Poly(lactic acid) composites based on graphene oxide particles with antibacterial behavior enhanced by electrical stimulus and biocompatibility

Incorporation of co-encapsulated extracts of saffron petal and Stachys schtschegleevii into chitosan/basil seed gum/graphene oxide bionanocomposite: Effects on physical, mechanical, antioxidant, and antibacterial properties

The effects of encapsulation order and concentration (25 % & 50 %) of saffron petal (SPE) and Stachys schtschegleevii (SSE) extracts on the properties of bionanocomposites (BNCs) composed of basil seed gum (BSG), chitosan (CH), and graphene oxide (GO) were evaluated. Two encapsulation approaches were employed: in the first, SPE was encapsulated via complex coacervation using CH and gum Arabic, then mixed with SSE, maltodextrin, BSG, and GO (0.1-0.2 %) before spray drying; in the second, the encapsulation order of SPE and SSE was reversed. Encapsulation order and GO concentration significantly increased thickness (by 20 %), water vapor permeability (by 50 %), and solubility (by 45 %). Thermal stability improved by 10 % in bionanocomposites containing 50 % co-encapsulated extracts. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy confirmed the successful incorporation of co-encapsulated extracts, while microscopic analysis revealed small cracks with micro- and nano-sized particles (219 nm to 8.3 μm) in BNCs with spray-dried coacervates. Co-encapsulation enhanced antibacterial and antioxidant activity, while encapsulation order regulated the sequential release of bioactive compounds, enabling controlled antimicrobial or antioxidant release based on food deterioration patterns. These findings highlight the potential of co-encapsulated extracts in developing advanced BNCs for active food packaging, where controlled release of bioactive compounds is essential for preserving food quality.

Mechanical and Antimicrobial Properties of the Graphene-Polyamide 6 Composite

This paper presents the synthesis and characterization of graphene-polymer composites, focusing on their mechanical and antibacterial properties. Graphene flakes were obtained via an electrochemical method and integrated into polyamide 6 (PA6) matrices using melt intercalation. Various characterization techniques confirmed the quality of the graphene flakes, including X-ray diffraction (XRD), Raman spectroscopy, and infrared (IR) spectroscopy, as well as scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM and TEM) imaging. Mechanical tests showed an increase in the elastic modulus with graphene incorporation, while the impact strength decreased. The SEM analysis highlighted the dispersion of the graphene flakes within the composites and their impact on fracture behavior. Antimicrobial tests demonstrated significant antibacterial properties of the composites, attributed to both oxidative stress and mechanical damage induced by the graphene flakes. The results suggest promising applications for graphene-polymer composites in advanced antimicrobial materials.

Fabrication Strategies for Bioceramic Scaffolds in Bone Tissue Engineering with Generative Design Applications

The aim of this study is to provide an overview of the current state-of-the-art in the fabrication of bioceramic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering, with an emphasis on the use of three-dimensional (3D) technologies coupled with generative design principles. The field of modern medicine has witnessed remarkable advancements and continuous innovation in recent decades, driven by a relentless desire to improve patient outcomes and quality of life. Central to this progress is the field of tissue engineering, which holds immense promise for regenerative medicine applications. Scaffolds are integral to tissue engineering and serve as 3D frameworks that support cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation. A wide array of materials has been explored for the fabrication of scaffolds, including bioceramics (i.e., hydroxyapatite, beta-tricalcium phosphate, bioglasses) and bioceramic-polymer composites, each offering unique properties and functionalities tailored to specific applications. Several fabrication methods, such as thermal-induced phase separation, electrospinning, freeze-drying, gas foaming, particle leaching/solvent casting, fused deposition modeling, 3D printing, stereolithography and selective laser sintering, will be introduced and thoroughly analyzed and discussed from the point of view of their unique characteristics, which have proven invaluable for obtaining bioceramic scaffolds. Moreover, by highlighting the important role of generative design in scaffold optimization, this review seeks to pave the way for the development of innovative strategies and personalized solutions to address significant gaps in the current literature, mainly related to complex bone defects in bone tissue engineering.

Impact of the Reduction Time-Dependent Electrical Conductivity of Graphene Nanoplatelet-Coated Aligned Bombyx mori Silk Scaffolds on Electrically Stimulated Axonal Growth

Graphene-based nanomaterials, renowned for their outstanding electrical conductivity, have been extensively studied as electroconductive biomaterials (ECBs) for electrically stimulated tissue regeneration. However, using eco-friendly reducing agents like l-ascorbic acid (l-Aa) can result in lower conductive properties in these ECBs, limiting their full potential for smooth charge transfer in living tissues. Moreover, creating a flexible biomaterial scaffold using these materials that accurately mimics a specific tissue microarchitecture, such as nerves, poses additional challenges. To address these issues, this study developed a microfibrous scaffold of Bombyx mori (Bm) silk fibroin uniformly coated with graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) through a vacuum coating method. The scaffold's electrical conductivity was optimized by varying the reduction period using l-Aa. The research systematically investigated how different reduction periods impact scaffold properties, focusing on electrical conductivity and its significance on electrically stimulated axonal growth in PC12 cells. Results showed that a 48 h reduction significantly increased surface electrical conductivity by 100-1000 times compared to a shorter or no reduction process. l-Aa contributed to stabilizing the reduced GNPs, demonstrated by a slow degradation profile and sustained conductivity even after 60 days in a proteolytic environment. β (III) tubulin immunostaining of PC12 cells on varied silk:GNP scaffolds under pulsed electrical stimulation (ES, 50 Hz frequency, 1 ms pulse width, and amplitudes of 100 and 300 mV/cm) demonstrates accelerated axonal growth on scaffolds exhibiting higher conductivity. This is supported by upregulated intracellular Ca2+ dynamics immediately after ES on the scaffolds with higher conductivity, subjected to a prolonged reduction period. The study showcases a sustainable reduction approach using l-Aa in combination with natural Bm silk fibroin to create a highly conductive, mechanically robust, and stable silk:GNP-based aligned fibrous scaffold. These scaffolds hold promise for functional regeneration in electrically excitable tissues such as nerves, cardiac tissue, and muscles.

Preparation and functionalization of cellulose nanofibers using a naturally occurring acid and their application in stabilizing linseed oil/water Pickering emulsions

Finding efficient and environmental-friendly methods to produce and chemically modify cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) remains a challenge. In this study, lactic acid (LA) treatment followed by microfluidization was employed for the isolation and functionalization of CNFs. Small amounts of HCl (0.01, 0.1, and 0.2 M) were used alongside LA to intensify cellulose hydrolysis. FTIR spectroscopy and solid-state 13C NMR confirmed the successful functionalization of CNFs with lactyl groups during isolation, while SEM, AFM, and rheological tests revealed that the addition of HCl governed the fibers' sizes and morphology. Notably, the treatment with LA and 0.2 M HCl resulted in a more efficient defibrillation, yielding smaller nanofibers sizes (62 nm) as compared to the treatment with LA or HCl alone (90 and 108 nm, respectively). The aqueous suspension of CNFs treated with LA and 0.2 M HCl showed the highest viscosity and storage modulus. LA-modified CNFs were tested as stabilizers for linseed oil/water (50/50 v/v) emulsions. Owing to the lactyl groups grafted on their surface and higher aspect ratio, CNFs produced with 0.1 and 0.2 M HCl led to emulsions with increased stability (a creaming index increase of only 3 % and 1 %, respectively, in 30 days) and smaller droplets sizes of 23.4 ± 1.2 and 35.5 ± 0.5 μm, respectively. The results showed that LA-modified CNFs are promising stabilizers for Pickering emulsions.

Nanostructured Coatings Based on Graphene Oxide for the Management of Periprosthetic Infections

To modulate the bioactivity and boost the therapeutic outcome of implantable metallic devices, biodegradable coatings based on polylactide (PLA) and graphene oxide nanosheets (nGOs) loaded with Zinforo™ (Zin) have been proposed in this study as innovative alternatives for the local management of biofilm-associated periprosthetic infections. Using a modified Hummers protocol, high-purity and ultra-thin nGOs have been obtained, as evidenced by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) investigations. The matrix-assisted pulsed laser evaporation (MAPLE) technique has been successfully employed to obtain the PLA-nGO-Zin coatings. The stoichiometric and uniform transfer was revealed by infrared microscopy (IRM) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies. In vitro evaluation, performed on fresh blood samples, has shown the excellent hemocompatibility of PLA-nGO-Zin-coated samples (with a hemolytic index of 1.15%), together with their anti-inflammatory ability. Moreover, the PLA-nGO-Zin coatings significantly inhibited the development of mature bacterial biofilms, inducing important anti-biofilm efficiency in the as-coated samples. The herein-reported results evidence the promising potential of PLA-nGO-Zin coatings to be used for the biocompatible and antimicrobial surface modification of metallic implants.

Tough and antibacterial poly(l-lactic acid) composites prepared via blending with the bifunctional macromolecular ionomer

In order to expand the application of PLLA in the packaging field, improving its toughness and antibacterial activity has been widely concerned. However, seldom researches can simultaneously efficiently improve the toughness and antibacterial activity of PLLA by adding one kind of additions. To address above problems, the bifunctional branched poly(butylene adipate) ionomer additive (b-PBAUi) was synthesized. For b-PBAUi, its branched structure not only increased the plasticizing effect of additive, but also acted as reaction sites to introduce more antibacterial ionic salt. Due to the special structure of b-PBAUi, PLLA/b-PBAUi blends achieved excellent toughness and antibacterial efficiency. The elongation of blend reached 125 % even by adding 5 wt% b-PBAUi, which was 10 times higher than that of PLLA. From the analysis of phase morphology, it could be found that the microvoids promoting tensile yielding was the main tensile toughening mechanism for PLLA/b-PBAUi blends. In addition, the antibacterial activity of PLLA was significantly improved by adding b-PBAUi. For PLLA/b-PBAUi10 and PLLA/b-PBAUi15, the antibacterial efficiency against E. coli and S. aureus bacteria exceeded 99.0 %. By comprehensive consideration, the optimal blend ratio was achieved by PLLA/b-PBAUi10 due to its excellent toughness and antibacterial efficiency.

Exploring nanocomposites for controlling infectious microorganisms: charting the path forward in antimicrobial strategies

Nanocomposites, formed by combining a matrix (commonly polymer or ceramic) with nanofillers (nano-sized inclusions like nanoparticles or nanofibers), possess distinct attributes attributed to their composition. Their unique physicochemical properties and interaction capabilities with microbial cells position them as a promising avenue for infectious disease treatment. The escalating prevalence of multi-drug resistant bacteria intensifies the need for alternative solutions. Traditional approaches involve antimicrobial agents like antibiotics, antivirals, and antifungals, targeting specific microbial aspects. This review presents a comprehensive overview of diverse nanocomposite types and highlights the potential of tailored matrix and antibacterial agent selection within nanocomposites to enhance treatment efficacy and decrease antibiotic resistance risks. Challenges such as toxicity, safety, and scalability in clinical applications are also acknowledged. Ultimately, the convergence of nanotechnology and infectious disease research offers the prospect of enhanced therapeutic strategies, envisioning a future wherein advanced materials revolutionize the landscape of medical treatment.

Enhancing Structural and Thermal Properties of Poly(lactic acid) Using Graphene Oxide Filler and Anionic Surfactant Treatment

Graphene has attracted extensive attention in various fields due to its intriguing properties. In this work, nanocomposite films based on poly(lactic acid) (PLA and PLLA) polymers filled with graphene oxide (GO) were developed. The impact of treating GO with the anionic surfactant dioctyl sulfosuccinate sodium salt (AOT) on the properties of the resulting nanocomposites was investigated. To determine the morphological, optical, and structural properties of the obtained materials, physicochemical analyses were performed, including scanning electron microscopy (SEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. Additionally, the thermal properties and wettability of neat polymers and nanocomposites were thoroughly investigated using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and contact angle analysis. It was observed that GO was well dispersed throughout the PLA and PLLA matrix, leading to stronger interface bonding. The results demonstrate that the untreated and treated GO improved the crystallinity and thermal stability properties of the PLA and PLLA. However, the AOT-treated GO has significantly higher performance compared to the untreated GO in terms of crystallinity, melting temperature (increased by ~15 °C), and wettability (the contact angle decreased by ~30°). These findings reveal the high performance of the developed novel composite, which could be applied in tissue engineering as a scaffold.

Synthesis of chitosan based reduced graphene oxide-CeO2 nanocomposites for drug delivery and antibacterial applications

In this study, the unique characteristics of chitosan, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) and cerium oxide (CeO2) based hybrid bionano-composites make a carrier for various drug delivery and antimicrobial applications. The recent literatures shown that addition of biopolymers to rGO and CeO2 based nanocomposites exhibit excellent performance in design and development of biosensors, wound dressings, electrodes, microfluidic chips, drug delivery systems and energy storage applications. Chitosan (CS), reduced graphene oxide (rGO) mixed with cerium oxide (CeO2) to form CS-rGO and CS-rGO-CeO2 hybrid bionano-composites using precipitation method. The physiochemical characterization of casted nanocomposite sheet was done using FTIR, XRD, UV-Vis spectrum, SEM and TGA. The XRD results of CS-rGO-CeO2 revealed that the nanoparticle was found to be crystalline structure. FTIR revealed that nitrogen functionalities of CS interacted with rGO-CeO2 to form hybrid nanocomposites. The thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) showed that the CS-rGO-CeO2 has better thermal stability up to 550 °C. The SEM confirms the surface morphology of CS-rGO-CeO2 has large surface area with smooth surface. Moreover, the antibacterial properties of nanocomposites exhibit excellent zone of inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The NIH3T3 cell line evaluations showed superior cell adhesion on hybrid nanocomposites. Hence bionano-composite based on CS, rGO and CeO2 are potential biomaterials for drug delivery and antibacterial applications.

Investigating the Properties and Characterization of a Hybrid 3D Printed Antimicrobial Composite Material Using FFF Process: Innovative and Swift

Novel strategies and materials have gained the attention of researchers due to the current pandemic, the global market high competition, and the resistance of pathogens against conventional materials. There is a dire need to develop cost-effective, environmentally friendly, and biodegradable materials to fight against bacteria using novel approaches and composites. Fused filament fabrication (FFF), also known as fused deposition modeling (FDM), is the most effective and novel fabrication method to develop these composites due to its various advantages. Compared to metallic particles alone, composites of different metallic particles have shown excellent antimicrobial properties against common Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. This study investigates the antimicrobial properties of two sets of hybrid composite materials, i.e., Cu-PLA-SS and Cu-PLA-Al, are made using copper-enriched polylactide composite, one-time printed side by-side with stainless steel/PLA composite, and second-time with aluminum/PLA composite respectively. These materials have 90 wt.% of copper, 85 wt.% of SS 17-4, 65 wt.% of Al with a density of 4.7 g/cc, 3.0 g/cc, and 1.54 g/cc, respectively, and were fabricated side by side using the fused filament fabrication (FFF) printing technique. The prepared materials were tested against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria such as Escherichia coli (E. coli), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa), Salmonella Poona (S. Poona), and Enterococci during different time intervals (5 min, 10 min, 20 min, 1 h, 8 h, and 24 h). The results revealed that both samples showed excellent antimicrobial efficiency, and 99% reduction was observed after 10 min. Hence, three-dimensional (3D) printed polymeric composites enriched with metallic particles can be utilized for biomedical, food packaging, and tissue engineering applications. These composite materials can also provide sustainable solutions in public places and hospitals where the chances of touching surfaces are higher.

Blood compatible and noncytotoxic superhydrophobic graphene/titanium dioxide coating with antibacterial and antibiofilm properties

The potential of superhydrophobic surfaces has gained vast attention in medical settings due to their self‐cleaning effect (including bacterial colonization reduction), minimized cell‐to‐surface interaction, and anti‐biofouling effect. These valuable features allow the vanquishment of some limitations accompanying the blood‐contacting medical devices that are widely used in clinical practice. The extracorporeal circulation used to perform hemodialysis, for instance, as well as the blood collection sets, these essential blood‐contacting medical devices are frequently associated with bacterial infection and hemolysis. Within this study, superhydrophobic surface was substantiated to enhance the biocompatibility. Herein, the graphene (Gr) and titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles were dip‐coated on poly(lactic acid) (PLA) film to produce a superhydrophobic surface. The uniform distribution of the Gr/TiO2 nanoparticles of the coating enhanced the surface roughness and therefore promoted superhydrophobic properties. Co‐occurrence of the Cassie‐Baxter regime and Wenzel regime was suggested to induce the low surface wettability. The superhydrophobic Gr/TiO2 demonstrated significant inhibition of biofilm formation and antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Besides, the in vitro blood compatibility assay showed a hemolysis rate lower than 2%, which was categorized as nonhemolytic. The exposure of human heart cells and kidney cells to the Gr/TiO2‐coated PLA film did not significantly affect the cell viability. The findings herein showed promising results for the superhydrophobic Gr/TiO2‐coated PLA film to act as a potential biomaterial for single‐use blood‐contacting medical devices. This study also provided insight for future medical applications that require superhydrophobic coatings.

A review: studying the effect of graphene nanoparticles on mechanical, physical and thermal properties of polylactic acid polymer

Polylactic acid (PLA) is a linear aliphatic polyester thermoplastic made from renewable sources such as sugar beet and cornstarch. Methods of preparation of polylactic acid are biological and chemical. The advantages of polylactic acid are biocompatibility, easily processing, low energy loss, transparency, high strength, resistance to water and fat penetration and low consumption of carbon dioxide during production. However, polylactic acid has disadvantages such as hydrophobicity, fragility at room temperature, low thermal resistance, slow degradation rate, permeability to gases, lack of active groups and chemical neutrality. To overcome the limitations of PLA, such as low thermal stability and inability to absorb gases, nanoparticles such as graphene are added to improve its properties. Extensive research has been done on the introduction of graphene nanoparticles in PLA, and all of these studies have been studied. In this study, we intend to study a comprehensive study of the effect of graphene nanoparticles on the mechanical, thermal, structural and rheological properties of PLA/Gr nanocomposites and also the effect of UV rays on the mechanical properties of PLA/Gr nanocomposites.

Comparative Experimental Investigation of Biodegradable Antimicrobial Polymer-Based Composite Produced by 3D Printing Technology Enriched with Metallic Particles

Due to the prevailing existence of the COVID-19 pandemic, novel and practical strategies to combat pathogens are on the rise worldwide. It is estimated that, globally, around 10% of hospital patients will acquire at least one healthcare-associated infection. One of the novel strategies that has been developed is incorporating metallic particles into polymeric materials that neutralize infectious agents. Considering the broad-spectrum antimicrobial potency of some materials, the incorporation of metallic particles into the intended hybrid composite material could inherently add significant value to the final product. Therefore, this research aimed to investigate an antimicrobial polymeric PLA-based composite material enhanced with different microparticles (copper, aluminum, stainless steel, and bronze) for the antimicrobial properties of the hybrid composite. The prepared composite material samples produced with fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printing technology were tested for different time intervals to establish their antimicrobial activities. The results presented here depict that the sample prepared with 90% copper and 10% PLA showed the best antibacterial activity (99.5%) after just 20 min against different types of bacteria as compared to the other samples. The metallic-enriched PLA-based antibacterial sheets were remarkably effective against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli; therefore, they can be a good candidate for future biomedical, food packaging, tissue engineering, prosthetic material, textile industry, and other science and technology applications. Thus, antimicrobial sheets made from PLA mixed with metallic particles offer sustainable solutions for a wide range of applications where touching surfaces is a big concern.

Novel graphene oxide/polymer composite membranes for the food industry: structures, mechanisms and recent applications

The membrane can not only be used as food packaging, but also for the separation, fractionation and recovery of food ingredients. Graphene oxide (GO) sheets are a two-dimensional (2 D) material with a unique structure that exhibit excellent mechanical properties, biocompatibility, and flexibility. The corporation of polymer matrix membrane with GO can significantly improve the permeability, selectivity, and antibacterial activity. In this review, the chemical structures of GO, GO membranes and GO/polymer composite membranes are introduced, the permeation mechanisms of molecules through the membranes are discussed and key factors affecting the permeability are presented in detail. In addition, recent applications in the food industry for filtration, bioreactions and active food packaging are analyzed, and limitations and future trends of GO membranes development are also highlighted. GO/polymer composite membranes exhibit excellent permeability, selectivity and strong barrier properties against bacterial and gas permeation. However, current food material filtration and packaging applications of GO/polymer composite membranes are still in the laboratory stage. Future work can focus on the development of large scale uniformly sized GO production, the homogeneous distribution and tight combination of GO in polymer matrixes, the sensing function of GO in packaging, and the verification method of GO toxicology.

Fabrication and Characterization of Superhydrophobic Graphene/Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles Composite

Materials with superhydrophobic surfaces have received vast attention in various industries due to their valuable properties, such as their self-cleaning and antifouling effects. These promising superhydrophobic properties are taken into high priority, particularly for medical devices and applications. The development of an ideal superhydrophobic surface is a challenging task and is constantly progressing. Various strategies have been introduced; however, a minority of them are cost-effective. This work presents a facile fabrication of the superhydrophobic surface by using graphene and titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles. The graphene and TiO₂ hybrid nanoparticles are dip-coated on a biodegradable thermoplastic poly(lactic acid) (PLA) substrate. The thermoplastic PLA is approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), and is widely utilized in medical devices. The graphene/TiO₂ coating is substantiated to transform the hydrophilic PLA film into superhydrophobic biomaterials that can help to reduce hazardous medical-device complications. The surface wettability of the graphene/TiO₂ nanoparticle-coated PLA surface was evaluated by measuring the apparent water contact angle. The surface chemical composition and surface morphology were analyzed via Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The graphene/TiO₂-coated PLA film achieved superhydrophobic properties by demonstrating a water contact angle greater than 150°. The water contact angle of the graphene/TiO₂ coating increased along with the concentration of the nanoparticles and the ratio of TiO₂ to graphene. Moreover, the graphene/TiO₂ coating exhibited excellent durability, whereby the contact angle of the coated surface remained unchanged after water immersion for 24 h. The duration of the effectiveness of the superhydrophobic coating suggests its suitability for medical devices, for which a short duration of administration is involved. This study reports an easy-to-replicate and cost-effective method for fabricating superhydrophobic graphene/TiO₂-coated surfaces, which additionally substantiates a potential solution for the manufacturing of biomaterials in the future.

GO-based antibacterial composites: Application and design strategies

Graphene oxide (GO), for its unique structure with high biocompatibility and designability, is widely used in the antibacterial field. Various strategies have been designed to fabricate GO-based composites with antibacterial properties. This review summarized these strategies, divided them into three types and interpreted their antibacterial mechanisms: (i) "GO*/non-GO" type in which GO acts as the single antibacterial core, (ii) "GO*/non-GO*" type in which GO and non-GO components function synergistically as dual antibacterial cores, (iii) "GO/non-GO*" type in which non-GO acts as the single antibacterial core, while GO component plays a supportive, not a dominant role in antibiosis. Besides, the fields suiting their applications and factors influencing their antibacterial properties were analyzed. Finally, the limitations and prospects in the current researches were discussed. In summary, GO-based composites have revolutionized antibacterial strategies. This review may serve as a reference to inspire further research on GO-based antibacterial composites.

Mechanical Properties of Polylactide Admixed with Carbon Nanotubes or Graphene Nanopowder

The aim of this work was to verify the material properties of polylactic acid (PLA) with an addition of carbon nanotubes (CNTs) or graphene nanopowder (GNP). The pure polylactide and admixed polylactide samples were subjected to chemical-physical tests to determine their stiffness and strength parameters. The tensile and impact tests were performed on samples without UV (ultraviolet) treatment and after UV treatment, in a physiological saline solution. The investigations were composed of two stages. The first one was related to the examination of the properties of pure polylactide, denoted as the following: 3001D, 4032D, and 4043D. The second stage was based on an analysis of the properties of PLA 4032D with an admixture of GNP or CNTs, at 0.1 wt.% and 0.5 wt.%. By comparing the strength and the stiffness of pure samples with samples with the considered admixtures, an essential increase was not observed. However, it is stated that the presence of GNP and CNTs in the samples positively influenced the resistance of the materials to the ageing process.

State of the Art in the Antibacterial and Antiviral Applications of Carbon-Based Polymeric Nanocomposites

The development of novel approaches to prevent bacterial infection is essential for enhancing everyday life. Carbon nanomaterials display exceptional optical, thermal, and mechanical properties combined with antibacterial ones, which make them suitable for diverse fields, including biomedical and food applications. Nonetheless, their practical applications as antimicrobial agents have not been fully explored yet, owing to their relatively poor dispersibility, expensiveness, and scalability changes. To solve these issues, they can be integrated within polymeric matrices, which also exhibit antimicrobial activity in some cases. This review describes the state of the art in the antibacterial applications of polymeric nanocomposites reinforced with 0D fullerenes, 1D carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and 2D graphene (G) and its derivatives such as graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO). Given that a large number of such nanocomposites are available, only the most illustrative examples are described, and their mechanisms of antimicrobial activity are discussed. Finally, some applications of these antimicrobial polymeric nanocomposites are reviewed.

Impact of the Graphite Fillers on the Thermal Processing of Graphite/Poly(lactic acid) Composites

To assess the impact of graphite fillers on the thermal processing of graphite/poly(lactic acid) (PLA) composites, a series of the composite samples with different graphite of industrial grade as fillers was prepared by melt mixing. The average size of the graphite grains ranged between 100 µm and 6 µm. For comparative purposes, one of the carbon fillers was expandable graphite. Composites were examined by SEM, FTIR, and Raman spectroscopy. As revealed by thermogravimetric (TG) analyses, graphite filler slightly lowered the temperature of thermal decomposition of the PLA matrix. Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) tests showed that the room temperature crystallinity of the polymer matrix is strongly affected by the graphite filler. The crystallinity of the composites determined from the second heating cycle reached values close to 50%, while these values are close to zero for the neat polymer. The addition of graphite to PLA caused a slight reduction in the oxidation induction time (OIT). The melt flow rate (MFR) of the graphite/PLA composites was lower than the original PLA due to an increase in flow resistance associated with the high crystallinity of the polymer matrix. Expandable graphite did not cause changes in the structure of the polymer matrix during thermal treatment. The crystallinity of the composite with this filler did not increase after first heating and was close to the neat PLA MFR value, which was extremely high due to the low crystallinity of the PLA matrix and delamination of the filler at elevated temperature.

Effect of the reduced graphene oxide (rGO) compaction degree and concentration on rGO-polymer composite printability and cell interactions

Graphene derivatives combined with polymers have attracted enormous attention for bone tissue engineering applications. Among others, reduced graphene oxide (rGO) is one of the preferred graphene-based fillers for the preparation of composites via melt compounding, and their further processing into 3D scaffolds, due to its established large-scale production method, thermal stability, and electrical conductivity. In this study, rGO (low bulk density 10 g L^-1) was compacted by densification using a solvent (either acetone or water) prior to melt compounding, to simplify its handling and dosing into a twin-screw extrusion system. The effects of rGO bulk density (medium and high), densification solvent, and rGO concentration (3, 10 and 15% in weight) on rGO dispersion within the composite, electrical conductivity, printability and cell-material interactions were studied. High bulk density rGO (90 g L^-1) occupied a low volume fraction within polymer composites, offering poor electrical properties but a reproducible printability up to 15 wt% rGO. On the other hand, the volume fraction within the composites of medium bulk density rGO (50 g L^-1) was higher for a given concentration, enhancing rGO particle interactions and leading to enhanced electrical conductivity, but compromising the printability window. For a given bulk density (50 g L^-1), rGO densified in water was more compacted and offered poorer dispersability within the polymer than rGO densified in acetone, and resulted in scaffolds with poor layer bonding or even lack of printability at high rGO percentages. A balance in printability and electrical properties was obtained for composites with medium bulk density achieved with rGO densified in acetone. Here, increasing rGO concentration led to more hydrophilic composites with a noticeable increase in protein adsorption. Moreover, scaffolds prepared with such composites presented antimicrobial properties even at low rGO contents (3 wt%). In addition, the viability and proliferation of human mesenchymal stromal cells (hMSCs) were maintained on scaffolds with up to 15% rGO and with enhanced osteogenic differentiation on 3% rGO scaffolds.

Antibacterial Activity of Polymer Nanocomposites Incorporating Graphene and Its Derivatives: A State of Art

The incorporation of carbon-based nanostructures into polymer matrices is a relevant strategy for producing novel antimicrobial materials. By using nanofillers of different shapes and sizes, and polymers with different characteristics, novel antimicrobial nanocomposites with synergistic properties can be obtained. This article describes the state of art in the field of antimicrobial polymeric nanocomposites reinforced with graphene and its derivatives such as graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide. Taking into account the vast number of articles published, only some representative examples are provided. A classification of the different nanocomposites is carried out, dividing them into acrylic and methacrylic matrices, biodegradable synthetic polymers and natural polymers. The mechanisms of antimicrobial activity of graphene and its derivatives are also reviewed. Finally, some applications of these antimicrobial nanocomposites are discussed. We aim to enhance understanding in the field and promote further work on the development of polymer-based antimicrobial nanocomposites incorporating graphene-based nanomaterials.

Electrically Triggered Drug Delivery from Novel Electrospun Poly(Lactic Acid)/Graphene Oxide/Quercetin Fibrous Scaffolds for Wound Dressing Applications

The novel controlled and localized delivery of drug molecules to target tissues using an external electric stimulus makes electro-responsive drug delivery systems both feasible and desirable, as well as entailing a reduction in the side effects. Novel micro-scaffold matrices were designed based on poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and graphene oxide (GO) via electrospinning. Quercetin (Q), a natural flavonoid, was loaded into the fiber matrices in order to investigate the potential as a model drug for wound dressing applications. The physico-chemical properties, electrical triggering capacity, antimicrobial assay and biocompatibility were also investigated. The newly fabricated PLA/GO/Q scaffolds showed uniform and smooth surface morphologies, without any beads, and with diameters ranging from 1107 nm (10%PLA/0.1GO/Q) to 1243 nm (10%PLA). The in vitro release tests of Q from the scaffolds showed that Q can be released much faster (up to 8640 times) when an appropriate electric field is applied compared to traditional drug-release approaches. For instance, 10 s of electric stimulation is enough to ensure the full delivery of the loaded Q from the 10%PLA/1%GO/Q microfiber scaffold at both 10 Hz and at 50 Hz. The antimicrobial tests showed the inhibition of bacterial film growth. Certainly, these materials could be loaded with more potent agents for anti-cancer, anti-infection, and anti-osteoporotic therapies. The L929 fibroblast cells cultured on these scaffolds were distributed homogeneously on the scaffolds, and the highest viability value of 82.3% was obtained for the 10%PLA/0.5%GO/Q microfiber scaffold. Moreover, the addition of Q in the PLA/GO matrix stimulated the production of IL-6 at 24 h, which could be linked to an acute inflammatory response in the exposed fibroblast cells, as a potential effect of wound healing. As a general conclusion, these results demonstrate the possibility of developing graphene oxide-based supports for the electrically triggered delivery of biological active agents, with the delivery rate being externally controlled in order to ensure personalized release.

Biodegradable shape-memory polymers and composites

Polymers have recently been making media headlines in various negative ways. To combat the negative view of those with no polymer experience, sustainable and biodegradable materials are constantly being researched. Shape-memory polymers, also known as SMPs, are a type of polymer material that is being extensively researched in the polymer industry. These SMPs can exhibit a change in shape because of an external stimulus. SMPs that are biodegradable or biocompatible are used extensively in medical applications. The use of biodegradable SMPs in the medical field has also led to research of the material in other applications. The following categories used to describe SMPs are discussed: net points, composition, stimulus, and shape-memory function. The addition of fillers or additives to the polymer matrix makes the SMP a polymer composite. Currently, biodegradable fillers are at the forefront of research because of the demand for sustainability. Common biodegradable fillers or fibers used in polymer composites are discussed in this chapter including Cordenka, hemp, and flax. Some other nonbiodegradable fillers commonly used in polymer composites are evaluated including clay, carbon nanotubes, bioactive glass, and Kevlar. The polymer and filler phase differences will be evaluated in this chapter. The recent advances in biodegradable shape-memory polymers and composites will provide a more positive perspective of the polymer industry and help to attain a more sustainable future.

Promoting Interfacial Interactions with the Addition of Lignin in Poly(Lactic Acid) Hybrid Nanocomposites

In this paper, the calorimetric response of the amorphous phase was examined in hybrid nanocomposites which were prepared thanks to a facile synthetic route, by adding reduced graphene oxide (rGO), Cloisite 30B (C30B), or multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) to lignin-filled poly(lactic acid) (PLA). The dispersion of both lignin and nanofillers was successful, according to a field-emission scanning-electron microscopy (FESEM) analysis. Lignin alone essentially acted as a crystallization retardant for PLA, and the nanocomposites shared this feature, except when MWCNT was used as nanofiller. All systems exhibiting a curtailed crystallization also showed better thermal stability than neat PLA, as assessed from thermogravimetric measurements. As a consequence of favorable interactions between the PLA matrix, lignin, and the nanofillers, homogeneous dispersion or exfoliation was assumed in amorphous samples from the increase of the cooperative rearranging region (CRR) size, being even more remarkable when increasing the lignin content. The amorphous nanocomposites showed a signature of successful filler inclusion, since no rigid amorphous fraction (RAF) was reported at the filler/matrix interface. Finally, the nanocomposites were crystallized up to their maximum extent from the glassy state in nonisothermal conditions. Despite similar degrees of crystallinity and RAF, significant variations in the CRR size were observed among samples, revealing different levels of mobility constraining in the amorphous phase, probably linked to a filler-dimension dependence of space filling.

Effect of bioglass nanoparticles on the properties and bioactivity of poly(lactic acid) films

Bioglass nanoparticles (n-BGs, 54SiO₂ :40CaO:6P₂ O₅ mol %) with about 27 nm diameter were synthesized by the sol-gel method and incorporated into a poly(lactic acid) (PLA) matrix by the melting process in order to obtain nanocomposites with filler contents of 5, 10, and 25 wt %. Our results showed that during the cooling scan, the crystallization temperature (T_c ) of the PLA/n-BG nanocomposites decreased 13°C as compared to neat PLA. The presence of nanoparticles also decreased the thermal stability of the PLA matrix, as nanocomposites presented up to about 20°C lower degradation temperatures in a nitrogen atmosphere. The presence of n-BG increased the stiffness of the polymer matrix, and for instance the composite with 25 wt % of filler presented about 52.6% higher Young's modulus than neat PLA. n-BG incorporation into PLA increased also the hydrolytic degradation of the polymer over time. When the PLA composites were immersed in simulated body fluid, an apatite layer was formed on their surface, as verified by Fourier transform infrared, X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy-EDS, showing that the presence of n-BG induced bioactivity on the PLA matrix. Moreover, the viability of cervical uterine adenocarcinoma cells was higher on PLA/n-BG nanocomposite with 25 wt % of filler. The presence of n-BG barely gave an antibacterial effect on the polymer matrix, despite the well-known biocidal properties of these nanoparticles. Our results show that the presence of n-BGs is a proper route for improving the bioactivity of PLA with potential application in tissue engineering.

Electroceutical Silk-Silver Gel to Eradicate Bacterial Infection

With more than 50% of bacteria resistant to standard antibiotics, new strategies to treat bacterial infection and colonization are needed. Based on the concept of targeting the bacteria synergistically on various fronts, it is hypothesized that an electrical insult associated with antibacterial materials may be a highly effective means of killing bacteria. In this work, an injectable conductive gel based on silk fibroin (SF) and silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) is synthesized, capable of coating a zone of injury, allowing the application of a low electrical current to decrease bacterial contamination. With a high conductivity of 1.5 S cm^-1 , SF/Ag-NPs gels killed 80% of Escherichia coli in 1 min, no toxicity toward Chinese hamster ovary cells is observed. The mechanism of an electrical composite gel combined with electrical wound therapy is associated with silver ion (Ag⁺ ) release, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. The findings in the present study show a similar Ag⁺ release for treatment with gels and the combined effect, whereas ROS generation is 50% higher when a small electrical current is applied leading to a broad bactericidal effect.

Synthesis, Physical, Mechanical and Antibacterial Properties of Nanocomposites Based on Poly(vinyl alcohol)/Graphene Oxide-Silver Nanoparticles

The design of new materials with antimicrobial properties has emerged in response to the need for preventing and controlling the growth of pathogenic microorganisms without the use of antibiotics. In this study, partially reduced graphene oxide decorated with silver nanoparticles (GO-AgNPs) was incorporated as a reinforcing filler with antibacterial properties to poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) for preparation of poly(vinyl alcohol)/graphene oxide-silver nanoparticles nanocomposites (PVA/GO-AgNPs). AgNPs, spherical in shape and with an average size of 3.1 nm, were uniformly anchored on the partially reduced GO surface. PVA/GO-AgNPs nanocomposites showed exfoliated structures with improved thermal stability, tensile properties and water resistance compared to neat PVA. The glass transition and crystallization temperatures of the polymer matrix increased with the incorporation of the hybrid. The nanocomposites displayed antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli in a filler content- and time-dependent manner. S. aureus showed higher susceptibility to PVA/GO-AgNPs films than E. coli. Inhibitory activity was higher when bacterial cells were in contact with nanocomposite films than when in contact with leachates coming out of the films. GO-AgNPs based PVA nanocomposites could find application as wound dressings for wound healing and infection prevention.

Electroactive 3D Printed Scaffolds Based on Percolated Composites of Polycaprolactone With Thermally Reduced Graphene Oxide for Antibacterial and Tissue Engineering Applications

Applying electrical stimulation (ES) could affect different cellular mechanisms, thereby producing a bactericidal effect and an increase in human cell viability. Despite its relevance, this bioelectric effect has been barely reported in percolated conductive biopolymers. In this context, electroactive polycaprolactone (PCL) scaffolds with conductive Thermally Reduced Graphene Oxide (TrGO) nanoparticles were obtained by a 3D printing method. Under direct current (DC) along the percolated scaffolds, a strong antibacterial effect was observed, which completely eradicated S. aureus on the surface of scaffolds. Notably, the same ES regime also produced a four-fold increase in the viability of human mesenchymal stem cells attached to the 3D conductive PCL/TrGO scaffold compared with the pure PCL scaffold. These results have widened the design of novel electroactive composite polymers that could both eliminate the bacteria adhered to the scaffold and increase human cell viability, which have great potential in tissue engineering applications.

Nanofiber membrane of graphene oxide/polyacrylonitrile with highly efficient antibacterial activity

Infection from bacterial resistance to antibiotics has given rise to a grave threat to human health in the world. It is vital to developing highly efficient antibacterial materials that are safe and biocompatible with humans and without bacterial resistance. In this study, nanofiber membranes of graphene oxide/polyacrylonitrile (GO/PAN) with highly efficient antibacterial activity were fabricated via electrospinning technique. As the spindle-knot structure of membranes formed by the addition of GO sheets increased, the hydrophilicity and surface roughness increased. The antibacterial test indicated that antibacterial ratios of 3GO/PAN membranes against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were 98.5% and 99.6%, respectively after contracting 24 h, with highly efficient antibacterial activity. Furthermore, the E. coli cell structures of adhered to the GO/PAN nanofiber surface changed significantly shrunk and deformed, and the number of S. aureus cell were obviously less contrast than the pure PAN. The main antibacterial mechanism was GO of spindle-knot in nanofiber membranes produced ROS destroyed the physiological activities of the bacteria lead to death. The fabricated GO/PAN nanofiber membrane of this study is promising to develop to a kind of novel antibacterial materials.

Antibacterial Activities of Aliphatic Polyester Nanocomposites with Silver Nanoparticles and/or Graphene Oxide Sheets

Aliphatic polyesters such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL) and poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) copolymers have been widely used as biomaterials for tissue engineering applications including: bone fixation devices, bone scaffolds, and wound dressings in orthopedics. However, biodegradable aliphatic polyesters are prone to bacterial infections due to the lack of antibacterial moieties in their macromolecular chains. In this respect, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), graphene oxide (GO) sheets and AgNPs-GO hybrids can be used as reinforcing nanofillers for aliphatic polyesters in forming antimicrobial nanocomposites. However, polymeric matrix materials immobilize nanofillers to a large extent so that they cannot penetrate bacterial membrane into cytoplasm as in the case of colloidal nanoparticles or nanosheets. Accordingly, loaded GO sheets of aliphatic polyester nanocomposites have lost their antibacterial functions such as nanoknife cutting, blanket wrapping and membrane phospholipid extraction. In contrast, AgNPs fillers of polyester nanocomposites can release silver ions for destroying bacterial cells. Thus, AgNPs fillers are more effective than loaded GO sheets of polyester nanocomposiites in inhibiting bacterial infections. Aliphatic polyester nanocomposites with AgNPs and AgNPs-GO fillers are effective to kill multi-drug resistant bacteria that cause medical device-related infections.

Synthetic Biodegradable Aliphatic Polyester Nanocomposites Reinforced with Nanohydroxyapatite and/or Graphene Oxide for Bone Tissue Engineering Applications

This paper provides review updates on the current development of bionanocomposites with polymeric matrices consisting of synthetic biodegradable aliphatic polyesters reinforced with nanohydroxyaptite (nHA) and/or graphene oxide (GO) nanofillers for bone tissue engineering applications. Biodegradable aliphatic polyesters include poly(lactic acid) (PLA), polycaprolactone (PCL) and copolymers of PLA-PGA (PLGA). Those bionanocomposites have been explored for making 3D porous scaffolds for the repair of bone defects since nHA and GO enhance their bioactivity and biocompatibility by promoting biomineralization, bone cell adhesion, proliferation and differentiation, thus facilitating new bone tissue formation upon implantation. The incorporation of nHA or GO into aliphatic polyester scaffolds also improves their mechanical strength greatly, especially hybrid GO/nHA nanofilllers. Those mechanically strong nanocomposite scaffolds can support and promote cell attachment for tissue growth. Porous scaffolds fabricated from conventional porogen leaching, and thermally induced phase separation have many drawbacks inducing the use of organic solvents, poor control of pore shape and pore interconnectivity, while electrospinning mats exhibit small pores that limit cell infiltration and tissue ingrowth. Recent advancement of 3D additive manufacturing allows the production of aliphatic polyester nanocomposite scaffolds with precisely controlled pore geometries and large pores for the cell attachment, growth, and differentiation in vitro, and the new bone formation in vivo.

Electroactive Smart Polymers for Biomedical Applications

The flexibility in polymer properties has allowed the development of a broad range of materials with electroactivity, such as intrinsically conductive conjugated polymers, percolated conductive composites, and ionic conductive hydrogels. These smart electroactive polymers can be designed to respond rationally under an electric stimulus, triggering outstanding properties suitable for biomedical applications. This review presents a general overview of the potential applications of these electroactive smart polymers in the field of tissue engineering and biomaterials. In particular, details about the ability of these electroactive polymers to: (1) stimulate cells in the context of tissue engineering by providing electrical current; (2) mimic muscles by converting electric energy into mechanical energy through an electromechanical response; (3) deliver drugs by changing their internal configuration under an electrical stimulus; and (4) have antimicrobial behavior due to the conduction of electricity, are discussed.

Graphene Nanomaterials: Synthesis, Biocompatibility, and Cytotoxicity

Graphene, graphene oxide, and reduced graphene oxide have been widely considered as promising candidates for industrial and biomedical applications due to their exceptionally high mechanical stiffness and strength, excellent electrical conductivity, high optical transparency, and good biocompatibility. In this article, we reviewed several techniques that are available for the synthesis of graphene-based nanomaterials, and discussed the biocompatibility and toxicity of such nanomaterials upon exposure to mammalian cells under in vitro and in vivo conditions. Various synthesis strategies have been developed for their fabrication, generating graphene nanomaterials with different chemical and physical properties. As such, their interactions with cells and organs are altered accordingly. Conflicting results relating biocompatibility and cytotoxicity induced by graphene nanomaterials have been reported in the literature. In particular, graphene nanomaterials that are used for in vitro cell culture and in vivo animal models may contain toxic chemical residuals, thereby interfering graphene-cell interactions and complicating interpretation of experimental results. Synthesized techniques, such as liquid phase exfoliation and wet chemical oxidation, often required toxic organic solvents, surfactants, strong acids, and oxidants for exfoliating graphite flakes. Those organic molecules and inorganic impurities that are retained in final graphene products can interact with biological cells and tissues, inducing toxicity or causing cell death eventually. The residual contaminants can cause a higher risk of graphene-induced toxicity in biological cells. This adverse effect may be partly responsible for the discrepancies between various studies in the literature.