Friction and wear behavior of poly(vinyl alcohol)/poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) hydrogels for articular cartilage replacement

Sandwich hydrogel to realize cartilage-mimetic structures and performances from polyvinyl alcohol, chitosan and sodium hyaluronate

Developing artificial substitutes that mimic the structures and performances of natural cartilage is of great importance. However, it is challenging to integrate the high strength, excellent biocompatibility, low coefficient of friction, long-term wear resistance, outstanding swelling resistance, and osseointegration potential into one material. Herein, a sandwich hydrogel with cartilage-mimetic structures and performances was prepared to achieve this goal. The precursor hydrogel was obtained by freezing-thawing the mixture of poly vinyl alcohol, chitosan and deionized water three cycles, accompanied by soaking in sodium hyaluronate solution. The top of the precursor hydrogel was hydrophobically modified with lauroyl chloride and then loaded with lecithin, while the bottom was mineralized with hydroxyapatite. Due to the multiple linkages (crystalline domains, hydrogen bonds, and ionic interactions), the compressive stress was 71 MPa. Owing to the synergy of the hydrophobic modification and lecithin, the coefficient of friction was 0.01. Additionally, no wear trace was observed after 50,000 wear cycles. Remarkably, hydroxyapatite enabled the hydrogel osseointegration potential. The swelling ratio of the hydrogel was 0.06 g/g after soaking in simulated synovial fluid for 7 days. Since raw materials were non-toxic, the cell viability was 100 %. All of the above merits make it an ideal material for cartilage replacement.

Super-Strong Hydrogel Composites Reinforced with PBO Nanofibers for Cartilage Replacement

Cartilage replacement materials exhibiting a set of demanding properties such as high water content, high mechanical stiffness, low friction, and excellent biocompatibility are quite difficult to achieve. Here, poly(p-phenylene-2,6-benzobisoxazole) (PBO) nanofibers are combined with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) to form a super-strong structure with a performance that surpasses the vast majority of previously existing hydrogels. PVA-PBO composites with water contents in the 59-76% range exhibit tensile and compressive moduli reaching 20.3 and 4.5 MPa, respectively, and a coefficient of friction below 0.08. Further, they are biocompatible and support the viability of chondrocytes for 1 week, with significant improvements in cell adhesion, proliferation, and differentiation compared to PVA. The new composites can be safely sterilized by steam heat or gamma radiation without compromising their integrity and overall performance. In addition, they show potential to be used as local delivery platforms for anti-inflammatory drugs. These attractive features make PVA-PBO composites highly competitive engineered materials with remarkable potential for use in the design of load-bearing tissues. Complementary work has also revealed that these composites will be interesting alternatives in other industrial fields where high thermal and mechanical resistance are essential requirements, or which can take advantage of the pH responsiveness functionality.

An investigation on tribological behavior of methacrylated κ-carrageenan and gellan gum hydrogels as a candidate for chondral repair

Natural polysaccharides have recently attracted attention as structural biomaterials to replace focal chondral defects. In the present study, in-vitro tribological performance of methacrylated κ-carrageenan and gellan gum hydrogels (KA-MA and GG-MA) was evaluated under physiological conditions. Coefficient of friction (COF) was continuously recorded over testing whilst worn area was measured post-testing. The findings help improve our understanding of KA-MA-H and GG-MA-H tribological performance under various physiological conditions. The friction and wear performance of the hydrogels improved in bovine calf serum lubricant at lower applied loads. Adhesion was the dominant wear mechanism detected by SEM. Among the proposed hydrogels GG-MA-H found robust mechanical properties, increased wear resistance and considerably low COF, which may suggest its potential usage as a cartilage substitute.

Hydrogel composite mimics biological tissues

A novel composite hydrogel was developed that shows remarkable similarities to load bearing biological tissues. The composite gel consisting of a poly(vinyl alcohol (PVA) matrix filled with poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) microgel particles exhibits osmotic and mechanical properties that are qualitatively different from regular gels. In the PVA/PAA system the swollen PAA particles "inflate" the PVA network. The swelling of the PAA is limited by the tensile stress P_el developing in the PVA matrix. P_el increases with increasing swelling degree, which is opposite to the decrease of the elastic pressure observed in regular gels. The maximum tensile stress Pmaxel can be identified as a quantity that defines the load bearing ability of the composite gel. Systematic osmotic swelling pressure measurements have been made on PVA/PAA gels to determine the effects of PVA stiffness, PAA crosslink density, and Ca²⁺ ion concentration on Pmaxel. It is found that Pmaxel increases with the stiffness of the PVA matrix, and decreases with (i) increasing crosslink density of the PAA and (ii) increasing Ca²⁺ ion concentration. Small angle neutron scattering (SANS) measurements indicate only a weak interaction between the PVA and PAA gels. It is demonstrated that the osmotic swelling pressure of PVA/PAA composite gels reproduces the osmotic behavior of healthy and osteoarthritic cartilage.

Co-formulations of adalimumab with hyaluronic acid / polyvinylpyrrolidone to combine intraarticular drug delivery and viscosupplementation

Polymer-based formulations present an attractive strategy in intraarticular drug-delivery to refrain biologicals from early leakage from the joint. In this study, co-formulations of hyaluronic acid and polyvinylpyrrolidone were investigated for their potential as viscosupplements and their influence on the transsynovial loss of adalimumab. For this purpose, polymer mixtures were evaluated for their viscosity and elasticity behavior while their influence on the permeation of adalimumab across a porcine ex-vivo synovial membrane was determined. Hyaluronic acid showed strong shear thinning behavior and exhibited high viscosity and elasticity at low motions, while combinations with polyvinylpyrrolidone provided absorption and stiffness at high mechanical stress, so that they can potentially restore the rheological properties of the synovial fluid over the range of joint motion. In addition, the formulations showed significant influence on transsynovial permeation kinetics of adalimumab and hyaluronic acid, which could be decelerated up to 5- and 3-fold, respectively. Besides viscosity effects, adalimumab was retained primarily by an electrostatic interaction with hyaluronic acid, as detected by isothermal calibration calorimetry. Furthermore, polymer-mediated stabilization of the antibody activity was detected. In summary, hyaluronic acid - polyvinylpyrrolidone combinations can be efficiently used to prolong the residence of adalimumab in the joint cavity while simultaneously supplying viscosupplementation.

Development, Pathogenesis, and Regeneration of the Intervertebral Disc: Current and Future Insights Spanning Traditional to Omics Methods

The intervertebral disc (IVD) is the fibrocartilaginous joint located between each vertebral body that confers flexibility and weight bearing capabilities to the spine. The IVD plays an important role in absorbing shock and stress applied to the spine, which helps to protect not only the vertebral bones, but also the brain and the rest of the central nervous system. Degeneration of the IVD is correlated with back pain, which can be debilitating and severely affects quality of life. Indeed, back pain results in substantial socioeconomic losses and healthcare costs globally each year, with about 85% of the world population experiencing back pain at some point in their lifetimes. Currently, therapeutic strategies for treating IVD degeneration are limited, and as such, there is great interest in advancing treatments for back pain. Ideally, treatments for back pain would restore native structure and thereby function to the degenerated IVD. However, the complex developmental origin and tissue composition of the IVD along with the avascular nature of the mature disc makes regeneration of the IVD a uniquely challenging task. Investigators across the field of IVD research have been working to elucidate the mechanisms behind the formation of this multifaceted structure, which may identify new therapeutic targets and inform development of novel regenerative strategies. This review summarizes current knowledge base on IVD development, degeneration, and regenerative strategies taken from traditional genetic approaches and omics studies and discusses the future landscape of investigations in IVD research and advancement of clinical therapies.

Poly(vinyl alcohol) Hydrogels: The Old and New Functional Materials

Hydrogels have three-dimensional network structures, high water content, good flexibility, biocompatibility, and stimulation response, which have provided a unique role in many fields such as industry, agriculture, and medical treatment. Poly(vinyl alcohol) PVA hydrogel is one of the oldest composite hydrogels. It has been extensively explored due to its chemical stability, nontoxic, good biocompatibility, biological aging resistance, high water-absorbing capacity, and easy processing. PVA-based hydrogels have been widely investigated in drug carriers, articular cartilage, wound dressings, tissue engineering, and other intelligent materials, such as self-healing and shape-memory materials, supercapacitors, sensors, and other fields. In this paper, the discovery, development, preparation, modification methods, and applications of PVA functionalized hydrogels are reviewed, and their potential applications and future research trends are also prospected.

Applications of Functionalized Hydrogels in the Regeneration of the Intervertebral Disc

Intervertebral disc degeneration (IDD) is caused by genetics, aging, and environmental factors and is one of the leading causes of low back pain. The treatment of IDD presents many challenges. Hydrogels are biomaterials that possess properties similar to those of the natural extracellular matrix and have significant potential in the field of regenerative medicine. Hydrogels with various functional qualities have recently been used to repair and regenerate diseased intervertebral discs. Here, we review the mechanisms of intervertebral disc homeostasis and degeneration and then discuss the applications of hydrogel-mediated repair and intervertebral disc regeneration. The classification of artificial hydrogels and natural hydrogels is then briefly introduced, followed by an update on the development of functional hydrogels, which include noncellular therapeutic hydrogels, cellular therapeutic hydrogel scaffolds, responsive hydrogels, and multifunctional hydrogels. The challenges faced and future developments of the hydrogels used in IDD are discussed as they further promote their clinical translation.

An alginate-poly(acrylamide) hydrogel with TGF-β3 loaded nanoparticles for cartilage repair: Biodegradability, biocompatibility and protein adsorption

Current implantable materials are limited in terms of function as native tissue, and there is still no effective clinical treatment to restore articular impairments. Hereby, a functionalized polyacrylamide (PAAm)-alginate (Alg) Double Network (DN) hydrogel acting as an articular-like tissue is developed. These hydrogels sustain their mechanical stability under different temperature (+4 °C, 25 °C, 40 °C) and humidity conditions (60% and 75%) over 3 months. As for the functionalization, transforming growth factor beta-3 (TGF-β3) encapsulated (NP_TGF-β3) and empty poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles (PLGA NPs) are synthesized by using microfluidic platform, wherein the mean particle sizes are determined as 81.44 ± 9.2 nm and 126 ± 4.52 nm with very low polydispersity indexes (PDI) of 0.194 and 0.137, respectively. Functionalization process of PAAm-Alg hydrogels with ester-end PLGA NPs is confirmed by FTIR analysis, and higher viscoelasticity is obtained for functionalized hydrogels. Moreover, cartilage regeneration capability of these hydrogels is evaluated with in vitro and in vivo experiments. Compared with the PAAm-Alg hydrogels, functionalized formulations exhibit a better cell viability. Histological staining, and score distribution confirmed that proposed hydrogels significantly enhance regeneration of cartilage in rats due to stable hydrogel matrix and controlled release of TGF-β3. These findings demonstrated that PAAm-Alg hydrogels showed potential for cartilage repair and clinical application.

A lubrication replenishment theory for hydrogels

Hydrogels are suggested as less invasive alternatives to total joint replacements, but their inferior tribological performance compared to articular cartilage remains a barrier to implementation. Existing lubrication theories do not fully characterise the friction response of all hydrogels, and a better insight into the lubrication mechanisms must be established to enable optimised hydrogel performance. We therefore studied the lubricating conditions in a hydrogel contact using fluorescent imaging under simulated physiological sliding conditions. A reciprocating configuration was used to examine the effects of contact dimension and stroke length on the lubricant replenishment in the contact. The results show that the lubrication behaviour is strongly dependent on the contact configurations; When the system operates in a 'migrating' configuration, with the stroke length larger than the contact width, the contact is uniformly lubricated and shows low friction; When the contact is in an 'overlapping' configuration with a stroke length smaller than the contact width, the contact is not fully replenished, resulting in high friction. The mechanism of non-replenishment at small relative stroke length was also observed in a cartilage contact, indicating that the theory could be generalised to soft porous materials. The lubrication replenishment theory is important for the development of joint replacement materials, as most physiological joints operate under conditions of overlapping contact, meaning steady-state lubrication does not necessarily occur.

Advances in Understanding Hydrogel Lubrication

Since their inception, hydrogels have gained popularity among multiple fields, most significantly in biomedical research and industry. Due to their resemblance to biological tribosystems, a significant amount of research has been conducted on hydrogels to elucidate biolubrication mechanisms and their possible applications as replacement materials. This review is focused on lubrication mechanisms and covers friction models that have attempted to quantify the complex frictional characteristics of hydrogels. From models developed on the basis of polymer physics to the concept of hydration lubrication, assumptions and conditions for their applicability are discussed. Based on previous models and our own experimental findings, we propose the viscous-adhesive model for hydrogel friction. This model accounts for the effects of confinement of the polymer network provided by a solid surface and poroelastic relaxation as well as the (non) Newtonian shear of a complex fluid on the frictional force and quantifies the frictional response of hydrogels-solid interfaces. Finally, the review delineates potential areas of future research based on the current knowledge.

On the Dependence of Rheology of Hyaluronic Acid Solutions and Frictional Behavior of Articular Cartilage

Hyaluronic acid (HA) injections represent one of the most common methods for the treatment of osteoarthritis. However, the clinical results of this method are unambiguous mainly because the mechanism of action has not been clearly clarified yet. Viscosupplementation consists, inter alia, of the improvement of synovial fluid rheological properties by injected solution. The present paper deals with the effect of HA molecular weight on the rheological properties of its solutions and also on friction in the articular cartilage model. Viscosity and viscoelastic properties of HA solutions were analyzed with a rotational rheometer in a cone-plate and plate-plate configuration. In total, four HA solutions with molecular weights between 77 kDa and 2010 kDa were tested. The frictional measurements were realized on a commercial tribometer Bruker UMT TriboLab, while the coefficient of friction (CoF) dependency on time was measured. The contact couple consisted of the articular cartilage pin and the plate made from optical glass. The contact was fully flooded with tested HA solutions. Results showed a strong dependency between HA molecular weight and its rheological properties. However, no clear dependence between HA molecular weight and CoF was revealed from the frictional measurements. This study presents new insight into the dependence between rheological and frictional behavior of the articular cartilage, while such an extensive investigation has not been presented before.

Self-regenerating compliance and lubrication of polyacrylamide hydrogels

Pristine hydrogel surfaces typically have low friction, which is controlled by composition, slip speeds, and immediate slip history. The stiffness of such samples is typically measured with bulk techniques, and is assumed to be homogeneous at the surface. While the surface properties of homogeneous hydrogel samples are generally controlled by composition, the surface also interfaces with the open bath, which distinguishes it from the bulk. In this work, we disrupt as-molded polyacrylamide surfaces with abrasive wear and connect the effects on the surface stiffness and lubrication to the wear events. At both the nanoscale and the microscale, quasistatic indentations reveal a stiffer surface by up to two times following wear events, even considering roughness. Longitudinal experiments with a series of wear episodes interposed with periods of re-equilibration show that increased stiffness is reversible: more compliant surfaces regenerate within 24 hours. The timescale suggests an osmotic swelling mechanism, and we postulate that abrasive wear removes a swollen surface layer, revealing the stiffer bulk. The newly-revealed bulk becomes the surface, which re-swells over time. We quantify the effects on the self-lubricating ability of these surfaces following abrasive wear using micro-tribometry. The lubrication curve shows that robust low friction is maintained, and that the friction becomes less dependent upon the sliding speed. The unique ability of these materials to regenerate swollen surfaces and maintain robust low friction following abrasive wear is promising for designing their slip behavior into aqueous soft robotics components or biomedicine applications.

Tribomechanical Comparison between PVA Hydrogels Obtained Using Different Processing Conditions and Human Cartilage

Designing materials for cartilage replacement raises several challenges due to the complexity of the natural tissue and its unique tribomechanical properties. Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) hydrogels have been explored for such purpose since they are biocompatible, present high chemical stability, and their properties may be tailored through different strategies. In this work, the influence of preparation conditions of PVA hydrogels on its morphology, water absorption capacity, thermotropic behavior, mechanical properties, and tribological performance was evaluated and compared with those of human cartilage (HC). The hydrogels were obtained by cast-drying (CD) and freeze-thawing (FT), in various conditions. It was found that the method of preparation of the PVA hydrogels critically affects their microstructure and performance. CD gels presented a denser structure, absorbed less water, were stiffer, dissipated less energy, and withstood higher loads than FT gels. Moreover, they led to friction coefficients against stainless steel comparable with those of HC. Overall, CD hydrogels had a closer performance to natural HC, when compared to FT ones.

Load-dependent surface nanomechanical properties of poly-HEMA hydrogels in aqueous medium

The mechanical properties of hydrogels are of importance in many applications, including scaffolds and drug delivery vehicles where the release of drugs is controlled by water transport. While the macroscopic mechanical properties of hydrogels have been reported frequently, there are less studies devoted to the equally important nanomechanical response to local load and shear. Scanning probe methods offer the possibility to gain insight on surface nanomechanical properties with high spatial resolution, and thereby provide fundamental insights on local material property variations. In this work, we investigate the local response to load and shear of poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) hydrogels with two different cross-linking densities submerged in aqueous solution. The response of the hydrogels to purely normal loads, as well as the combined action of load and shear, was found to be complex due to viscoelastic effects. Our results show that the surface stiffness of the hydrogel samples increased with increasing load, while the tip-hydrogel adhesion was strongly affected by the load only when the cross-linking density was low. The combined action of load and shear results in the formation of a temporary sub-micrometer hill in front of the laterally moving tip. As the tip pushes against such hills, a pronounced stick-slip effect is observed for the hydrogel with low cross-linking density. No plastic deformation or permanent wear scar was found under our experimental conditions.

Biomaterials of PVA and PVP in medical and pharmaceutical applications: Perspectives and challenges

Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) has attracted considerable research interest and is recognized among the largest volume of synthetic polymers that have been produced worldwide for almost one century. This is due to its exceptional properties which dictated its extensive use in a wide variety of applications, especially in medical and pharmaceutical fields. However, studies revealed that PVA-based biomaterials present some limitations that can restrict their use or performances. To overcome these limitations, various methods have been reported, among which blending with poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) showed promising results. Thus, our aim was to offer a systematic overview on the current state concerning the preparation, properties and various applications of biomaterials based on synergistic effect of mixtures between PVA and PVP. Future trends towards where the biomaterials research is headed were discussed, showing the promising opportunities that PVA and PVP can offer.

Active agents, biomaterials, and technologies to improve biolubrication and strengthen soft tissues

Normal functioning of articulating tissues is required for many physiological processes occurring across length scales from the molecular to whole organism. Lubricating biopolymers are present natively on tissue surfaces at various sites of biological articulation, including eyelid, mouth, and synovial joints. The range of operating conditions at these disparate interfaces yields a variety of tribological mechanisms through which compressive and shear forces are dissipated to protect tissues from material wear and fatigue. This review focuses on recent advances in active agents and biomaterials for therapeutic augmentation of friction, lubrication, and wear in disease and injured states. Various small-molecule, biological, and gene delivery therapies are described, as are tribosupplementation with naturally-occurring and synthetic biolubricants and polymer reinforcements. While reintroduction of a diseased tissue's native lubricant received significant attention in the past, recent discoveries and pre-clinical research are capitalizing on concurrent advances in the molecular sciences and bioengineering fields, with an understanding of the underlying tissue structure and physiology, to afford a desired, and potentially patient-specific, tissue mechanical response for restoration of normal function. Small and large molecule drugs targeting recently elucidated pathways as well as synthetic and hybrid natural/synthetic biomaterials for restoring a desired tissue mechanical response are being investigated for treatment of, for example, keratoconjunctivitis sicca, xeroderma, and osteoarthritis.

Suitability of developed composite materials for meniscal replacement: Mechanical, friction and wear evaluation

The meniscus is a complex and frequently damaged tissue which requires a substitute capable of reproducing similar biomechanical functions. This study aims to develop a synthetic meniscal substitute that can mimic the function of the native meniscus. Medical grade silicones reinforced with nylon were fabricated using compression moulding and evaluated for mechanical and tribological properties. The optimal properties were obtained with tensile modulus increased considerably from 10.7 ± 2.9 MPa to 114.6 ± 20.9 MPa while compressive modulus was found to reduce from 2.5 ± 0.6 MPa to 0.7 ± 0.3 MPa. Using a tribometer, the coefficient of friction of 0.08 ± 0.02 was measured at the end of the 100,000 cycles. The developed composite could be an auspicious substitute for the native meniscus and the knowledge gained from this study is useful as it enhances the understanding of a potentially suitable material for meniscal implants.

Artificial Auricular Cartilage Using Silk Fibroin and Polyvinyl Alcohol Hydrogel

Several methods for auricular cartilage engineering use tissue engineering techniques. However, an ideal method for engineering auricular cartilage has not been reported. To address this issue, we developed a strategy to engineer auricular cartilage using silk fibroin (SF) and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) hydrogel. We constructed different hydrogels with various ratios of SF and PVA by using salt leaching, silicone mold casting, and freeze-thawing methods. We characterized each of the hydrogels in terms of the swelling ratio, tensile strength, pore size, thermal properties, morphologies, and chemical properties. Based on the cell viability results, we found a blended hydrogel composed of 50% PVA and 50% SF (P50/S50) to be the best hydrogel among the fabricated hydrogels. An intact 3D ear-shaped auricular cartilage formed six weeks after the subcutaneous implantation of a chondrocyte-seeded 3D ear-shaped P50/S50 hydrogel in rats. We observed mature cartilage with a typical lacunar structure both in vitro and in vivo via histological analysis. This study may have potential applications in auricular tissue engineering with a human ear-shaped hydrogel.

Synthesis and characterization of a zwitterionic hydrogel blend with low coefficient of friction

Hydrogels display a great deal of potential for a wide variety of biomedical applications. Often times the performance of these biomimetic materials is limited due to inferior friction and wear properties. This manuscript presents a method inspired by the tribological phenomena observed in nature for enhancing the lubricious properties of poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) hydrogels. This was achieved by blending PVA with various amounts of zwitterionic polymer, poly([2-(methacryloyloxy) ethyl] dimethyl-(3-sulfopropyl) ammonium hydroxide) (pMEDSAH). Our results indicate that pMEDSAH acts as an effective boundary lubricant, allowing for reduction in coefficient of friction by more than 80%. This reduction in friction coefficient was achieved while maintaining comparable mechanical and physical properties to that of the neat material. Also, these zwitterionic blends were found to be cytocompatible. Analysis of the structure to property relationships within this system indicate that the zwitterionic polymer served as a boundary lubricant and promoted a reduction in friction through hydration lubrication. This novel approach provides a promising platform for further investigations enhancing the tribological properties of hydrogels for biomedical applications.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

The novelty of this work stems from showing that zwitterionic polymers can be used as an extremely effective hydrogel boundary lubricant. This work will have significant scientific impact because to date, design of hydrogels has emphasized replication of mechanical properties, but in order for these types of materials to be fully utilized as biomaterials it is imperative that they possess improved tribological and lubrication properties, because ignoring the surface and boundary lubrication mechanism, make these potential load-bearing substitutes incompatible with other natural articulating surfaces, leading the constructs to wear, fail, and damage healthy tissue. Our work also provides unique insight to the structure-property-function relationships of these biomaterials which will be of great interest to the readership of the journal.

Articular Cartilage Inspired Bilayer Tough Hydrogel Prepared by Interfacial Modulated Polymerization Showing Excellent Combination of High Load-Bearing and Low Friction Performance

Articular cartilage is a load-bearing and lubricious tissue covering the ends of articulating bones in synovial joints to reduce friction and wear. It ideally combines the high mechanical property and the ultralow friction performance as a result of biphasic structure and lubricious biomolecules. A biomimicking hydrogel with bilayer structure of thin porous top layer covering a compact and tough hydrogel bulk is fabricated with interfacial modulated polymerization. The top porous layer ensures the ultralow friction toward its contact pairs, while the bottom renders the high load-bearing property. Therefore, with bilayer architecture, hydrogel achieves an outstanding combination of low friction and high load bearing performance with long wear life when sliding against either steel or silicone elastomer counterpair.

Effect of glutaraldehyde fixation on the frictional response of immature bovine articular cartilage explants

This study examined functional properties and biocompatibility of glutaraldehyde-fixed bovine articular cartilage over several weeks of incubation at body temperature to investigate its potential use as a resurfacing material in joint arthroplasty. In the first experiment, treated cartilage disks were fixed using 0.02, 0.20 and 0.60% glutaraldehyde for 24h then incubated, along with an untreated control group, in saline for up to 28d at 37°C. Both the equilibrium compressive and tensile moduli increased nearly twofold in treated samples compared to day 0 control, and remained at that level from day 1 to 28; the equilibrium friction coefficient against glass rose nearly twofold immediately after fixation (day 1) but returned to control values after day 7. Live explants co-cultured with fixed explants showed no quantitative difference in cell viability over 28d. In general, no significant differences were observed between 0.20 and 0.60% groups, so 0.20% was deemed sufficient for complete fixation. In the second experiment, cartilage-on-cartilage frictional measurements were performed under a migrating contact configuration. In the treated group, one explant was fixed using 0.20% glutaraldehyde while the apposing explant was left untreated; in the control group both explants were left untreated. From day 1 to 28, the treated group exhibited either no significant difference or slightly lower friction coefficient than the untreated group. These results suggest that a properly titrated glutaraldehyde treatment can reproduce the desired functional properties of native articular cartilage and maintain these properties for at least 28d at body temperature.

Tuning the tribological property with thermal sensitive microgels for aqueous lubrication

Thermoresponsive microgels, poly(N-isopropylacrylamide)-graft-poly(ethylene glycol) (PNIPAAm-g-PEG), were synthesized via emulsifier-free emulsion polymerization and the tribological property as water lubricating additive was studied. The microgels had good thermoresponsive collapse/swelling performance with lower critical solution temperature (LCST) ca. 38.4 °C. The rheological characterization and tribological tests showed that the microgels had a good lubricating performance in aqueous lubrication through interfacial physisorption and hydration lubrication, but the friction coefficient was impacted by temperature (below and above LCST). The tunable thermosensitive tribological property was attributed to the hydrophobic interaction and the enhanced interfacial absorption, which were both triggered by the elevated temperature. Furthermore, in order to avoid the water erosion in aqueous lubrication, the microgels were used together with 1H-benzotriazoles (BTA). Because of the good antifriction and anticorrosion property of BTA and the interplay between microgels and BTA, the microgels/BTA exhibited a synergistic effect in aqueous lubrication and the tribological property was more sensitive around the LCST. The present work is beneficial to understanding the tribological property of responsive microgels in aqueous lubrication and provides a novel approach for achieving low-friction through soft matters.

Evaluation of friction properties of hydrogels based on a biphasic cartilage model

Characterizing hydrogels using a biphasic cartilage model, which can predict their behavior based on structural properties, such as permeability and aggregate modulus, may be useful for comparing active lubrication modes of cartilage and hydrogels for the design of articular cartilage implants. The effects of interstitial fluid pressurization, inherent matrix viscoelasticity and tension-compression nonlinearity on mechanical properties of the biphasic material were evaluated by linear biphasic (KLM), biphasic poroviscoelastic (BPVE) and linear biphasic with anisotropy cartilage models, respectively. The BPVE model yielded the lowest root mean square error and highest coefficient of determination when predicting confined and unconfined compression stress-relaxation response of hydrogels (n=15): 0.220±0.316MPa and 0.93±0.08; and 0.017±0.008MPa and 0.98±0.01 respectively. Since the differences in error between models were not statistically significant, the simplest model we considered, KLM model, was sufficient to predict the mechanical response of this family of hydrogels. The coefficient of friction (COF) of a hydrogel-ceramic articulation was measured at varying loads and pressures to explore the full range of lubrication behavior of hydrogel. Material parameters obtained by biphasic models correlated with COF. Based on the linear biphasic model, COF correlated positively with aggregate modulus (spearman's rho=0.5; p<0.001) and velocity (rho=0.3; p<0.001), and negatively with permeability (rho=-0.3; p<0.001) and load (rho=-0.6; p<0.001). Negative correlation of COF with load and positive correlation with velocity indicated that hydrogel-ceramic articulation was separated by a fluid film. These results together suggested that interstitial fluid pressurization was dominant in the viscoelasticity and lubrication properties of this biphasic material.

Aging behavior of PVA hydrogels for soft tissue applications after in vitro swelling using osmotic pressure solutions

The osmotic pressure of the medium used for in vitro swelling evaluation has been shown to have a significant effect on the swelling behavior of a material. In this study, the effect of osmotic pressure during swelling on poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogel material properties was evaluated in vitro. Osmotic pressure solutions are necessary in order to mimic the swelling pressure observed in vivo for soft tissues present in load-bearing joints. Hydrogels were characterized after swelling by mechanical testing, X-ray diffraction and optical microscopy in the hydrated state. Results indicated that hydrogel mechanical properties remained tailorable with respect to initial processing parameters; however, significant aging occurred in osmotic solution. This was observed when evaluating the mechanical properties of the hydrogels, which, before swelling, ranged from 0.04 to 0.78 MPa but, after swelling in vitro using osmotic pressure solution, ranged from 0.32 to 0.93 MPa. Significant aging was also noted when evaluating crystallinity, with the relative crystallinity ranging between 0.4 and 5.0% before swelling and between 6.5 nd 8.0% after swelling. When compared to swelling in a non-osmotic pressure solution or in phosphate-buffered saline solution, the mechanical properties were more dependent upon the final swelling content. Furthermore, increases in crystallinity were not as significant after swelling. These results highlight the importance of choosing the appropriate swelling medium for in vitro characterization based on the desired application.

What's next? Alternative materials for articulation in total joint replacement

The use of an artificial joint is always related to a certain amount of wear. Its biological effects, e.g., the osteolysis potential, are a function of the bulk material as well as its debris. Following comprehensive experiences with polyethylene (PE) wear, material science is tracking two ways to minimize the risk of a particle-induced aseptic implant loosening: (i) reduction of the PE debris by a low-wearing articulation partner; and (ii) replacement of the PE by other materials. Therefore, new ceramics (e.g., ZTA, Si(3)N(4)), as well as coatings (e.g., TiN, "diamond-like" carbon) and modifications of a bulk metal (e.g., oxidizes zirconium) or cushion bearings (polyurethane, hydrogels), are currently available for total joint replacements or have been used for pre-clinical testing. This review gives a brief overview and evaluates the potential of those that have recently been published in literature.

Experimental and numerical tribological studies of a boundary lubricant functionalized poro-viscoelastic PVA hydrogel in normal contact and sliding

Hydrogels are a cross-linked network of polymers swollen with liquid and have the potential to be used as a synthetic replacement for local defects in load bearing tissues such as articular cartilage. Hydrogels display viscoelastic time dependent behavior, therefore experimental analysis of stresses at the surface and within the gel is difficult to perform. A three-dimensional model of a hydrogel was developed in the commercial finite element software ABAQUS™, implementing a poro-viscoelastic constitutive model along with a contact-dependent flow state and friction conditions. Water content measurements, sliding, and indentation experiments were performed on neat polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and on low friction boundary lubricant functionalized (BLF-PVA) hydrogels, both manufactured by freeze-thaw processes. Modulus results from the indentation experiments and coefficient of friction values from the sliding experiments were used as material property inputs to the model, while water content was used to calculate initial flow conditions. Tangential force and normal displacement data from a three-dimensional simulation of sliding were compared with the experiments. The tangential force patterns indicated important similarities with the fabricated hydrogels that included an initially high force value due to time dependent deformation followed by a decrease in a stabile value. A similar trend was observed with the normal displacement. These comparisons rendered the model suitable as a representation and were used to analyze the development and propagation of stresses in the immediate surface region. The results showed that in a three-dimensional stress field during sliding, the maximum stress shifted to the surface and rotated closer to the leading edge of contact. This occurred because the stress field becomes dominated by an amplified compressive stress at the leading edge due to the biphasic viscoelastic response of the material during sliding. Also, the complex multi-axial contact stress field was reduced to focus predominately on stress in the contact surface region in the direction of sliding. The results showed that during biphasic viscoelastic frictional sliding, the maximum tensile stress develops at the trailing edge of contact and a compressive stress develops at the leading edge in the direction of motion. The BLF-PVA hydrogels displayed a decrease in this tensile and compressive stress as compared to the standard PVA. The diminishment of these stresses would be expected to give the BLF-PVA hydrogels lower material wear with greater life expectancy as a synthetic articular cartilage implant.

A review of polyvinyl alcohol and its uses in cartilage and orthopedic applications

Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) is a synthetic polymer derived from polyvinyl acetate through partial or full hydroxylation. PVA is commonly used in medical devices due to its low protein adsorption characteristics, biocompatibility, high water solubility, and chemical resistance. Some of the most common medical uses of PVA are in soft contact lenses, eye drops, embolization particles, tissue adhesion barriers, and as artificial cartilage and meniscus. The purpose of this review is to evaluate the available published information on PVA with respect to its safety as a medical device implant material for cartilage replacement. The review includes historical clinical use of PVA in orthopedics, and in vitro and in vivo biocompatibility studies. Finally, the safety recommendation involving the further development of PVA cryogels for cartilage replacement is addressed.