Regulation of tumor angiogenesis by microRNAs: State of the art

Recent Progress on Nanomedicine-Mediated Repolarization of Tumor-Associated Macrophages for Cancer Immunotherapy

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) constitute the largest number of immune cells in the tumor microenvironment (TME). They play an essential role in promoting tumor progression and metastasis, which makes them a potential therapeutic target for cancer treatment. TAMs are usually divided into two categories: pro-tumoral M2-like TAMs and antitumoral M1 phenotypes at either extreme. The reprogramming of M2-like TAMs toward a tumoricidal M1 phenotype is of particular interest for the restoration of antitumor immunity in cancer immunotherapy. Notably, nanomedicines have shown great potential for cancer therapy due to their unique structures and properties. This review will briefly describe the biological features and roles of TAMs in tumor, and then discuss recent advances in nanomedicine-mediated repolarization of TAMs for cancer immunotherapy. Finally, perspectives on nanomedicine-mediated repolarization of TAMs for effective cancer immunotherapy are also presented.

MiRNAs as Regulators of Immune Cells in the Tumor Microenvironment of Ovarian Cancer

Ovarian cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer deaths among women. There is an ongoing need to develop new biomarkers and targeted therapies to improve patient outcomes. One of the most critical research areas in ovarian cancer is identifying tumor microenvironment (TME) functions. TME consists of tumor-infiltrating immune cells, matrix, endothelial cells, pericytes, fibroblasts, and other stromal cells. Tumor invasion and growth depend on the multifactorial crosstalk between tumor cells and immune cells belonging to the TME. MiRNAs, which belong to non-coding RNAs that post-transcriptionally control the expression of target genes, regulate immune responses within the TME, shaping the landscape of the intrinsic environment of tumor cells. Aberrant expression of miRNAs may lead to the pathological dysfunction of signaling pathways or cancer cell-regulatory factors. Cell-to-cell communication between infiltrating immune cells and the tumor may depend on exosomes containing multiple miRNAs. MiRNAs may exert both immunosuppressive and immunoreactive responses, which may cause cancer cell elimination or survival. In this review, we highlighted recent advances in the field of miRNAs shaping the landscape of immune cells in the TME.

Berberine and berberine nanoformulations in cancer therapy: Focusing on lung cancer

Lung cancer is the second most prevalent cancer and ranks first in cancer-related death worldwide. Due to the resistance development to conventional cancer therapy strategies, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, targeted therapy, and immunotherapy, various natural products and their extracts have been revealed as alternatives. Berberine (BBR), which is present in the stem, root, and bark of various trees, could exert anticancer activities by regulating tumor cell proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, metastasis, angiogenesis, and immune responses via modulating several signaling pathways within the tumor microenvironment. Due to its poor water solubility, poor pharmacokinetics/bioavailability profile, and extensive p-glycoprotein-dependent efflux, BBR application in (pre) clinical studies is restricted. To overcome these limitations, BBR can be encapsulated in nanoparticle (NP)-based drug delivery systems, as monotherapy or combinational therapy, and improve BBR therapeutic efficacy. Nanoformulations also facilitate the selective delivery of BBR into lung cancer cells. In addition to the anticancer activities of BBR, especially in lung cancer, here we reviewed the BBR nanoformulations, including polymeric NPs, metal-based NPs, carbon nanostructures, and others, in the treatment of lung cancer.

Expression of hsa-miRNA-15b, -99b, -181a and Their Relationship to Angiogenesis in Renal Cell Carcinoma

BACKGROUND

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play a regulatory role in various human cancers. The roles of hsa-miR-15a-5p, hsa-miR-99b-5p, and hsa-miR-181a-5p have not been fully explored in the angiogenesis of renal cell carcinoma (RCC).

AIMS

The present study aimed to evaluate the expression of these miRNAs in tumorous and adjacent healthy tissues of RCC.

METHODS

Paired tumorous and adjacent normal kidney tissues from 20 patients were studied. The expression levels of hsa-miR-15b-5p, hsa-miR-99b-5p, and hsa-miR-181a-5p were quantified by TaqMan miRNA Assays. Putative targets were analyzed by qRT-PCR.

RESULTS

Significant downregulation of all three miRNAs investigated was observed in tumorous samples compared to adjacent normal kidney tissues. Spearman analysis showed a negative correlation between the expression levels of miRNAs and the pathological grades of the patients. Increased expression of vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) and hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), a tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-1 (TIMP-1), was observed in tumorous samples compared to adjacent normal tissues. Depletion of tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinase-2 (TIMP-2) and metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) was detected compared to normal adjacent tissues. The examined miRNAs might function as contributing factors to renal carcinogenesis. However, more prospective studies are warranted to evaluate the potential role of miRNAs in RCC angiogenesis.

microRNA-203 Targets Insulin-Like Growth Factor Receptor 1 to Inhibit Trophoblast Vascular Remodeling to Augment Preeclampsia

OBJECTIVE

Preeclampsia (PE) is a pregnancy-specific condition featured by high blood pressure, edema, and proteinuria. Research about the role of microRNA (miR)-203 in PE remains insufficient. This experiment is designed to investigate the specific role of miR-203 in trophoblasts in PE.

STUDY DESIGN

miR-203 expression in placenta tissues of normal pregnant women and PE patients was examined to analyze the relevance between miR-203 and PE diagnostic efficiency and between miR-203 and blood pressure (systolic pressure and diastolic pressure) and proteinuria of PE patients. miR-203 expression was downregulated in hypoxia-cultured trophoblasts using miR-203 inhibitor to assess matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) level. Then, the angiogenesis of trophoblasts with different treatments was determined. Subsequently, the target relation between miR-203 and insulin-like growth factor receptor 1 (IGF-1R) was predicted and verified. Additionally, the effect of IGF-1R in the mechanism of miR-203 modulating trophoblast vascular remodeling was detected.

RESULTS

miR-203 was overexpressed in the placenta of PE patients and it acted as a promising diagnostic indicator for PE. Moreover, miR-203 was positively associated with blood pressure (systolic pressure and diastolic pressure) and proteinuria of PE patients. miR-203 silencing in hypoxia-cultured trophoblasts enhanced trophoblast vascular remodeling. Mechanically, miR-203 bound to IGF-1R to suppress its transcription. IGF-1R downregulation counteracted the promotive effect of miR-203 silencing on trophoblast vascular remodeling.

CONCLUSION

miR-203 was overexpressed in PE, and it targeted IGF-1R to limit trophoblast vascular remodeling.

KEY POINTS

· miR-203 is overexpressed in the placenta of PE patients.. · miR-203 acts as a potential diagnostic marker for PE.. · miR-203 targets IGF-1R to reduce trophoblast vascular remodeling in PE..

Advances in liposome-based delivery of RNA therapeutics for cancer treatment

Liposomal drug delivery systems stand as versatile therapeutic platforms for precisely targeting related elements in cancerous tissues owing to their intrinsic passive and acquired active targeting capabilities and exceptional compatibility with physiologic environments. When the capacity of liposomes as nanocarriers is combined with the revolutionary potential of RNA therapies in affecting undruggable targets, the outcome would be promising drug candidates as game-changers in the cancer treatment arena. However, optimizing liposome composition, physicochemical properties, and surface chemistry is paramount to maximizing their pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic attributes. This review highlighted the potential of liposomes as nanovehicles for RNA therapeutics through a literature review and looked at the most recent preclinical and clinical advancements in utilizing liposomal RNA therapeutics for cancer management. Notably, the discovery of novel targets, advancements in liposome engineering, and organizing well-planned clinical trials would help uncover the incredible potential of these nanotherapeutics in cancer patients.

Ischemic Stroke and Autophagy: The Roles of Long Non-Coding RNAs

Ischemic stroke is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Autophagy, a process of intracellular degradation, has been shown to play a crucial role in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have emerged as essential regulators of autophagy in various diseases, including ischemic stroke. Recent studies have identified several lncRNAs that modulate autophagy in ischemic stroke, including MALAT1, MIAT, SNHG12, H19, AC136007. 2, C2dat2, MEG3, KCNQ1OT1, SNHG3, and RMRP. These lncRNAs regulate autophagy by interacting with key proteins involved in the autophagic process, such as Beclin-1, ATG7, and LC3. Understanding the role of lncRNAs in regulating autophagy in ischemic stroke may provide new insights into the pathogenesis of this disease and identify potential therapeutic targets for its treatment.

Blood-based microRNAs as Potential Diagnostic Biomarkers for Melanoma: A Meta-Analysis

INTRODUCTION

Circulating microRNAs (miRNAs) serve as noninvasive diagnostic markers in many cancers. This meta-analysis aims to evaluate the diagnostic efficacy of circulating microRNAs for melanoma.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The pooled sensitivity, specificity, positive likelihood ratio, negative likelihood ratio, diagnostic odds ratio, and ROC curve were evaluated using the Meta-Disc V.1.4 and Comprehensive Meta-Analysis V.3.3 software packages. To investigate the heterogeneity, the I2 and Chi-square tests were used. The publishing bias was evaluated using Begg's rank correlation and Egger regression asymmetry tests.

RESULTS

A total of 9 articles covering 13 studies (more than 50 miRs individually and in combination) were included, containing 1,355 participants (878 cases and 477 controls). The overall pooled sensitivity, specificity, positive likelihood ratio, negative likelihood ratio, diagnostic odds ratio (DOR), and AUC were 0.78 (95% CI: 0.76-0.81), 0.80 (95% CI: 0.77-0.83), 4.32 (95% CI: 3.21-5.82), 0.17 (95% CI: 0.09-0.32), 28.0 (95% CI: 15.34-51.09), and 0.91, respectively. According to Begg's and Egger's tests, there was no publication bias (Begg's p = 0.160 and Egger's p = 0.289).

CONCLUSION

Circulating miRNAs can serve as fair and non-invasive diagnostic biomarkers for melanoma. Additionally, specific miRNAs still need to be discovered for diagnosing melanoma.

Tumor-Associated Macrophage Targeting of Nanomedicines in Cancer Therapy

The tumor microenvironment (TME) is pivotal in tumor growth and metastasis, aligning with the "Seed and Soil" theory. Within the TME, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) play a central role, profoundly influencing tumor progression. Strategies targeting TAMs have surfaced as potential therapeutic avenues, encompassing interventions to block TAM recruitment, eliminate TAMs, reprogram M2 TAMs, or bolster their phagocytic capabilities via specific pathways. Nanomaterials including inorganic materials, organic materials for small molecules and large molecules stand at the forefront, presenting significant opportunities for precise targeting and modulation of TAMs to enhance therapeutic efficacy in cancer treatment. This review provides an overview of the progress in designing nanoparticles for interacting with and influencing the TAMs as a significant strategy in cancer therapy. This comprehensive review presents the role of TAMs in the TME and various targeting strategies as a promising frontier in the ever-evolving field of cancer therapy. The current trends and challenges associated with TAM-based therapy in cancer are presented.

RNA interference-based therapies for atherosclerosis: Recent advances and future prospects

Atherosclerosis represents a pathological state that affects the arterial system of the organism. This chronic, progressive condition is typified by the accumulation of atheroma within arterial walls. Modulation of RNA molecules through RNA-based therapies has expanded the range of therapeutic options available for neurodegenerative diseases, infectious diseases, cancer, and, more recently, cardiovascular disease (CVD). Presently, microRNAs and small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are the most widely employed therapeutic strategies for targeting RNA molecules, and for regulating gene expression and protein production. Nevertheless, for these agents to be developed into effective medications, various obstacles must be overcome, including inadequate binding affinity, instability, challenges of delivering to the tissues, immunogenicity, and off-target toxicity. In this comprehensive review, we discuss in detail the current state of RNA interference (RNAi)-based therapies.

A positive feedback loop between miR-574-3p and HIF-1α in promoting angiogenesis under hypoxia

In our previous report, we presented evidence supporting the role of miR-574-3p in downregulating the expression of cullin 2 (CUL2) in gastric cancer (GC) cells. Expanding on those findings, the present study aims to confirm the direct interaction between miR-574-3p and the 3' untranslated region (3'UTR) of CUL2, which leads to the suppression of CUL2 expression and destabilization of the VCBCR complex. Based on these discoveries, we propose a novel pathway involving miR-574-3p, HIF-1α, and VEGF that contributes to angiogenesis. Through a series of meticulous experiments, we successfully validate this hypothesis. Specifically, our observations indicate that overexpression of miR-574-3p in GC cells induces an upregulation of HIF-1α and VEGF, resulting in enhanced proliferation, migration, invasion, and tube formation of HUVEC cells. Furthermore, employing a mouse model, we demonstrate that miR-574-3p facilitates the recruitment of endothelial cells towards matrigel xenografts. Additionally, we note a parallel increase in miR-574-3p and HIF-1α levels across multiple cell lines (including AGS, SGC-7901, Hela, and 293T cells) subjected to hypoxic conditions (2 % O2 or CoCl2 treatment), as well as in the myocardial muscles of sodium nitrite-induced hypoxic mice. Further investigations reveal that HIF-1α upregulates miR-574-3p expression by directly binding to the miR-574 promoter. Collectively, these findings strongly support the existence of a positive feedback loop between miR-574-3p and HIF-1α, which facilitates angiogenesis under hypoxic conditions.

IGF2BP2 promotes head and neck squamous carcinoma cell proliferation and growth via the miR-98-5p/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway

Introduction

As a N6-methyladenosine reader protein, Insulin-like growth factor 2 mRNA-binding protein 2 (IGF2BP2) is a critical player in tumor progression and metastasis. However, its specific function in head and neck squamous carcinoma (HNSCC) has yet to be determined. The present study aimed to determine the role of IGF2BP2 in HNSCC.

Methods

The expression of IGF2BP2 in HNSCC was analyzed using The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) dataset and detected in HNSCC tissues and cells, respectively. Gain- and loss- of function methods were employed to study the effects of IGF2BP2 on HNSCC cell proliferation and tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) regulating IGF2BP2 were predicted using online tools and confirmed experimentally.

Results

We showed augmented IGF2BP2 expression in HNSCC, which correlated with poor clinical outcomes. Functional studies showed that IGF2BP2 promoted HNSCC cell proliferation by facilitating cell cycle progression while inhibiting apoptosis. We further demonstrated that IGF2BP2 could enhance HNSCC cell tumorigenesis in vivo. Mechanistically, our data revealed that miR-98-5p could directly target IGF2BP2. The interplay between IGF2BP2 and miR-98-5p is essential to drive the progression of HNSCC via the phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K)-protein kinase B (Akt) pathway signaling pathway.

Discussion

The current study revealed the oncogenic role of IGF2BP2 and provided insights into its potential mechanism in HNSCC tumorigenesis. Additionally, IGF2BP2 might represent a promising therapeutic target and serve as prognostic biomarker in patients with HNSCC.

Novel insights on perils and promises of miRNA in understanding colon cancer metastasis and progression

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third highest frequent malignancy and ultimate critical source of cancer-associated mortality around the world. Regardless of latest advances in molecular and surgical targeted medicines that have increased remedial effects in CRC patients, the 5-year mortality rate for CRC patients remains dismally low. Evidence suggests that microRNAs (miRNAs) execute an essential part in the development and spread of CRC. The miRNAs are a type of short non-coding RNA that exhibited to control the appearance of tumor suppressor genes and oncogenes. miRNA expression profiling is already being utilized in clinical practice as analytical and prognostic biomarkers to evaluate cancer patients' tumor genesis, advancement, and counteraction to drugs. By modulating their target genes, dysregulated miRNAs are linked to malignant characteristics (e.g., improved proliferative and invasive capabilities, cell cycle aberration, evasion of apoptosis, and promotion of angiogenesis). This review presents an updated summary of circulatory miRNAs, tumor-suppressive and oncogenic miRNAs, and the potential reasons for dysregulated miRNAs in CRC. Further we will explore the critical role of miRNAs in CRC drug resistance.

Curcumin as a therapeutic agent in cancer therapy: Focusing on its modulatory effects on circular RNAs

Curcumin, a natural polyphenol compound, has been identified as an effective therapeutic agent against cancer that exerts its anti-tumor activities by up/downregulating signaling mediators and modulating various cellular processes, including angiogenesis, autophagy, apoptosis, metastasis, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT). Since almost 98% of genomic transcriptional production is noncoding RNAs in humans, there is evidence that curcumin exerts therapeutic effects through the alterations of noncoding RNAs in various types of cancers. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are formed by the back-splicing of immature mRNAs and have several functions, including functioning as miRNA sponges. It has been shown that curcumin modulated various circRNAs, including circ-HN1, circ-PRKCA, circPLEKHM3, circZNF83, circFNDC3B, circ_KIAA1199, circRUNX1, circ_0078710, and circ_0056618. The modulation of these circRNAs targeted the expression of mRNAs and modified various signaling pathways and hallmarks of cancer. In this article, we reviewed the pharmacokinetics of curcumin, its anti-cancer activities, as well as the biology and structure of circRNAs. Our main focus was on how curcumin exerts anti-cancer functions by modulating circRNAs and their target mRNAs and pathways.

PHLDA3 activated by BARX2 transcription, suppresses the malignant development of esophageal squamous cell carcinoma by downregulating PI3K/AKT levels

BACKGROUND

Low pleckstrin homology-like domain family A, member 3 (PHLDA3) expression has been reported to be associated with cancer specificity and disease-free survival in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC), and was an independent predictor of postoperative recurrence. However, the specific mechanisms involved are still unclear. This paper aimed to explore the role and its mechanisms of PHLDA3 in ESCC.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

PHLDA3 and BarH-like homeobox 2 (BARX2) expressions in ESCC were predicted by Gene Expression Profiling Interactive Analysis (GEPIA) analysis and determined by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and western Blot. Western blot detected the expression of proteins associated with migration, angiogenesis and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (PKB/AKT) signaling pathway. The University of California Santa Cruz Genomics Institute (UCSC) database predicted that the relationship of BARX2 and PHLDA3 promoter and JASPAR identified the possible binding sites. Dual luciferase gene reporter verified PHLDA3 promoter activity, and the relationship of both was determined by chromatin immunoprecipitation (CHIP). Cell counting kit (CCK)-8, 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EDU) and colony formation were used to assess cell proliferation. Wound healing and transwell were used to detect cell migration and invasion ability. Tube formation assay was applied to assess angiogenesis. Mice were injected with transfected KYSE30 cells under the right axilla. Body weight and tumor volume and mass were recorded for each group of mice. Immunohistochemistry was performed to detect KI67 level in tumor tissues.

RESULTS

Both PHLDA3 and BARX2 were downregulated in ESCC. The upregulated PHLDA3 suppressed PI3K/AKT expression. In addition, BARX2 bound to the PHLDA3 promoter and transcriptionally activated PHLDA3. PHLDA3 overexpression inhibited ESCC cell proliferation, migration, invasion and angiogenesis, but this effect was reversed by BARX2 knockdown. In addition, BARX2 overexpression inhibited ESCC cell proliferation, migration, invasion and angiogenesis, but this effect was reversed by PHLDA3 knockdown.

CONCLUSION

PHLDA3 was transcriptionally activated by BARX2 and inhibited malignant progression of ESCC by downregulating PI3K/AKT levels.

Curcumin in the treatment of liver cancer: From mechanisms of action to nanoformulations

Liver cancer is the sixth most prevalent cancer and ranks third in cancer-related death, after lung and colorectal cancer. Various natural products have been discovered as alternatives to conventional cancer therapy strategies, including radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgery. Curcumin (CUR) with antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and antitumor activities has been associated with therapeutic benefits against various cancers. It can regulate multiple signaling pathways, such as PI3K/Akt, Wnt/β-catenin, JAK/STAT, p53, MAPKs, and NF-ĸB, which are involved in cancer cell proliferation, metastasis, apoptosis, angiogenesis, and autophagy. Due to its rapid metabolism, poor oral bioavailability, and low solubility in water, CUR application in clinical practices is restricted. To overcome these limitations, nanotechnology-based delivery systems have been applied to use CUR nanoformulations with added benefits, such as reducing toxicity, improving cellular uptake, and targeting tumor sites. Besides the anticancer activities of CUR in combating various cancers, especially liver cancer, here we focused on the CUR nanoformulations, such as micelles, liposomes, polymeric, metal, and solid lipid nanoparticles, and others, in the treatment of liver cancer.

Hydrogel scaffolds in bone regeneration: Their promising roles in angiogenesis

Bone tissue engineering (BTE) has become a hopeful potential treatment strategy for large bone defects, including bone tumors, trauma, and extensive fractures, where the self-healing property of bone cannot repair the defect. Bone tissue engineering is composed of three main elements: progenitor/stem cells, scaffold, and growth factors/biochemical cues. Among the various biomaterial scaffolds, hydrogels are broadly used in bone tissue engineering owing to their biocompatibility, controllable mechanical characteristics, osteoconductive, and osteoinductive properties. During bone tissue engineering, angiogenesis plays a central role in the failure or success of bone reconstruction via discarding wastes and providing oxygen, minerals, nutrients, and growth factors to the injured microenvironment. This review presents an overview of bone tissue engineering and its requirements, hydrogel structure and characterization, the applications of hydrogels in bone regeneration, and the promising roles of hydrogels in bone angiogenesis during bone tissue engineering.

Novel potential therapeutic targets of alopecia areata

Alopecia areata (AA) is a non-scarring hair loss disorder caused by autoimmunity. The immune collapse of the hair follicle, where interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and CD8+ T cells accumulate, is a key factor in AA. However, the exact functional mechanism remains unclear. Therefore, AA treatment has poor efficacy maintenance and high relapse rate after drug withdrawal. Recent studies show that immune-related cells and molecules affect AA. These cells communicate through autocrine and paracrine signals. Various cytokines, chemokines and growth factors mediate this crosstalk. In addition, adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs), gut microbiota, hair follicle melanocytes, non-coding RNAs and specific regulatory factors have crucial roles in intercellular communication without a clear cause, suggesting potential new targets for AA therapy. This review discusses the latest research on the possible pathogenesis and therapeutic targets of AA.

Research progress on anti-ovarian cancer mechanism of miRNA regulating tumor microenvironment

Ovarian cancer is the most deadly malignancy among women, but its complex pathogenesis is unknown. Most patients with ovarian cancer have a poor prognosis due to high recurrence rates and chemotherapy resistance as well as the lack of effective early diagnostic methods. The tumor microenvironment mainly includes extracellular matrix, CAFs, tumor angiogenesis and immune-associated cells. The interaction between tumor cells and TME plays a key role in tumorigenesis, progression, metastasis and treatment, affecting tumor progression. Therefore, it is significant to find new tumor biomarkers and therapeutic targets. MicroRNAs are non-coding RNAs that post-transcriptionally regulate the expression of target genes and affect a variety of biological processes. Studies have shown that miRNAs regulate tumor development by affecting TME. In this review, we summarize the mechanisms by which miRNAs affect ovarian cancer by regulating TME and highlight the key role of miRNAs in TME, which provides new targets and theoretical basis for ovarian cancer treatment.

Partial Synthetic PPARƳ Derivative Ameliorates Aorta Injury in Experimental Diabetic Rats Mediated by Activation of miR-126-5p Pi3k/AKT/PDK 1/mTOR Expression

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2D) is a world wild health care issue marked by insulin resistance, a risk factor for the metabolic disorder that exaggerates endothelial dysfunction, increasing the risk of cardiovascular complications. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor PPAR) agonists have therapeutically mitigated hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia in T2D patients. Therefore, we aimed to experimentally investigate the efficacy of newly designed synthetic PPARα/Ƴ partial agonists on a High-Fat Diet (HFD)/streptozotocin (STZ)-induced T2D. Female Wistar rats (200 ± 25 g body weight) were divided into four groups. The experimental groups were fed the HFD for three consecutive weeks before STZ injection (45 mg/kg/i.p) to induce T2D. Standard reference PPARƳ agonist pioglitazone and the partial synthetic PPARƳ (PIO; 20 mg/kg/BW, orally) were administered orally for 2 weeks after 72 h of STZ injection. The aorta tissue was isolated for biological ELISA, qRT-PCR, and Western blotting investigations for vascular inflammatory endothelial mediators endothelin-1 (ET-1), intracellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), E-selectin, and anti-inflammatory vasoactive intestinal polypeptide (VIP), as well as microRNA126-5p and p-AKT/p-Pi3k/p-PDK-1/p-mTOR, endothelial Nitric Oxide Synthase (eNOS) immunohistochemical staining all are coupled with and histopathological examination. Our results revealed that HFD/STZ-induced T2D increased fasting blood glucose, ET-1, ICAM-1, E-selectin, and VIP levels, while decreasing the expression of both microRNA126-5p and p-AKT/p-Pi3k/p-PDK-1/p-mTOR phosphorylation. In contrast, the partial synthetic PPARƳ derivative evidenced a vascular alteration significantly more than reference PIO via decreasing (ET-1), ICAM-1, E-selectin, and VIP, along with increased expression of microRNA126-5p and p-AKT/p-Pi3k/p-PDK-1/p-mTOR. In conclusion, the partial synthetic PPARƳ derivative significantly affected HFD/STZ-induced T2D with vascular complications in the rat aorta.

Apigenin in cancer therapy: From mechanism of action to nano-therapeutic agent

Apigenin (APG) is a flavonoid presence in beverages, vegetables, and fruits containing anti-diabetic, anti-oxidant, and anti-viral activities, as well as cancer management properties. There is growing evidence that APG presented extensive anti-cancer effects in several cancer types by modulating various cellular processes, including angiogenesis, apoptosis, metastasis, autophagy, cell cycle, and immune responses, through activation or inhibition of different cell signaling pathways and molecules. By emerging nanotechnology and its advent in the biomedicine field, cancer therapy has been changed based on nanotechnology-based delivery systems. APG nanoformulations have been used to target tumor cells specifically, improve cellular uptake of APG, and overcome limitations of the free form of APG, such as low solubility and poor bioavailability. In this review, the biotherapeutic activity of APG and its mechanisms, both in free form and nanoformulation, toward cancer cells are discussed to shed some light on APG anti-tumor activity in different cancers.

The Role of TAMs in Tumor Microenvironment and New Research Progress

Tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) are an important part of tumor microenvironment (TME) and play a key role in TME, participating in the process of tumor occurrence, growth, invasion, and metastasis. Among them, metastasis to tumor tissue is the key step of malignant development of tumor. In this paper, the latest progress in the role of TAMs in the formation of tumor microenvironment is summarized. It is particularly noteworthy that cell and animal experiments show that TAMs can provide a favorable microenvironment for the occurrence and development of tumors. At the same time, clinical pathological experiments show that the accumulation of TAMs in tumor is related to poor clinical efficacy. Finally, this paper discusses the feasibility of TAMs-targeted therapy as a new indirect cancer therapy. This paper provides a theoretical basis for finding a potentially effective macrophage-targeted tumor therapy.

MiR-135a-5p suppresses trophoblast proliferative, migratory, invasive, and angiogenic activity in the context of unexplained spontaneous abortion

BACKGROUND

Spontaneous abortions (SA) is amongst the most common complications associated with pregnancy in humans, and the underlying causes cannot be identified in roughly half of SA cases. We found miR-135a-5p to be significantly upregulated in SA-associated villus tissues, yet the function it plays in this context has yet to be clarified. This study explored the function of miR-135a-5p and its potential as a biomarker for unexplained SA.

METHOD

RT-qPCR was employed for appraising miR-135a-5p expression within villus tissues with its clinical diagnostic values being assessed using ROC curves. The effects of miR-135a-5p in HTR-8/SVneo cells were analyzed via wound healing, Transwell, flow cytometry, EdU, CCK-8, and tube formation assays. Moreover, protein expression was examined via Western blotting, and interactions between miR-135a-5p and PTPN1 were explored through RIP-PCR, bioinformatics analyses and luciferase reporter assays.

RESULTS

Relative to normal pregnancy (NP), villus tissue samples from pregnancies that ended in unexplained sporadic miscarriage (USM) or unexplained recurrent SA (URSA) exhibited miR-135a-5p upregulation. When this miRNA was overexpressed in HTR-8/SVneo cells, their migration, proliferation, and cell cycle progression were suppressed, as were their tube forming and invasive activities. miR-135a-5p over-expression also downregulated the protein level of cyclins, PTPN1, MMP2 and MMP9. In RIP-PCR assays, the Ago2 protein exhibited significant miR-135a-5p and PTPN1 mRNA enrichment, and dual-luciferase reporter assays indicated PTPN1 to be a bona fide miR-135a-5p target gene within HTR-8/SVneo cells.

CONCLUSION

miR-135a-5p may suppress trophoblast migratory, invasive, proliferative, and angiogenic activity via targeting PTPN1, and it may thus offer value as a biomarker for unexplained SA.

miRNA Pattern in Hypoxic Microenvironment of Kidney Cancer—Role of PTEN

MicroRNAs are post-transcriptional regulators of gene expression, and disturbances of their expression are the basis of many pathological states, including cancers. The miRNA pattern in the context of tumor microenvironment explains mechanisms related to cancer progression and provides a potential target of modern therapies. Here we show the miRNA pattern in renal cancer focusing on hypoxia as a characteristic feature of the tumor microenvironment and dysregulation of PTEN, being a major tumor suppressor. Methods comprised the CRSPR/Cas9 mediated PTEN knockout in the Renca kidney cancer cell line and global miRNA expression analysis in both in vivo and in vitro (in normoxic and hypoxic conditions). The results were validated on human cancer models with distinct PTEN status. The increase in miR-210-3p in hypoxia was universal; however, the hypoxia-induced decrease in PTEN was associated with an increase in miR-221-3p, the loss of PTEN affected the response to hypoxia differently by decreasing miR-10b-5p and increasing miR-206-3p. In turn, the complete loss of PTEN induces miR-155-5p, miR-100-5p. Upregulation of miR-342-3p in knockout PTEN occurred in the context of the whole tumor microenvironment. Thus, effective identification of miRNA patterns in cancers must consider the specificity of the tumor microenvironment together with the mutations of key suppressors.

The Role of Cancer Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes in Cancer Progression

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) represent a small portion of tumor cells with self-renewal ability in tumor tissues and are a key factor in tumor resistance, recurrence, and metastasis. CSCs produce a large number of exosomes through various mechanisms, such as paracrine and autocrine signaling. Studies have shown that CSC-derived exosomes (CSC-Exos) carry a variety of gene mutations and specific epigenetic modifications indicative of unique cell phenotypes and metabolic pathways, enabling exchange of information in the tumor microenvironment (TME) to promote tumor invasion and metastasis. In addition, CSC-Exos carry a variety of metabolites, especially proteins and miRNAs, which can activate signaling pathways to further promote tumor development. CSC-Exos have dual effects on cancer development. Due to advances in liquid biopsy technology for early cancer detection, CSCs-Exos may become an important tool for early cancer diagnosis and therapeutic drug delivery. In this article, we will review how CSC-Exos exert the above effects based on the above two aspects and explore their mechanism of action.

Vector engineering, strategies and targets in cancer gene therapy

Understanding the molecular basis of disease and the design of rationally designed molecular therapies has been the holy grail in the management of human cancers. Gene-based therapies are an important avenue for achieving a possible cure. Focused research in the last three decades has provided significant clues to optimize the potential of cancer gene therapy. The development of gene therapies with a high potential to kill the target cells at the lowest effective dose possible, the development of vectors with significant ability to target cancer-associated antigen, the application of adjunct therapies to target dysregulated microRNA, and embracing a hybrid strategy with a combination of gene therapy and low-dose chemotherapy in a disease-specific manner will be pivotal. This article outlines the advances and challenges in the field with emphasis on the biology and scope of vectors used for gene transfer, newer targets identified, and their outcome in preclinical and clinical studies.

MicroRNA-1246 suppresses the metastasis of breast cancer cells by targeting the DYRK1A/PGRN axis to prevent the epithelial-mesenchymal transition

OBJECTIVE

Breast cancer is one of the most common malignant and highly heterogeneous tumors in women. MicroRNAs (miRNAs), such as miR-1246, play important roles in various types of malignant cancers, including triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). However, the biological role of miR-1246 in TNBC has not yet been fully elucidated. In this study, we studied the role of miR-1246 in the occurrence and development of TNBC and its mechanism of action.

METHODS

Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8), wound healing, and Transwell assays were performed to observe the effects of miR-1246 on TNBC cell proliferation, migration, and invasion, respectively. The expression of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) markers was detected by western blotting. Dual luciferase reporter assays were performed to determine whether DYRK1A is a novel target of miR-1246. In addition, an immunoprecipitation experiment was performed to verify the binding of DYRK1A to PGRN. Rescue experiments were performed to determine whether DYRK1A is a novel target of miR-1246 and whether miR-1246 suppresses the metastasis of breast cancer cells by targeting the DYRK1A/PGRN axis to prevent the epithelial-mesenchymal transition.

RESULTS

Our results show that miR‑1246 suppresses the proliferation, migration, and invasion of TNBC cells, DYRK1A is a novel target of miR-1246 and Importin-8 mediated miR-1246 nuclear translocation. MiR‑1246 plays a suppressive role in the regulation of the EMT of TNBC cells by targeting DYRK1A. DYRK1A mediates the metastasis of triple-negative breast cancer via activation of the EMT. We identified PGRN as a novel DYRK1A-interacting protein. Overexpression of PGRN and DYRK1A promoted cell proliferation and migration of TNBC, but this effect was reversed by co-expression of miR-1246 mimics.DYRK1A and PGRN act together to regulate the occurrence and development of breast cancer through miR-1246.

CONCLUSION

MiR-1246 suppresses the metastasis of breast cancer cells by targeting the DYRK1A/PGRN axis and preventing the epithelial-mesenchymal transition. The MiR-1246/DYRK1A/PGRN axis regulates TNBC progression, suggesting that MiR-1246 could be promising therapeutic targets for the treatment of TNBC.

The microRNA-520a-3p inhibits invasion and metastasis by targeting NF-kappaB signaling pathway in non-small cell lung cancer

PURPOSE

To identify the expression of miR-520a-3p and AKT1 in non-small cell lung cancer cells (NSCLC) and the mechanism in inhibiting cell invasion and metastasis by targeting NF-kappaB signaling pathway.

METHODS

Bioinformatics analysis and dual luciferase reporter gene assay were used to predict and verify the targeting relationship between miR-520a-3p and AKT1. EdU assay was used to detect the proliferation of NSCLC cells. Flow cytometry detected the apoptosis of NSCLC cells. Transwell assay tested the invasion ability of NSCLC cells. qRT-PCR measured the expression of miR-520a-3p and AKT1 mRNA in NSCLC cells; while western blotting was adopted to detect the protein expressions of AKT1, Ki67, CyclinD1, Bax, Bcl-2, MMP-2, MMP-9, NF-kB p65, IkBs kinase (IKK), NF-kB inducing kinase (NIK).

RESULTS

Bioinformatics analysis suggested that miR-520a-3p could target AKT1. miR-520a-3p could regulate the expression of AKT1 negatively. Compared to mimic-NC group, miR-520a-3p mimic group had increased expressions of miR-520a-3p and Bax, while decreased expressions of AKT1, Ki67, CyclinD1, Bcl-2, MMP-2, MMP-9, NF-kB p65, IKK and NIK, reduced cell proliferation, invasion, and increased cell apoptosis rate (all P < 0.05). Compared to inhibitor NC group, miR-520a-3p inhibitor group had decreased expressions of miR-520a-3p and Bax, but increased expressions of AKT1, Ki67, CyclinD1, Bcl-2, MMP-2, MMP-9, NF-kB p65, IKK and NIK, promoted cell proliferation, invasion, and suppressed cell apoptosis rate (all P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Overexpression of miR-520a-3p can target and downregulate the expression of AKT1 to inhibit the invasion and metastasis of NSCLC via suppressing the activation of NF-kappaB signaling pathway.

The MicroRNA-Based Strategies to Combat Cancer Chemoresistance via Regulating Autophagy

Chemoresistance frequently occurs in cancer treatment, which results in chemotherapy failure and is one of the most leading causes of cancer-related death worldwide. Understanding the mechanism of chemoresistance and exploring strategies to overcome chemoresistance have become an urgent need. Autophagy is a highly conserved self-degraded process in cells. The dual roles of autophagy (pro-death or pro-survival) have been implicated in cancers and chemotherapy. MicroRNA (miRNA) is a class of small non-coding molecules that regulate autophagy at the post-transcriptional level in cancer cells. The association between miRNAs and autophagy in cancer chemoresistance has been emphasized. In this review, we focus on the dual roles of miRNA-mediated autophagy in facilitating or combating chemoresistance, aiming to shed lights on the potential role of miRNAs as targets to overcome chemoresistance.

The elevation of miR-185-5p alleviates high-fat diet-induced atherosclerosis and lipid accumulation in vivo and in vitro via SREBP2 activation

OBJECTIVE

SREBP2, a member of the SREBP family, is a primary regulator of lipid metabolism. In recent years, an increasing number of studies have suggested that miRNAs regulate lipid metabolism-related genes. It was speculated in this study that miRNAs may be implicated in the regulation of lipid accumulation in macrophages by SREBP2 protein.

METHODS AND RESULTS

GSE34812, GSE132651 and GSE28829 datasets comprised of atherosclerosis samples were downloaded to explore the gene expression profiles related to the miRNAs and SREBP2, and miR-185-5p was predicted to be a target of SREBP2. The GO annotations and KEGG pathway analysis were adopted for functional classification of differentially expressed genes, and lipid metabolic process was an enriched pathway in atherosclerosis. Besides, the effects of SREBP2 on increasing lipid accumulation were investigated in vivo using miR-185-5p mimic/apoE^-/- mice and miR-185-5p NC/apoE^-/- mice. All mice fed with a HFD suffered from atherosclerosis. Moreover, the effects of miR-185-5p on atherosclerotic plaque formation in mice were analyzed. An in vitro assay was also performed to determine the effect of miR-185-5p on ox-LDL-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages. Finally, miR-185-5p mimic was transfected into cultured macrophages. The results showed that the miR-185-5p elevation might regulate lipid accumulation in mice by targeting SREBP2. Furthermore, miR-185-5p mimic repressed the activation of SREBP1, SREBP2, LDLR, SCD-1, HMGCR as well as NLRP3, IL-1β, TNF-α in HFD fed mice or ox-LDL-stimulated macrophages.

CONCLUSIONS

our study demonstrated that miR-185-5p effectively alleviates atherosclerosis and lipid accumulation by regulating the miR-185-5p/SREBP2 axis.

The Role of Long Non-Coding RNAs and Circular RNAs in Bone Regeneration: Modulating MiRNAs Function

Although bone is a self-healing organ and is able to repair and restore most fractures, large bone fractures, about 10%, are not repairable. Bone grafting, as a gold standard, and bone tissue engineering using biomaterials, growth factors, and stem cells have been developed to restore large bone defects. Since bone regeneration is a complex and multiple-step process and the majority of the human genome, about 98%, is composed of the non-protein-coding regions, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) play essential roles in bone regeneration. Recent studies demonstrated that long ncRNAs (lncRNAs) and circular RNAs (circRNAs), as members of ncRNAs, are widely involved in bone regeneration by interaction with microRNAs (miRNAs) and constructing a lncRNA or circRNA/miRNA/mRNA regulatory network. The constructed network regulates the differentiation of stem cells into osteoblasts and their commitment to osteogenesis. This review will present the structure and biogenesis of lncRNAs and circRNAs, the mechanism of bone repair, and the bone tissue engineering in bone defects. Finally, we will discuss the role of lncRNAs and circRNAs in osteogenesis and bone fracture healing through constructing various lncRNA or circRNA/miRNA/mRNA networks and the involved pathways. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Virus against virus: strategies for using adenovirus vectors in the treatment of HPV-induced cervical cancer

Although most human papillomavirus (HPV) infections are harmless, persistent infection with high-risk types of HPV is known to be the leading cause of cervical cancer. Following the infection of the epithelium and integration into the host genome, the oncogenic proteins E6 and E7 disrupt cell cycle control by inducing p53 and retinoblastoma (Rb) degradation. Despite the FDA approval of prophylactic vaccines, there are still issues with cervical cancer treatment; thus, many therapeutic approaches have been developed to date. Due to strong immunogenicity, a high capacity for packaging foreign DNA, safety, and the ability to infect a myriad of cells, adenoviruses have drawn attention of researchers. Adenovirus vectors have been used for different purposes, including as oncolytic agents to kill cancer cells, carrier for RNA interference to block oncoproteins expression, vaccines for eliciting immune responses, especially in cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs), and gene therapy vehicles for restoring p53 and Rb function.

Macrophage Reprogramming and Cancer Therapeutics: Role of iNOS-Derived NO

Nitric oxide and its production by iNOS is an established mechanism critical to tumor promotion or suppression. Macrophages have important roles in immunity, development, and progression of cancer and have a controversial role in pro- and antitumoral effects. The tumor microenvironment consists of tumor-associated macrophages (TAM), among other cell types that influence the fate of the growing tumor. Depending on the microenvironment and various cues, macrophages polarize into a continuum represented by the M1-like pro-inflammatory phenotype or the anti-inflammatory M2-like phenotype; these two are predominant, while there are subsets and intermediates. Manipulating their plasticity through programming or reprogramming of M2-like to M1-like phenotypes presents the opportunity to maximize tumoricidal defenses. The dual role of iNOS-derived NO also influences TAM activity by repolarization to tumoricidal M1-type phenotype. Regulatory pathways and immunomodulation achieve this through miRNA that may inhibit the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment. This review summarizes the classical physiology of macrophages and polarization, iNOS activities, and evidence towards TAM reprogramming with current information in glioblastoma and melanoma models, and the immunomodulatory and therapeutic options using iNOS or NO-dependent strategies.

Normalization of the tumor microvasculature based on targeting and modulation of the tumor microenvironment

Angiogenesis is an essential process for tumor development. Owing to the imbalance between pro- and anti-angiogenic factors, the tumor vasculature possesses the characteristics of tortuous, hyperpermeable vessels and compressive force, resulting in a reduction in the effect of traditional chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Anti-angiogenesis has emerged as a promising strategy for cancer treatment. Tumor angiogenesis, however, has been proved to be a complex process in which the tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a vital role in the initiation and development of the tumor microvasculature. The host stromal cells in the TME, such as cancer associated fibroblasts (CAFs), tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) and Treg cells, contribute to angiogenesis. Furthermore, the abnormal metabolic environment, such as hypoxia and acidosis, leads to the up-regulated expression of angiogenic factors. Indeed, normalization of the tumor microvasculature via targeting and modulating the TME has become a promising strategy for anti-angiogenesis and anti-tumor therapy. In this review, we summarize the abnormalities of the tumor microvasculature, tumor angiogenesis induced by an abnormal metabolic environment and host stromal cells, as well as drug delivery therapies to restore the balance between pro- and anti-angiogenic factors by targeting and normalizing the tumor vasculature in the TME.

MicroRNAs: Important Players in Breast Cancer Angiogenesis and Therapeutic Targets

The high incidence of breast cancer (BC) is linked to metastasis, facilitated by tumor angiogenesis. MicroRNAs (miRNAs or miRs) are small non-coding RNA molecules that have an essential role in gene expression and are significantly linked to the tumor development and angiogenesis process in different types of cancer, including BC. There's increasing evidence showed that various miRNAs play a significant role in disease processes; specifically, they are observed and over-expressed in a wide range of diseases linked to the angiogenesis process. However, more studies are required to reach the best findings and identify the link among miRNA expression, angiogenic pathways, and immune response-related genes to find new therapeutic targets. Here, we summarized the recent updates on miRNA signatures and their cellular targets in the development of breast tumor angiogenetic and discussed the strategies associated with miRNA-based therapeutic targets as anti-angiogenic response.

Interaction of microRNAs with sphingosine kinases, sphingosine-1 phosphate, and sphingosine-1 phosphate receptors in cancer

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), a pleiotropic lipid mediator, participates in various cellular processes during tumorigenesis, including cell proliferation, survival, drug resistance, metastasis, and angiogenesis. S1P is formed by two sphingosine kinases (SphKs), SphK1 and SphK2. The intracellularly produced S1P is delivered to the extracellular space by ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters and spinster homolog 2 (SPNS2), where it binds to five transmembrane G protein-coupled receptors to mediate its oncogenic functions (S1PR1-S1PR5). MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs, 21-25 nucleotides in length, that play numerous crucial roles in cancer, such as tumor initiation, progression, apoptosis, metastasis, and angiogenesis via binding to the 3'-untranslated region (3'-UTR) of the target mRNA. There is growing evidence that various miRNAs modulate tumorigenesis by regulating the expression of SphKs, and S1P receptors. We have reviewed various roles of miRNAs, SphKs, S1P, and S1P receptors (S1PRs) in malignancies and how notable miRNAs like miR-101, miR-125b, miR-128, and miR-506, miR-1246, miR-21, miR-126, miR499a, miR20a-5p, miR-140-5p, miR-224, miR-137, miR-183-5p, miR-194, miR181b, miR136, and miR-675-3p, modulate S1P signaling. These tumorigenesis modulating miRNAs are involved in different cancers including breast, gastric, hepatocellular carcinoma, prostate, colorectal, cervical, ovarian, and lung cancer via cell proliferation, invasion, angiogenesis, apoptosis, metastasis, immune evasion, chemoresistance, and chemosensitivity. Therefore, understanding the interaction of SphKs, S1P, and S1P receptors with miRNAs in human malignancies will lead to better insights for miRNA-based cancer therapy.

MicroRNA expression in inflammatory bowel disease-associated colorectal cancer

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are non-coding RNA molecules composed of 19–25 nucleotides that regulate gene expression and play a central role in the regulation of several immune-mediated disorders, including inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD). IBD, represented by ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease, is characterized by chronic intestinal inflammation associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer (CRC). CRC is one of the most prevalent tumors in the world, and its main risk factors are obesity, physical inactivity, smoking, alcoholism, advanced age, and some eating habits, in addition to chronic intestinal inflammatory processes and the use of immunosuppressants administered to IBD patients. Recent studies have identified miRNAs associated with an increased risk of developing CRC in this population. The identification of miRNAs involved in this tumorigenic process could be useful to stratify cancer risk development for patients with IBD and to monitor and assess prognosis. Thus, the present review aimed to summarize the role of miRNAs as biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of IBD-associated CRC. In the future, therapies based on miRNA modulation could be used both in clinical practice to achieve remission of the disease and restore the quality of life for patients with IBD, and to identify the patients with IBD at high risk for tumor development.

A review on the advances and challenges of immunotherapy for head and neck cancer

Head and neck cancer (HNC), which includes lip and oral cavity, larynx, nasopharynx, oropharynx, and hypopharynx malignancies, is one of the most common cancers worldwide. Due to the interaction of tumor cells with immune cells in the tumor microenvironment, immunotherapy of HNCs, along with traditional treatments such as chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery, has attracted much attention. Four main immunotherapy strategies in HNCs have been developed, including oncolytic viruses, monoclonal antibodies, chimeric antigen receptor T cells (CAR-T cells), and therapeutic vaccines. Oncorine (H101), an approved oncolytic adenovirus in China, is the pioneer of immunotherapy for the treatment of HNCs. Pembrolizumab and nivolumab are mAbs against PD-L1 that have been approved for recurrent and metastatic HNC patients. To date, several clinical trials using immunotherapy agents and their combination are under investigation. In this review, we summarize current the interaction of tumor cells with immune cells in the tumor microenvironment of HNCs, the main strategies that have been applied for immunotherapy of HNCs, obstacles that hinder the success of immunotherapies in patients with HNCs, as well as solutions for overcoming the challenges to enhance the response of HNCs to immunotherapies.

Analysis of the Internal Hypoxic Environment in Solid Tumor Tissue Using a Folding Paper System

Hypoxia is a nonphysiological oxygen tension which is common in most malignant tumors. Hypoxia stimulates complicated cell signaling networks in cancer cells, e.g., the HIF, PI3K, MAPK, and NFκB pathways. Then, cells release a number of cytokines such as VEGFA to promote the growth of peripheral blood vessels and lead to metastasis. In the current work, understanding of the internal hypoxic environment in solid tumor tissue was attempted by developing a folding paper system. A paper-based solid tumor was constructed by folding a filter paper cultured with cancer cells. The cellular response in each layer could be analyzed by disassembling the folded paper after the culture course. The result showed that an internal hypoxic environment was successfully reproduced in the paper-based solid tumor. The cells in the inner layer expressed high levels of HIF1-α and VEGFA. Hence, proliferation and migration of endothelial cells were shown to be induced by the cells located in the internal hypoxic environment. Moreover, the paper-based solid tumor was transplanted into nude mice for the study of hypoxic response and angiogenesis. The crosstalk between internal and external parts of solid tumor tissue could be analyzed by sectioning each layer of the paper-based solid tumor. This approach provides a favorable analytical method for the discovery of the interaction between cancer cells, hypoxia, and peripheral angiogenesis.

Circular RNAs Interaction with MiRNAs: Emerging Roles in Breast Cancer

Despite significant advances in cancer therapy strategies, breast cancer is one of the most common and lethal malignancies worldwide. Characterization of a new class of RNAs using next-generation sequencing opened new doors toward uncovering etiopathogenesis mechanisms of breast cancer as well as prognostic and diagnostic biomarkers. Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a novel class of RNA with covalently closed and highly stable structures generated primarily from the back-splicing of precursor mRNAs. Although circRNAs exert their function through various mechanisms, acting as a sponge for miRNAs is their primary mechanism of function. Furthermore, growing evidence has shown that aberrant expression of circRNAs is involved in the various hallmarks of cancers. This paper reviews the biogenesis, characteristics, and mechanism of functions of circRNAs and their deregulation in various cancers. Finally, we focused on the circRNAs roles as a sponge for miRNAs in the development, metastasis, angiogenesis, drug resistance, apoptosis, and immune responses of breast cancer.

Regulation of angiogenesis by microRNAs in cancer

MicroRNAs (miRs) are endogenous, small, non‑coding RNA molecules with ~22 nucleotides, and are involved in regulating the expression of multiple genes and controlling cellular functions. miRs serve key roles in angiogenesis by regulating the proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and migration of endothelial cells. Regulation of angiogenesis is essential for several physiological and pathological processes, particularly for tumor development and progression. Therefore, it is important to investigate the roles served by miRs in angiogenesis as this may aid in discovering novel strategies for treating tumors via modulating angiogenesis. In this review, miRNA biogenesis, regulation and functions are described with new information and corresponding references. In particular, the latest advances in the role of various miRs and their target genes involved in tumor angiogenesis were updated. Next, different signaling pathways by which miRNAs could be regulated in different types of tumor progression were addressed. Furthermore, the potential clinical value of miRs as biomarkers for diagnosing and monitoring the response to therapy, as well as their ability to regulate tumor angiogenesis and the mechanism underlying this regulation, were investigated.

Anti-tumor Activity of Propofol: A Focus on MicroRNAs

BACKGROUND

MicroRNAs are endogenous, short, non-coding RNAs with the length as low as 20 to 25 nucleotides. These RNAs are able to negatively affect the gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. It has been demonstrated that microRNAs play a significant role in cell proliferation, cell migration, cell death, cell differentiation, infection, immune response, and metabolism. Besides, the dysfunction of microRNAs has been observed in a variety of cancers. So, modulation of microRNAs is of interest in the treatment of disorders.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the current review is to investigate the modulatory effect of propofol on microRNAs in cancer therapy.

METHODS

This review was performed at PubMed, SCOPUS and Web of Science data-bases using keywords "propofol', "microRNA", "cancer therapy", "propofol + microRNA" and "propofol + miR".

RESULTS

It was found that propofol dually down-regulates/upregulates microRNAs to exert its antitumor activity. In terms of oncogenesis microRNAs, propofol exert an inhibitory effect, while propofol significantly enhances the expression of oncosuppressor microRNAs.

CONCLUSION

It seems that propofol is a potential modulator of microRNAs and this capability can be used in the treatment of various cancers.

Vascular endothelial growth factor-mediated peritoneal neoangiogenesis in peritoneal dialysis

Peritoneal dialysis (PD) is an important renal replacement therapy for patients with end-stage renal diseases, which is limited by peritoneal neoangiogenesis leading to ultrafiltration failure (UFF). Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its receptors are key angiogenic factors involved in almost every step of peritoneal neoangiogenesis. Impaired mesothelial cells are the major sources of VEGF in the peritoneum. The expression of VEGF will be up-regulated in specific pathological conditions in PD patients, such as with non-biocompatible peritoneal dialysate, uremia and inflammation, and so on. Other working cells (i.e. vascular endothelial cells, macrophages and adipocytes) can also stimulate the secretion of VEGF. Meanwhile, hypoxia and activation of complement system further aggravate peritoneal injury and contribute to neoangiogenesis. There are several signalling pathways participating in VEGF-mediated peritoneal neoangiogenesis including tumour growth factor-β, Wnt/β-catenin, Notch and interleukin-6/signal transducer and activator of transcription 3. Moreover, VEGF is highly expressed in dialysate effluent of long-term PD patients and is associated with peritoneal transport function, which supports its role in the alteration of peritoneal structure and function. In this review, we systematically summarize the angiogenic effect of VEGF and evaluate it as a potential target for the prevention of peritoneal neoangiogenesis and UFF. Preservation of the peritoneal membrane using targeted therapy of VEGF-mediated peritoneal neoangiogenesis may increase the longevity of the PD modality for those who require life-long dialysis.

Remodeling of Stromal Cells and Immune Landscape in Microenvironment During Tumor Progression

The molecular understanding of carcinogenesis and tumor progression rests in intra and inter-tumoral heterogeneity. Solid tumors confined with vast diversity of genetic abnormalities, epigenetic modifications, and environmental cues that differ at each stage from tumor initiation, progression, and metastasis. Complexity within tumors studied by conventional molecular techniques fails to identify different subclasses in stromal and immune cells in individuals and that affects immunotherapies. Here we focus on diversity of stromal cell population and immune inhabitants, whose subtypes create the complexity of tumor microenvironment (TME), leading primary tumors towards advanced-stage cancers. Recent advances in single-cell sequencing (epitope profiling) approach circumscribes phenotypic markers, molecular pathways, and evolutionary trajectories of an individual cell. We discussed the current knowledge of stromal and immune cell subclasses at different stages of cancer development with the regulatory role of non-coding RNAs. Finally, we reported the current therapeutic options in immunotherapies, advances in therapies targeting heterogeneity, and possible outcomes.

Monoclonal antibodies and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells in the treatment of colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the third most common cancer and the second leading cause of cancer deaths worldwide. Besides common therapeutic approaches, such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, novel therapeutic approaches, including immunotherapy, have been an advent in CRC treatment. The immunotherapy approaches try to elicit patients` immune responses against tumor cells to eradicate the tumor. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) and chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells are two branches of cancer immunotherapy. MAbs demonstrate the great ability to completely recognize cancer cell-surface receptors and blockade proliferative or inhibitory pathways. On the other hand, T cell activation by genetically engineered CAR receptor via the TCR/CD3 and costimulatory domains can induce potent immune responses against specific tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). Both of these approaches have beneficial anti-tumor effects on CRC. Herein, we review the different mAbs against various pathways and their applications in clinical trials, the different types of CAR-T cells, various specific CAR-T cells against TAAs, and their clinical use in CRC treatment.

Emerging role of exosomes and exosomal microRNA in cancer: pathophysiology and clinical potential

BACKGROUND

Exosomes are extracellular nanometric vesicles used by cells to communicate with each other. They are responsible for many pathological conditions, including tumors by transferring regulatory biomolecules that impact target cell activity. Because of their high concentration in exosomes compared with parental cells and the rest of exosomal content, specificity to the cell of origin, and their well-organized sorting mechanism, microRNAs (miRNAs) are thought to be the most potent exosomes cargo and used by scientists to track exosomes and to detect cell activity changes and prognosis in cancer early.

PURPOSE

In this review, the results of studies examining the role of exosomes in cancer pathophysiology and their clinical potential are discussed in detail. Tumor-derived exosomes (TDEs) mediate the dynamic changes of cancer growth and invasion, including local microenvironment remodeling, distance metastasis, angiogenesis, and tumor-associated immunosuppression. They also contribute to hypoxia-induced tumor progression and cancer cell drug resistance. As a result of exosomes being present in all body fluids, it is possible to have early accessible and less-invasive diagnostic and prognostic measures by forming a table for each cancer type and its matched specific miRNAs. Under testing, available therapeutic uses of exosomes include interference of exosomes biogenesis, secretion, or uptake, and recruitment of exosomes as target-specific drug delivery vehicles, and immunostimulatory agents for both cancer patients and healthy population to avoid cancer development from the start.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that exosomes and exosomal microRNA are directly related to cancer progression mechanisms, and could be used in cancer early diagnosis, prognosis, and therapy.

Hormonal Environment and HER2 Status in Extra-Mammary Paget's Disease (eMPD): A Systematic Literature Review and Meta-Analysis with Clinical Considerations

Background. Extra-mammary Paget’s disease (EMPD) is a rare neoplasm of epithelial origin, whose precise incidence is not clear. Starting from what is already known, we performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate in male and female patients the immunohistochemical expression of biological markers that could serve as potential prognostic/therapeutic factors, including only human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2/neu), Estrogen Receptor (ER), Progesterone Receptor (PR), and Androgen Receptor (AR). Methods. A literature search was performed of the PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases for English-language studies published from January 2000 to June 2020. Results. A total of 27 studies with 713 patients assessed the role of HER2/neu, AR, ER, and PR expression in male and female with EMPD. The overall rate of HER2/neu expression was 30%, the expression’s rate for ER and AR was 13% and 40%, respectively, and the overall rate for PR was 8%. The subgroup analysis revealed that there is a different expression of molecular markers between male and female patients. Conclusions. This study revealed that AR status and HER2/neu overexpression/amplification have been shown as two fundamental pathogenetic pathways in both female and male patients affected by EMPD.