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Rengaraj A, Bosc L, Machillot P, McGuckin C, Milet C, Forraz N, Paliard P, Barbier D, Picart C. Engineering of a Microscale Niche for Pancreatic Tumor Cells Using Bioactive Film Coatings Combined with 3D-Architectured Scaffolds. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:13107-13121. [PMID: 35275488 PMCID: PMC7614000 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c01747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon polymerization has recently emerged as a promising technique to fabricate scaffolds for three-dimensional (3D) cell culture and tissue engineering. Here, we combined 3D-printed microscale scaffolds fabricated using two-photon polymerization with a bioactive layer-by-layer film coating. This bioactive coating consists of hyaluronic acid and poly(l-lysine) of controlled stiffness, loaded with fibronectin and bone morphogenic proteins 2 and 4 (BMP2 and BMP4) as matrix-bound proteins. Planar films were prepared using a liquid handling robot directly in 96-well plates to perform high-content studies of cellular processes, especially cell adhesion, proliferation, and BMP-induced signaling. The behaviors of two human pancreatic cell lines PANC1 (immortalized) and PAN092 (patient-derived cell line) were systematically compared and revealed important context-specific cell responses, notably in response to film stiffness and matrix-bound BMPs (bBMPs). Fibronectin significantly increased cell adhesion, spreading, and proliferation for both cell types on soft and stiff films; BMP2 increased cell adhesion and inhibited proliferation of PANC1 cells and PAN092 on soft films. BMP4 enhanced cell adhesion and proliferation of PANC1 and showed a bipolar effect on PAN092. Importantly, PANC1 exhibited a strong dose-dependent BMP response, notably for bBMP2, while PAN092 was insensitive to BMPs. Finally, we proved that it is possible to combine a microscale 3D Ormocomp scaffold fabricated using the two-photon polymerization technique with the bioactive film coating to form a microscale tumor tissue and mimic the early stages of metastatic cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arunkumar Rengaraj
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, INSERM U1292, CEA, CNRS EMR 5000 BRM, IRIG Institute, CEA, Bât C3, 17 rue des Martyrs, 38054, Grenoble, France
- Grenoble Institute of Engineering, CNRS UMR 5628, LMGP, 3 parvis Louis Néel, 38016 Grenoble, France
| | - Lauriane Bosc
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, INSERM U1292, CEA, CNRS EMR 5000 BRM, IRIG Institute, CEA, Bât C3, 17 rue des Martyrs, 38054, Grenoble, France
- Grenoble Institute of Engineering, CNRS UMR 5628, LMGP, 3 parvis Louis Néel, 38016 Grenoble, France
| | - Paul Machillot
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, INSERM U1292, CEA, CNRS EMR 5000 BRM, IRIG Institute, CEA, Bât C3, 17 rue des Martyrs, 38054, Grenoble, France
- Grenoble Institute of Engineering, CNRS UMR 5628, LMGP, 3 parvis Louis Néel, 38016 Grenoble, France
| | - Colin McGuckin
- Cell Therapy Research Institute, CTIBiotech, 5 avenue Lionel Terray, 69330 Meyzieu, France
| | - Clément Milet
- Cell Therapy Research Institute, CTIBiotech, 5 avenue Lionel Terray, 69330 Meyzieu, France
| | - Nico Forraz
- Cell Therapy Research Institute, CTIBiotech, 5 avenue Lionel Terray, 69330 Meyzieu, France
| | - Philippe Paliard
- Microlight 3D, 5 avenue du Grand Sablon, 38700 La Tronche, France
| | - Denis Barbier
- Microlight 3D, 5 avenue du Grand Sablon, 38700 La Tronche, France
| | - Catherine Picart
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, INSERM U1292, CEA, CNRS EMR 5000 BRM, IRIG Institute, CEA, Bât C3, 17 rue des Martyrs, 38054, Grenoble, France
- Grenoble Institute of Engineering, CNRS UMR 5628, LMGP, 3 parvis Louis Néel, 38016 Grenoble, France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Ministère de l’Enseignement Supérieur, de la Recherche et de I’Industrie, 1 rue Descartes, 75 231 Paris Cedex 05, France
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Madruga LYC, Kipper MJ. Expanding the Repertoire of Electrospinning: New and Emerging Biopolymers, Techniques, and Applications. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11:e2101979. [PMID: 34788898 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202101979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Electrospinning has emerged as a versatile and accessible technology for fabricating polymer fibers, particularly for biological applications. Natural polymers or biopolymers (including synthetically derivatized natural polymers) represent a promising alternative to synthetic polymers, as materials for electrospinning. Many biopolymers are obtained from abundant renewable sources, are biodegradable, and possess inherent biological functions. This review surveys recent literature reporting new fibers produced from emerging biopolymers, highlighting recent developments in the use of sulfated polymers (including carrageenans and glycosaminoglycans), tannin derivatives (condensed and hydrolyzed tannins, tannic acid), modified collagen, and extracellular matrix extracts. The proposed advantages of these biopolymer-based fibers, focusing on their biomedical applications, are also discussed to highlight the use of new and emerging biopolymers (or new modifications to well-established ones) to enhance or achieve new properties for electrospun fiber materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liszt Y. C. Madruga
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins CO 80526 USA
| | - Matt J. Kipper
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins CO 80526 USA
- School of Advanced Materials Discovery Colorado State University Fort Collins CO 80526 USA
- School of Biomedical Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins CO 80526 USA
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Wanasingha N, Dorishetty P, Dutta NK, Choudhury NR. Polyelectrolyte Gels: Fundamentals, Fabrication and Applications. Gels 2021; 7:148. [PMID: 34563034 PMCID: PMC8482214 DOI: 10.3390/gels7030148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 08/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyelectrolyte gels are an important class of polymer gels and a versatile platform with charged polymer networks with ionisable groups. They have drawn significant recent attention as a class of smart material and have demonstrated potential for a variety of applications. This review begins with the fundamentals of polyelectrolyte gels, which encompass various classifications (i.e., origin, charge, shape) and crucial aspects (ionic conductivity and stimuli responsiveness). It further centralises recent developments of polyelectrolyte gels, emphasising their synthesis, structure-property relationships and responsive properties. Sequentially, this review demonstrates how polyelectrolyte gels' flourishing properties create attractiveness to a range of applications including tissue engineering, drug delivery, actuators and bioelectronics. Finally, the review outlines the indisputable appeal, further improvements and emerging trends in polyelectrolyte gels.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Naba K. Dutta
- School of Engineering, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia; (N.W.); (P.D.)
| | - Namita Roy Choudhury
- School of Engineering, STEM College, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC 3000, Australia; (N.W.); (P.D.)
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4
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Souza PR, de Oliveira AC, Vilsinski BH, Kipper MJ, Martins AF. Polysaccharide-Based Materials Created by Physical Processes: From Preparation to Biomedical Applications. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:621. [PMID: 33925380 PMCID: PMC8146878 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13050621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Polysaccharide-based materials created by physical processes have received considerable attention for biomedical applications. These structures are often made by associating charged polyelectrolytes in aqueous solutions, avoiding toxic chemistries (crosslinking agents). We review the principal polysaccharides (glycosaminoglycans, marine polysaccharides, and derivatives) containing ionizable groups in their structures and cellulose (neutral polysaccharide). Physical materials with high stability in aqueous media can be developed depending on the selected strategy. We review strategies, including coacervation, ionotropic gelation, electrospinning, layer-by-layer coating, gelation of polymer blends, solvent evaporation, and freezing-thawing methods, that create polysaccharide-based assemblies via in situ (one-step) methods for biomedical applications. We focus on materials used for growth factor (GFs) delivery, scaffolds, antimicrobial coatings, and wound dressings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo R. Souza
- Group of Polymeric Materials and Composites, Department of Chemistry, State University of Maringá (UEM), Maringá 87020-900, PR, Brazil; (P.R.S.); (A.C.d.O.); (B.H.V.)
| | - Ariel C. de Oliveira
- Group of Polymeric Materials and Composites, Department of Chemistry, State University of Maringá (UEM), Maringá 87020-900, PR, Brazil; (P.R.S.); (A.C.d.O.); (B.H.V.)
- Laboratory of Materials, Macromolecules and Composites, Federal University of Technology—Paraná (UTFPR), Apucarana 86812-460, PR, Brazil
| | - Bruno H. Vilsinski
- Group of Polymeric Materials and Composites, Department of Chemistry, State University of Maringá (UEM), Maringá 87020-900, PR, Brazil; (P.R.S.); (A.C.d.O.); (B.H.V.)
| | - Matt J. Kipper
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University (CSU), Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
- School of Advanced Materials Discovery, Colorado State University (CSU), Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University (CSU), Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Alessandro F. Martins
- Group of Polymeric Materials and Composites, Department of Chemistry, State University of Maringá (UEM), Maringá 87020-900, PR, Brazil; (P.R.S.); (A.C.d.O.); (B.H.V.)
- Laboratory of Materials, Macromolecules and Composites, Federal University of Technology—Paraná (UTFPR), Apucarana 86812-460, PR, Brazil
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University (CSU), Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
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Sabino RM, Mondini G, Kipper MJ, Martins AF, Popat KC. Tanfloc/heparin polyelectrolyte multilayers improve osteogenic differentiation of adipose-derived stem cells on titania nanotube surfaces. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 251:117079. [PMID: 33142622 PMCID: PMC7717535 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 09/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
In this study, a surface modification strategy using natural biopolymers on titanium is proposed to improve bone healing and promote rapid and successful osseointegration of orthopedic implants. Titania nanotubes were fabricated via an anodization process and the surfaces were further modified with polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEMs) based on Tanfloc (a cationic tannin derivative) and glycosaminoglycans (heparin and hyaluronic acid). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), water contact angle measurements, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy were used to characterize the surfaces. Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) were seeded on the surfaces, and the cell viability, adhesion, and proliferation were investigated. Osteogenesis was induced and osteogenic differentiation of human ADSCs on the surfaces was evaluated via mineralization and protein expression assays, immunofluorescent staining, and SEM. The Tanfloc/heparin PEMs on titania nanotubes improved the rate of osteogenic differentiation of ADSCs as well as the bone mineral deposition, and is therefore a promising approach for use in orthopedic implants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberta M Sabino
- School of Advanced Materials Discovery, Colorado State University, USA
| | - Gabriela Mondini
- Department of Biological Sciences, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Paraná, Brazil
| | - Matt J Kipper
- School of Advanced Materials Discovery, Colorado State University, USA; School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, USA; Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University, USA.
| | - Alessandro F Martins
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University, USA; Laboratory of Materials, Macromolecules and Composites, Federal University of Technology, Brazil; Group of Polymers and Composite Materials, Chemical Department, State University of Maringá, Brazil
| | - Ketul C Popat
- School of Advanced Materials Discovery, Colorado State University, USA; School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, USA; Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University, USA.
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6
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Madruga LYC, Balaban RC, Popat KC, Kipper MJ. Biocompatible Crosslinked Nanofibers of Poly(Vinyl Alcohol)/Carboxymethyl-Kappa-Carrageenan Produced by a Green Process. Macromol Biosci 2020; 21:e2000292. [PMID: 33021064 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202000292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Revised: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
This study presents a new type of biocompatible nanofiber based on poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) and carboxymethyl-kappa-carrageenan (CMKC) blends, produced with no generation of hazardous waste. The nanofibers are produced by electrospinning using PVA:CMKC blends with ratios of 1:0, 1:0.25, 1:0.4, 1:0.5, and 1:0.75 (w/w PVA:CMKC) in aqueous solution, followed by thermal crosslinking. The diameter of the fibers is in the nanometer scale and below 300 nm. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy shows the presence of the carboxyl and sulfate groups in all the fibers with CMKC. The nanofibers from water-soluble polymers are stabilized by thermal crosslinking. The incorporation of CMKC improves cytocompatibility, biodegradability, cell growth, and cell adhesion, compared to PVA nanofibers. Furthermore, the incorporation of CMKC modulates phenotype of human adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs). PVA/CMKC nanofibers enhance ADSC response to osteogenic differentiation signals and are therefore good candidates for application in tissue engineering to support stem cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liszt Y C Madruga
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN, 59078-970, Brazil.,Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Rosangela C Balaban
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN, 59078-970, Brazil
| | - Ketul C Popat
- School of Advanced Materials Discovery, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.,School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.,Department of Mechanical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
| | - Matt J Kipper
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.,School of Advanced Materials Discovery, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA.,School of Biomedical Engineering, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, 80523, USA
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7
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da Câmara PC, Madruga LY, Sabino RM, Vlcek J, Balaban RC, Popat KC, Martins AF, Kipper MJ. Polyelectrolyte multilayers containing a tannin derivative polyphenol improve blood compatibility through interactions with platelets and serum proteins. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2020; 112:110919. [DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2020.110919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2020] [Revised: 03/15/2020] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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8
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Sabino RM, Kauk K, Madruga LYC, Kipper MJ, Martins AF, Popat KC. Enhanced hemocompatibility and antibacterial activity on titania nanotubes with tanfloc/heparin polyelectrolyte multilayers. J Biomed Mater Res A 2020; 108:992-1005. [DOI: 10.1002/jbm.a.36876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2019] [Revised: 12/27/2019] [Accepted: 12/31/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Roberta M. Sabino
- School of Advanced Materials Discovery Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado
| | - Kirsten Kauk
- School of Biomedical Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado
| | - Liszt Y. C. Madruga
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte Natal Brazil
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado
| | - Matt J. Kipper
- School of Advanced Materials Discovery Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado
- School of Biomedical Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado
| | - Alessandro F. Martins
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado
- Laboratory of Materials Macromolecules and Composites, Federal University of Technology Maringa Brazil
| | - Ketul C. Popat
- School of Advanced Materials Discovery Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado
- School of Biomedical Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado
- Department of Mechanical Engineering Colorado State University Fort Collins Colorado
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Sultankulov B, Berillo D, Sultankulova K, Tokay T, Saparov A. Progress in the Development of Chitosan-Based Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine. Biomolecules 2019; 9:E470. [PMID: 31509976 PMCID: PMC6770583 DOI: 10.3390/biom9090470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 150] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 08/22/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Over the last few decades, chitosan has become a good candidate for tissue engineering applications. Derived from chitin, chitosan is a unique natural polysaccharide with outstanding properties in line with excellent biodegradability, biocompatibility, and antimicrobial activity. Due to the presence of free amine groups in its backbone chain, chitosan could be further chemically modified to possess additional functional properties useful for the development of different biomaterials in regenerative medicine. In the current review, we will highlight the progress made in the development of chitosan-containing bioscaffolds, such as gels, sponges, films, and fibers, and their possible applications in tissue repair and regeneration, as well as the use of chitosan as a component for drug delivery applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bolat Sultankulov
- Department of Chemical Engineering, School of Engineering, Nazarbayev University, Nur-Sultan 010000, Kazakhstan
| | - Dmitriy Berillo
- Water Technology Center (WATEC) Department of Bioscience - Microbiology, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000, Denmark
- Department of Biotechnology, Al-Farabi Kazakh National University, Almaty 050040, Kazakhstan
| | | | - Tursonjan Tokay
- School of Science and Technology, Nazarbayev University, Nur-Sultan 010000, Kazakhstan
| | - Arman Saparov
- School of Medicine, Nazarbayev University, Nur-Sultan 010000, Kazakhstan.
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da Câmara PCF, Balaban RC, Hedayati M, Popat KC, Martins AF, Kipper MJ. Novel cationic tannin/glycosaminoglycan-based polyelectrolyte multilayers promote stem cells adhesion and proliferation. RSC Adv 2019; 9:25836-25846. [PMID: 35530064 PMCID: PMC9070077 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra03903a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Condensed tannin is a biologically derived polycation that can be combined with glycosaminoglycans (chondroitin sulfate and heparin) to prepare polyelectrolyte multilayers that promote stem cell adhesion and proliferation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paulo C. F. da Câmara
- Laboratory of Petroleum Research
- LAPET
- Institute of Chemistry
- Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte
- UFRN
| | - Rosangela C. Balaban
- Laboratory of Petroleum Research
- LAPET
- Institute of Chemistry
- Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte
- UFRN
| | - Mohammadhasan Hedayati
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
- Colorado State University
- Fort Collins
- USA
| | - Ketul C. Popat
- Department of Mechanical Engineering
- Colorado State University
- Fort Collins
- USA
| | - Alessandro F. Martins
- Laboratory of Materials, Macromolecules and Composites
- Federal University of Technology
- Apucarana
- Brazil
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
| | - Matt J. Kipper
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering
- Colorado State University
- Fort Collins
- USA
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Hedayati M, Reynolds MM, Krapf D, Kipper MJ. Nanostructured Surfaces That Mimic the Vascular Endothelial Glycocalyx Reduce Blood Protein Adsorption and Prevent Fibrin Network Formation. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:31892-31902. [PMID: 30156830 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b09435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Blood-contacting materials are critical in many applications where long-term performance is desired. However, there are currently no engineered materials used in cardiovascular implants and devices that completely prevent clotting when in long-term contact with whole blood. The most common approach to developing next-generation blood-compatible materials is to design surface chemistries and structures that reduce or eliminate protein adsorption to prevent blood clotting. This work proposes a new paradigm for controlling protein-surface interactions by strategically mimicking key features of the glycocalyx lining the interior surfaces of blood vessels: negatively charged glycosaminoglycans organized into a polymer brush with nanoscale domains. The interactions of two important proteins from blood (albumin and fibrinogen) with these new glycocalyx mimics are revealed in detail using surface plasmon resonance and single-molecule microscopy. Surface plasmon resonance shows that these blood proteins interact reversibly with the glycocalyx mimics, but have no irreversible adsorption above the limit of detection. Single-molecule microscopy is used to compare albumin and fibrinogen interactions on surfaces with and without glycocalyx-mimetic nanostructures. Microscopy videos reveal a new mechanism whereby the glycocalyx-mimetic nanostructures eliminate the formation of fibrin networks on the surfaces. This approach shows for the first time that the nanoscale structure and organization of glycosaminoglycans in the glycocalyx are essential to (i) reduce protein adsorption, (ii) reversibly bind fibrin(ogen), and (iii) inhibit fibrin network formation on surfaces. The insights gained from this work suggest new design principles for blood-compatible surfaces. New surfaces developed using these design principles could reduce risk of catastrophic failures of blood-contacting medical devices.
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