1
|
Foell A, Pitzer KA, Nebbitt V, Lombe M, Yu M, Villodas ML, Enelamah N, Lateef H. Anxiety sensitivity among Black youth: A cross-sectional analysis of the direct and indirect effects of community violence exposure, neighborhood risk, parenting practices, and peer effects. J Natl Med Assoc 2024; 116:390-402. [PMID: 39068110 DOI: 10.1016/j.jnma.2024.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/02/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Youth exposed to community violence and neighborhood stressors report devastating mental health consequences. Black youth are at greater risk and experience community violence at rates higher than other youth populations. An underexplored mental health consequence is anxiety sensitivity, the fear of experiencing anxiety-related symptoms, which contributes to maladaptive coping strategies and the development and severity of other mental health problems. This study utilized structural equation modeling (SEM) to examine socio-ecological risk and protective factors associated with community violence exposure and anxiety sensitivity among low-income Black youth. Survey data are from a sample of 320 Black youth residing in public and subsidized housing in a Northeastern city in the United States. Results indicated that neighborhood risk, parenting behaviors, and exposure to delinquent peers were indirectly associated with anxiety sensitivity, which occurred through community violence exposure. Additionally, neighborhood risks had direct effects on anxiety sensitivity. Results point to the need to incorporate social and environmental factors in interventions addressing anxiety sensitivity among Black youth in urban communities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Foell
- Jane Addams College of Social Work, University of Illinois Chicago, 1040 West Harrison Street, Chicago, IL 60607, USA.
| | - Kyle A Pitzer
- Brown School, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Dr, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Von Nebbitt
- School of Social Work, Morgan State University, 1700 E. Cold Spring Lane, Baltimore, MD 21251, USA
| | - Margaret Lombe
- School of Social Work, Boston University, 264 Bay State Road, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Mansoo Yu
- School of Social Work, Department of Public Health, University of Missouri, 720 Clark Hall, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
| | - Melissa L Villodas
- Department of Social Work, George Mason University, 4400 University Drive, Fairfax, VA 22030, USA
| | - Ngozi Enelamah
- Department of Social Work, University of New Hampshire, 55 College Road, Durham, NH 03824, USA
| | - Husain Lateef
- Brown School, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Dr, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Estrada S, Baskin-Sommers A. Trajectories of parental harshness and exposure to community violence differentially predict externalizing and internalizing mental health problems in legal system-involved youth. Dev Psychopathol 2024; 36:589-600. [PMID: 36734222 DOI: 10.1017/s0954579422001420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Youth with legal system involvement are especially likely to experience parental harshness (PH) and exposure to community violence (ETV), two common forms of life stress. However, most studies examine these stressors separately or collapse across them in ways that preclude examination of their co-occurrence. Consequently, it is unclear 1) how PH and ETV simultaneously fluctuate across development and 2) how these fluctuations predict future mental health problems in legal system-involved youth. We used group-based multi-trajectory modeling to estimate simultaneous trajectories of PH and ETV in 1027 legal system-involved youth and regression analyses to understand how trajectory membership predicted mental health problems three years later. Four trajectories of co-occurrence were identified (1: Low; 2: Moderate and Decreasing; 3: Moderate PH/High ETV; 4: High PH/Moderate ETV). Compared to the Low trajectory, all trajectories with PH/ETV elevations predicted violent crime and substance problems; trajectory 3 (Moderate PH/High ETV) predicted nonviolent crime and depression/anxiety symptoms; trajectory 4 (High PH/Moderate ETV) predicted depression diagnosis. These results elucidate how PH and ETV typically co-occur across adolescence for legal system-involved youth. They also reveal important commonalities and dissociations among types of mental health problems.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Estrada
- Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
3
|
Muradwij N, Allwood M. Making meaning of community violence among adolescents: Associations between exposure, pro-violence attitudes and psychological symptoms. JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 50:1315-1330. [PMID: 34599845 DOI: 10.1002/jcop.22717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 09/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
This study examined one type of adolescent meaning making (i.e., the development of beliefs about violence) and its association with reported mental health symptoms in a sample of youth exposed to community violence. Eighty-seven adolescents (age 11-18; 64.4% female) from a metropolitan city in the Northeast were recruited through Craigslist and recreation center postings and data collection occurred from 2009 to 2013. Participants completed self-reported measures of community violence exposure, attitudes toward violence, and psychological symptoms of depression and posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD]. Bivariate correlations, hierarchical linear regressions, and mediation analyses examined the associations between exposure, beliefs about violence, and mental health symptoms. Self-reported pro-violence attitudes were positively correlated with depression symptoms (r = 0.32, p < 0.01) and PTSD (r = 0.45, p < 0.01). Pro-violence attitudes significantly mediated the relationship between community violence exposure and depression symptoms (95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.003-0.061) and PTSD symptoms (95% CI = 0.046-0.260). Preliminary findings suggest that meaning making through the development of pro-violence attitudes may not protect against symptoms of PTSD and depression among youth. Findings can inform the integration of meaning making processes into community mental health interventions for youth.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nawal Muradwij
- Department of Psychology, John Jay College of Criminal Justice and The Graduate Center, City University of New York, 524 W 59th St, New York, United States, 10019, USA
| | - Maureen Allwood
- Department of Psychology, John Jay College of Criminal Justice and The Graduate Center, City University of New York, 524 W 59th St, New York, United States, 10019, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Paixão Pequeno D, Pequeno Galvão L, Lourenço GJ. Addressing psychiatric disorders and genetics: the meaningful use of comics for health information. J Vis Commun Med 2022; 45:154-159. [PMID: 35315748 DOI: 10.1080/17453054.2022.2029369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
In the fields of healthcare and education, comics have shown considerable academic and teaching importance, with their combination of text and images. As a well-known character in comics, Batman allows us to discuss several relevant topics, from the outcomes in adulthood of experiencing parental death in childhood to genetic and epigenetic changes that may be factors of vulnerability to psychiatric disorders in adulthood. In this text, a narrative of Batman is developed, demonstrating the possibility of using it in an academic context and intending at paying greater attention to patients' history and the relationship between genetics and behaviour.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Paixão Pequeno
- Laboratory of Cancer Genetics, School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | | | - Gustavo Jacob Lourenço
- Laboratory of Cancer Genetics, School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Mels C, Lagoa L, Cuevasanta D. Exploring exposure to intertwined community violence among Uruguayan adolescents using a mixed-method approach. JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY 2022; 50:1155-1172. [PMID: 34529841 DOI: 10.1002/jcop.22709] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 08/16/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Building on the case of adolescents (aged 12-16 years) from underprivileged neighborhoods in Montevideo, two studies explore patterns of exposure to community violence among understudied South American youth. Applying a mixed-methods approach, the first study (n = 117) used principal component analysis to examine response patterns on a self-reported exposure to community violence scale. The second study examined subjective experience, drawing from focus group discussions with adolescents (n = 27) and their teachers (n = 22). Events were clustered into three components: indirect violence, traumatic violence, physical/verbal abuse, and robbery. Participants described the severity of violence in relation to chronic exposure, processes of naturalization, and permeable boundaries among the neighborhood, school, family, and social media networks. Violence chronicity and potential threats to life appear to be central dimensions in community violence reporting. Delimitating the study of community violence based on the setting or perceptual closeness has limited socioecological relevance.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Cindy Mels
- Department of Education, Universidad Católica del Uruguay, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Leticia Lagoa
- Department of Education, Universidad Católica del Uruguay, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Diego Cuevasanta
- Department of Education, Universidad Católica del Uruguay, Montevideo, Uruguay
- Institute of Psychology, Education y Human Development, Faculty of Psychology, Universidad de la República Uruguay, Montevideo, Uruguay
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Xiong T, Milios A, McGrath PJ, Kaltenbach E. The influence of social support on posttraumatic stress symptoms among children and adolescents: a scoping review and meta-analysis. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2022; 13:2011601. [PMID: 35340789 PMCID: PMC8942489 DOI: 10.1080/20008198.2021.2011601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Several risk and protective factors play a role in the development of posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) in children and youth. The evidence for social support (SS) as a protective factor is rising; however, a review of the evidence is lacking. OBJECTIVE This scoping review and meta-analysis aims to map out and synthesize the present research on the influence of social support on PTSS in children and adolescents. METHOD The literature searched through PubMed, MEDLINE, Embase, PsycInfo, and CINAHL identified 3629 abstracts. Ninety articles published from 1999 to 2020 were selected, including a total of 77,439 participants. RESULTS Most papers focused on social and emotional support from family members (36/88) and peers (26/88); other types of support (e.g., informational support and support from professionals) were not widely reported. The cross-sectional studies illustrated an overall significant, but weak, negative correlation between global social support and PTSS. A similar weak negative association was found between family support and PTSS. The association between peer support and PTSS was not significant. For longitudinal studies, 4 of 5 indicated that SS was a significant negative predictor of PTSS. CONCLUSIONS There was conceptual, methodological, and statistical heterogeneity of the identified studies. This review suggests a weak negative relationship between global SS and PTSS in children and adolescents. Higher global SS was related to less PTSS. The evidence regarding family support revealed a more stable negative relationship with PTSS than that for peer support. Investigating social support without specifying the form of support confounds the effect. Studies on informational, teacher, or professional support seem to be lacking. More studies are needed on the longitudinal effects of SS on PTSS.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ting Xiong
- Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Athena Milios
- College of Pharmacy, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Patrick J McGrath
- Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada.,Centre for Research in Family Health, IWK Health Centre, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| | - Elisa Kaltenbach
- Centre for Research in Family Health, IWK Health Centre, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Wang X, Li X, Qi M, Hu X, Zhu H, Shi X. Incidence of post-traumatic stress disorder in survivors of traumatic fracture: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PSYCHOL HEALTH MED 2021; 27:902-916. [PMID: 34313497 DOI: 10.1080/13548506.2021.1957953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is prevalent in traumatic events. It is a great hazard of physical and mental health due to their severity and frequency. Traumatic fractures are one of the major causes of PTSD. The incidence of traumatic fractures has been high in recent years, which will directly or indirectly result in PTSD. Our target is to estimate the pooled incidence of PTSD in fracture patients after traumatic events and to explore possible influencing factors by a meta-analysis.The systematic searches in the electronic bibliographic databases of Web of Science, ScienceDirect, Ovid MEDLINE, PubMed, CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure), Wangfang , and Veipu Databases. Not only were heterogeneity and 95% confidence interval (CI) used for comprehensive assessing each pooled, but also was the P value. Subgroup analyses for some sample characteristics were calculated the pooled incidence of PTSD among patients suffered from fractures.In total, 2619 patients suffered from fracture, and were assessed PTSD in the 12 eligible studies. The heterogeneity was not low (I2 = 97.6%, P < 0.001) in the 12 eligible studies. The pooled incidence of PTSD in fracture patients was 29% (95% CI, 20% to 39%) using random-effects model. Subgroup analyses revealed that the pooled incidence of PTSD among patients after traumatic fracture was statistically significant differences according to the study design, the study location, tools to assess the symptoms of PTSD, the mean age and injury mechanism (all P < 0.001). Fracture sites, injury mechanism and pain were the main influencing factors of PTSD in fracture patients.Our results highlight the phenomenon that high incidence of PTSD in patients after fracture and they should be followed up regularly and be provided effective interventions. Future efforts to improve and control the main influencing factors of PTSD for this population still needed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Xue Wang
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Xiahong Li
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Miao Qi
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Xiuli Hu
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China
| | - Huiping Zhu
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Center for Injury Research and Policy & Center for Pediatric Trauma Research, the Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, the Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, USA
| | - Xiuquan Shi
- Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, School of Public Health, Zunyi Medical University, Zunyi, China.,Center for Injury Research and Policy & Center for Pediatric Trauma Research, the Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, the Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhao C, Xu H, Lai X, Yang X, Tu X, Ding N, Lv Y, Zhang G. Effects of Online Social Support and Perceived Social Support on the Relationship Between Perceived Stress and Problematic Smartphone Usage Among Chinese Undergraduates. Psychol Res Behav Manag 2021; 14:529-539. [PMID: 33976576 PMCID: PMC8106527 DOI: 10.2147/prbm.s302551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE Recent research has identified a relationship between perceived stress and problematic smartphone usage. However, little is known about the underlying mediating and moderating mechanisms. The present study aimed to test the relationship between perceived stress and problematic smartphone usage as well as the mediating role of online social support and the moderating role of perceived social support among Chinese undergraduates. PATIENTS AND METHODS A sample of 1123 college students participated in the study. The Perceived Stress Scale, Mobile Phone Addiction Index Scale, Online Social Support Questionnaire, and Perceived Social Support Scale were used. RESULTS Perceived stress was significantly and positively associated with problematic smartphone usage, and online social support partially mediated the relationship between perceived stress and problematic smartphone usage. Moderated mediation analysis suggested that perceived social support moderated the association between perceived stress and online social support. This relationship became stronger for college students with lower levels of perceived social support. CONCLUSION The results of this study can contribute to a better understanding of how perceived stress increases the risk of problematic smartphone usage. The importance of reducing online social support and enhancing perceived social support in preventing undergraduates' problematic smartphone usage is highlighted. The findings should be taken with caution given the convenience sampling and cross-sectional study design.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chengjia Zhao
- Department of Psychology, School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, People’s Republic of China
| | - Huihui Xu
- Department of Psychology, School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xinyi Lai
- Department of Psychology, School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xue Yang
- Center for Health Behaviours Research, JC School of Public Health and Primary Care, Faculty of Medicine, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
| | - Xiaolian Tu
- School of Renji, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, China
| | - Nani Ding
- School of Public Health and Management, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yijun Lv
- Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, People’s Republic of China
| | - Guohua Zhang
- Department of Psychology, School of Mental Health, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325035, People’s Republic of China
- The Affiliated Kangning Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, 325007, People’s Republic of China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Voith LA, Lee H, Russell KN, Korsch-Williams AE. Understanding How Relational Health Effects Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration among Low-Income, Black, Indigenous, Men of Color Exposed to Adverse Childhood Experiences: An Exploratory Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:3890. [PMID: 33917658 PMCID: PMC8067994 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18083890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Relational health has emerged as a consistent factor that can mitigate the effects of trauma among children; however, less is known about relational health with adults, particularly related to intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration among racially and socioeconomically marginalized men. The Exploratory Sequential Design, Taxonomy Development Model was used. Semi-structured interviews (N = 11) and narrative analysis were conducted in Phase I. In Phase II, variables approximating the key themes that emerged in Phase I were selected from an existing dataset (N = 67), and relationships were examined using bivariate associations. The sample consisted of low-income Black, Indigenous, men of color (BIMOC) in a batterer intervention program (BIP). Adverse life experiences shaped participants' world view via mistrust in others, stifling emotions and vulnerability, and a sense of personal guilt and shame. These orientations were then carried into adult relationships where men coped using social isolation to manage challenges, negatively affecting intimate relationships. For some men, mental health exacerbated these circumstances. Significant bivariate and multivariate associations supported this narrative. This study lays the foundation for future research to examine the potential effects of social support on IPV perpetration. BIPs should consider augmenting programming to enhance men's social networks to support their use of nonviolence after program completion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Laura A. Voith
- Center on Trauma and Adversity, Jack, Joseph, and Morton Mandel School of Applied Social Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA; (H.L.); (K.N.R.); (A.E.K.-W.)
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Liu SR, Kia-Keating M, Nylund-Gibson K, Barnett ML. Co-Occurring Youth Profiles of Adverse Childhood Experiences and Protective Factors: Associations with Health, Resilience, and Racial Disparities. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY 2020; 65:173-186. [PMID: 31489651 DOI: 10.1002/ajcp.12387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
It is important to understand racial/ethnic differences in adverse childhood experiences (ACEs), given their relationship to long-term physical and mental health, and the public health cost of the significant disparities that exist. Moreover, in order to inform interventions and promote resilience, it is critical to examine protective factors that mitigate the relationship between adversity and poor health. The current study utilized latent transition analyses (LTA) to examine co-occurring profiles of ACEs and protective factors (from school, family, and community contexts) and links to health outcomes among 30,668 Black (10.4%), Latinx (12.3%), and White youth (77.3%) ages 12-17 (52.5% male) who participated in the 2011-12 National Survey of Children's Health (NSCH). Results suggested that greater adversity was associated with worse health, while more access to protective factors was associated with better health. White youth had consistently lower endorsement of ACEs, greater access to protective factors, and better health compared to their Black and Latinx counterparts. Efforts to improve child health and racial/ethnic disparities in research and practice must consider adversity, protective factors, and the systemic inequities faced by racial/ethnic minority youth in the United States.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina R Liu
- Department of Counseling, Clinical, & School Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Maryam Kia-Keating
- Department of Counseling, Clinical, & School Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Karen Nylund-Gibson
- Department of Education, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Miya L Barnett
- Department of Counseling, Clinical, & School Psychology, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Free JL, MacDonald HZ. "I've had to bury a lot of kids over the years…": Violence prevention streetworkers' exposure to trauma. JOURNAL OF COMMUNITY PSYCHOLOGY 2019; 47:1197-1209. [PMID: 31020685 DOI: 10.1002/jcop.22191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Revised: 12/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
AIMS Streetworkers are front-line workers employed to engage at-risk youth and prevent, intervene, and respond to incidents of community youth violence. Streetworkers are often exposed to violence and its aftermath, though little is known about the specific types of trauma to which streetworkers are exposed. METHODS This study seeks to explore this question via in-depth, semistructured interviews with 37 streetworkers from a large city in the United States. RESULTS The qualitative results revealed that the streetworkers in this sample experienced a range of types of trauma. Streetworkers were less likely to be directly exposed to traumatic events in the context of their jobs, yet were more likely to witness, learn about, or experience repeated exposure to aversive details of traumatic events. CONCLUSIONS Despite their exposure to trauma, very few participants described seeking psychological treatment, self-care, or new vocation. We discuss our findings and make recommendations to bolster support for streetworkers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Janese L Free
- Department of Sociology, Emmanuel College, Boston, Massachusetts
| | | |
Collapse
|