospital Center, Poitiers University, Poitiers, France
| | - Emilie Blot
- University Center of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Research Unit, Henri Laborit Hospital Center, Poitiers University, Poitiers, France
| | - Ludovic Gicquel
- University Center of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Research Unit, Henri Laborit Hospital Center, Poitiers University, Poitiers, France
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
May R, Chick J, Manuel S, Jones R. Examining the effects of group‐based instruction on emergent second‐language skills in young children. J Appl Behav Anal 2019; 52:667-681. [DOI: 10.1002/jaba.563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
|
26
|
Argueta T, Leon Y, Brewer A. Exchange schedules in token economies: A preliminary investigation of second‐order schedule effects. BEHAVIORAL INTERVENTIONS 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/bin.1661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tracy Argueta
- Behavior AnalysisFlorida Institute of Technology Melbourne Florida
| | - Yanerys Leon
- Behavior AnalysisFlorida Institute of Technology Melbourne Florida
| | - Adam Brewer
- Behavior AnalysisFlorida Institute of Technology Melbourne Florida
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Patel RR, Normand MP, Kohn CS. Incentivizing physical activity using token reinforcement with preschool children. J Appl Behav Anal 2019; 52:499-515. [DOI: 10.1002/jaba.536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2017] [Revised: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 02/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
|
28
|
Cihon JH, Ferguson JL, Milne CM, Leaf JB, McEachin J, Leaf R. A Preliminary Evaluation of a Token System with a Flexible Earning Requirement. Behav Anal Pract 2018; 12:548-556. [PMID: 31976263 DOI: 10.1007/s40617-018-00316-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Token systems often involve a predetermined number of tokens required prior to exchange for a terminal reinforcer. The effectiveness of token systems implemented in this manner has been well documented within the literature; however, some have discussed the possibility of a fixed earning requirement creating a context in which the learner no longer emits the desired behavior once the terminal number is achieved. A possible alternative to a fixed earning requirement is selecting the earning requirement based upon learner responding and leaving the requirement unknown to the learner until the moment of exchange. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of a token system with a flexible earning requirement to increase the frequency of comments during snack for 3 children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder. The results of a nonconcurrent multiple-baseline design demonstrated the flexible token system was effective at increasing the rate of comments in addition to the cumulative number of novel comments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph H Cihon
- 1Autism Partnership Foundation, 200 Marina Dr., Seal Beach, CA 90740 USA.,2The Institute for Behavioral Studies, Endicott College, Beverly, MA USA
| | - Julia L Ferguson
- 1Autism Partnership Foundation, 200 Marina Dr., Seal Beach, CA 90740 USA
| | - Christine M Milne
- 1Autism Partnership Foundation, 200 Marina Dr., Seal Beach, CA 90740 USA.,2The Institute for Behavioral Studies, Endicott College, Beverly, MA USA
| | - Justin B Leaf
- 1Autism Partnership Foundation, 200 Marina Dr., Seal Beach, CA 90740 USA.,2The Institute for Behavioral Studies, Endicott College, Beverly, MA USA
| | - John McEachin
- 1Autism Partnership Foundation, 200 Marina Dr., Seal Beach, CA 90740 USA
| | - Ron Leaf
- 1Autism Partnership Foundation, 200 Marina Dr., Seal Beach, CA 90740 USA
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Vandbakk M, Olaff HS, Holth P. Conditioned Reinforcement: the Effectiveness of Stimulus—Stimulus Pairing and Operant Discrimination Procedures. PSYCHOLOGICAL RECORD 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s40732-018-0318-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|