β-catenin-controlled tubular cell-derived exosomes play a key role in fibroblast activation via the OPN-CD44 axis

iTRAQ proteomic analysis of exosomes derived from synovial fluid reveals disease patterns and potential biomarkers of Osteoarthritis

Exosomes extracted from synovial fluid (SF-exo) reflect the status of their originating cells. The proteomic profiles of SF-exo are important for the diagnosis of osteoarthritis (OA). To delineate the proteomic differences between SF-exo from OA patients and healthy individuals, a quantitative proteomic study based on iTRAQ technology was performed. In this study, a total of 439 proteins were identified, with 20 proteins exhibiting increased expression in the OA patient group, while 5 showed decreased expression levels. Bioinformatic analysis showed these differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) were involved in a variety of immune-related processes, including complement activation and antigen binding. For further screening, we downloaded a publicly available dataset of synovial fluid (PXD023708) and compared it with our dataset. The comparative Results identified that 5 DEPs overlapped in two datasets, and protein-protein interaction revealed that C3, C4B and APOM were key members of a tightly interactive network. Through receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), we confirmed 5 DEPs (C3, C4B, APOM, MMP3, DPYSL2) as potential diagnostic biomarkers for OA. And Pearson correlation analysis confirmed that most of these biomarkers had no significant linear correlation with age. Overall, our study provides the first comprehensive description of the proteomic landscape of SF-exo in OA and identifies several potential biomarkers. These findings are expected to provide valuable insights into the diagnosis and treatment of OA.

Multi-omic profiling highlights factors associated with resistance to immuno-chemotherapy in non-small-cell lung cancer

Although immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) therapies have shifted the treatment paradigm for non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC), many patients remain resistant. Here we characterize the tumor cell states and spatial cellular compositions of the NSCLC tumor microenvironment (TME) by analyzing single-cell transcriptomes of 232,080 cells and spatially resolved transcriptomes of tumors from 19 patients before and after ICB-chemotherapy. We find that tumor cells and secreted phosphoprotein 1-positive macrophages interact with collagen type XI alpha 1 chain-positive cancer-associated fibroblasts to stimulate the deposition and entanglement of collagen fibers at tumor boundaries, obstructing T cell infiltration and leading to poor prognosis. We also reveal distinct states of tertiary lymphoid structures (TLSs) in the TME. Activated TLSs are associated with improved prognosis, whereas a hypoxic microenvironment appears to suppress TLS development and is associated with poor prognosis. Our study provides novel insights into different cellular and molecular components corresponding to NSCLC ICB-chemotherapeutic responsiveness, which will benefit future individualized immuno-chemotherapy.

Myofibroblast-derived exosomes enhance macrophages to myofibroblasts transition and kidney fibrosis

A critical event in the pathogenesis of kidney fibrosis is the transition of macrophages into myofibroblasts (MMT). Exosomes play an important role in crosstalk among cells in the kidney and the development of renal fibrosis. However, the role of myofibroblast-derived exosomes in the process of MMT and renal fibrosis progression remains unknown. Here, we examined the role of myofibroblast-derived exosomes in MMT and kidney fibrogenesis. In vitro, transforming growth factor-β1 stimulated the differentiation of kidney fibroblasts into myofibroblasts and promoted exosome release from myofibroblasts. RAW264.7 cells were treated with exosomes derived from myofibroblasts. We found purified exosomes from myofibroblasts trigger the MMT. By contrast, inhibition of exosome production with GW4869 or exosome depletion from the conditioned media abolished the ability of myofibroblasts to induce MMT. Mice treatment with myofibroblast-derived exosomes (Myo-Exo) exhibited severe fibrotic lesion and more abundant MMT cells in kidneys with folic acid (FA) injury, which was negated by TANK-banding kinase-1 inhibitor. Furthermore, suppression of exosome production reduced collagen deposition, extracellular matrix protein accumulation, and MMT in FA nephropathy. Collectively, Myo-Exo enhances the MMT and kidney fibrosis. Blockade of exosomes mediated myofibroblasts-macrophages communication may provide a novel therapeutic target for kidney fibrosis.

Inhalation of itraconazole mitigates bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis via regulating SPP1 and C3 signaling pathway pivotal in the interaction between phagocytic macrophages and diseased fibroblasts

BACKGROUND

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) stands as a significant contributor to global mortality rates. Presently, there exists a dearth of effective anti-fibrotic treatments for this condition. While itraconazole (ITR) has exhibited potential in mitigating pulmonary fibrosis, its oral administration is hampered by unfavorable pharmacokinetics, which elevate the risk of adverse reactions, thus limiting its clinical utility.

METHODS

An inhalable formulation of ITR were engineered which aimed at enhancing its pulmonary dispersion. First, pharmacokinetics were conducted to investigate the blood concentration and tissue residue of ITR after inhalation administration. In addition, bleomycin induced mouse pulmonary fibrosis model was used to compare the therapeutic effects of ITR administered by inhalation and intragastric administration. Finally, single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNAseq) was used to explore the mechanism of ITR inhalation administration.

RESULTS

We found that a large amount of drugs accumulated in the lung tissue for a long time after inhalation administration, thus maximizing the therapeutic effect of drugs. Inhalation of ITR daily at for 21 days significantly attenuated bleomycin-induced lung fibrosis and inflammation in murine models. Additionally, our findings revealed that ITR inhalation diminished the proportion of diseased fibroblasts while promoting reparative fibroblast populations in the murine model. Furthermore, it effectively reversed the proportion of activated phagocytic macrophages. Mechanistically, ITR inhalation exerted its effects by regulating SPP1 and C3 signaling pathway pivotal in the interaction between phagocytic macrophages and diseased fibroblasts.

CONCLUSIONS

These insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying ITR's therapeutic effects on IPF underscore the favorable pharmacokinetic profile conferred by inhalation, thus presenting a promising formulation poised for clinical translation.

Exosomes on the development and progression of renal fibrosis

Renal fibrosis is a prevalent pathological alteration that occurs throughout the progression of primary and secondary renal disorders towards end-stage renal disease. As a complex and irreversible pathophysiological phenomenon, it includes a sequence of intricate regulatory processes at the molecular and cellular levels. Exosomes are a distinct category of extracellular vesicles that play a crucial role in facilitating intercellular communication. Multiple pathways are regulated by exosomes produced by various cell types, including tubular epithelial cells and mesenchymal stem cells, in the context of renal fibrosis. Furthermore, research has shown that exosomes present in bodily fluids, including urine and blood, may be indicators of renal fibrosis. However, the regulatory mechanism of exosomes in renal fibrosis has not been fully elucidated. This article reviewed and analysed the various mechanisms by which exosomes regulate renal fibrosis, which may provide new ideas for further study of the pathophysiological process of renal fibrosis and targeted treatment of renal fibrosis with exosomes.

β-catenin-inhibited Sumoylation modification of LKB1 and fatty acid metabolism is critical in renal fibrosis

Liver kinase B1 (LKB1) is a serine/threonine kinase controlling cell homeostasis. Among post-translational modification, Sumoylation is vital for LKB1 activating adenosine 5'-monophosphate (AMP)-activated protein kinase (AMPK), the key regulator in energy metabolism. Of note, AMPK-regulated fatty acid metabolism is highly involved in maintaining normal renal function. However, the regulative mechanisms of LKB1 Sumoylation remain elusive. In this study, we demonstrated that β-catenin, a notorious signal in renal fibrosis, inhibited the Sumoylation of LKB1, thereby disrupting fatty acid oxidation in renal tubular cells and triggering renal fibrosis. Mechanically, we found that Sumo3 was the key mediator for LKB1 Sumoylation in renal tubular cells, which was transcriptionally inhibited by β-catenin/Transcription factor 4 (TCF4) signaling. Overexpression of Sumo3, not Sumo1 or Sumo2, restored β-catenin-disrupted fatty acid metabolism, and retarded lipid accumulation and fibrogenesis in the kidney. In vivo, conditional knockout of β-catenin in tubular cells effectively preserved fatty acid oxidation and blocked lipid accumulation by maintaining LKB1 Sumoylation and AMPK activation. Furthermore, ectopic expression of Sumo3 strongly inhibited Wnt1-aggravated lipid accumulation and fibrogenesis in unilateral ischemia-reperfusion mice. In patients with chronic kidney disease, we found a loss of Sumo3 expression, and it was highly related to LKB1 repression. This contributes to fatty acid metabolism disruption and lipid accumulation, resulting in renal fibrosis. Overall, our study revealed a new mechanism in fatty acid metabolism dysfunction and provided a new therapeutic target pathway for regulating Sumo modification in renal fibrosis.

Extracellular vesicles: Illuminating renal pathophysiology and therapeutic frontiers

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are minute sacs released by cells into the extracellular milieu, harboring an array of biomolecules including proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. Notably, a large number of studies have demonstrated the important involvement of EVs in both physiological and pathological aspects of renal function. EVs can facilitate communication between different renal cells, but it is important to recognize their dual role: they can either transmit beneficial information or lead to renal damage and worsening of existing conditions. The composition of EVs in the context of the kidneys offers valuable insights into the intricate mechanisms underlying specific renal functions or disease states. In addition, mesenchymal stem cell-derived EVs have the potential to alleviate acute and chronic kidney diseases. More importantly, the innate nanoparticle properties of EVs, coupled with their engineering potential, make them effective tools for drug delivery and therapeutic intervention. In this review, we focus on the intricate biological functions of EVs in the kidney. In addition, we explore the emerging role of EVs as diagnostic tools and innovative therapeutic agents in a range of renal diseases.

N6-methyladenosine triggers renal fibrosis via enhancing translation and stability of ZEB2 mRNA

In recent years, a surge in studies investigating N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification in human diseases has occurred. However, the specific roles and mechanisms of m6A in kidney disease remain incompletely understood. This study revealed that m6A plays a positive role in regulating renal fibrosis (RF) by inducing epithelial-to-mesenchymal phenotypic transition (EMT) in renal tubular cells. Through comprehensive analyses, including m6A sequencing, RNA-seq, and functional studies, we confirmed the pivotal involvement of zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 2 (ZEB2) in m6A-mediated RF and EMT. Notably, the m6A-modified coding sequence of ZEB2 mRNA significantly enhances its translational elongation and mRNA stability by interacting with the YTHDF1/eEF-2 complex and IGF2BP3, respectively. Moreover, targeted demethylation of ZEB2 mRNA using the dm6ACRISPR system substantially decreases ZEB2 expression and disrupts the EMT process in renal tubular epithelial cells. In vivo and clinical data further support the positive influence of m6A/ZEB2 on RF progression. Our findings highlight the m6A-mediated regulation of RF through ZEB2, revealing a novel therapeutic target for RF treatment and enhancing our understanding of the impact of mRNA methylation on kidney disease.

[Qingshen Granules alleviates renal fibrosis in mice by regulating exosomes, miR-330-3p, and CREBBP expression]

OBJECTIVE

To explore the effects of Qingshen Granules (QSG) on adenine-induced renal fibrosis in mice and in uric acid (UA)-stimulated NRK-49F cells and its mechanism for regulating exosomes, miR-330-3p and CREBBP.

METHODS

A mouse model of adenine-induced renal fibrosis were treated daily with QSG at 8.0 g·kg-1·d-1 via gavage for 12 weeks. An adenoassociated virus vector was injected into the tail vein, and renal tissues of the mice were collected for analyzing exosomal marker proteins CD9, Hsp70, and TSG101 and expressions of Col-III, α-SMA, FN, and E-cad using Western blotting and immunofluorescence and for observing pathological changes using HE and Masson staining. In the cell experiment, NRK-49F cells were stimulated with uric acid (400 μmol/L) followed by treatment with QSG-medicated serum from SD rats, and the changes in expressions of the exosomal markers and Col-III, α-SMA, FN, and E-cad were analyzed. Dual luciferase reporter assay was employed to examine the targeting relationship between miR-330-3p and CREBBP, whose expressions were detected by RT-qPCR and Western blotting in treated NRK-49F cells.

RESULTS

The mouse models of adenine-induced renal fibrosis showed significantly increased levels of CD9, Hsp70, and TSG101, which were decreased by treatment with QSG. The expressions of Col-III, α-SMA, and FN increased and Ecad decreased in the mouse models but these changes were reversed by QSG treatment. QSG treatment obviously alleviated renal fibrosis in the mouse models. Intravenous injection of adeno-associated viral vector obviously inhibited miR-330-3p, increased CREBBP levels, and reduced fibrosis in the mouse models. Dual luciferase assay confirmed CREBBP as a target of miR-330-3p, which was consistent with the results of the cell experiments.

CONCLUSION

QSG inhibits renal fibrosis in mice by regulating the exosomes, reducing miR-330-3p levels, and increasing CREBBP expression.

FAM3A plays a key role in protecting against tubular cell pyroptosis and acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is in high prevalence worldwide but with no therapeutic strategies. Programmed cell death in tubular epithelial cells has been reported to accelerate a variety of AKI, but the major pathways and underlying mechanisms are not defined. Herein, we identified that pyroptosis was responsible for AKI progression and related to ATP depletion in renal tubular cells. We found that FAM3A, a mitochondrial protein that assists ATP synthesis, was decreased and negatively correlated with tubular cell injury and pyroptosis in both mice and patients with AKI. Knockout of FAM3A worsened kidney function decline, increased macrophage and neutrophil cell infiltration, and facilitated tubular cell pyroptosis in ischemia/reperfusion injury model. Conversely, FAM3A overexpression alleviated tubular cell pyroptosis, and inhibited kidney injury in ischemic AKI. Mechanistically, FAM3A promoted PI3K/AKT/NRF2 signaling, thus blocking mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mt-ROS) accumulation. NLRP3 inflammasome sensed the overload of mt-ROS and then activated Caspase-1, which cleaved GSDMD, pro-IL-1β, and pro-IL-18 into their mature forms to mediate pyroptosis. Of interest, NRF2 activator alleviated the pro-pyroptotic effects of FAM3A depletion, whereas the deletion of NRF2 blocked the anti-pyroptotic function of FAM3A. Thus, our study provides new mechanisms for AKI progression and demonstrates that FAM3A is a potential therapeutic target for treating AKI.

Multi-omics analysis of kidney tissue metabolome and proteome reveals the protective effect of sheep milk against adenine-induced chronic kidney disease in mice

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is characterized by impaired renal function and is associated with inflammation, oxidative stress, and fibrosis. Sheep milk contains several bioactive molecules with protective effects against inflammation and oxidative stress. In the current study, we investigated the potential renoprotective effects of sheep milk and the associated mechanisms of action in an adenine-induced CKD murine model. Sheep milk delayed renal chronic inflammation (e.g., significant reduction in levels of inflammatory factors Vcam1, Icam1, Il6, and Tnfa), fibrosis (significant reduction in levels of fibrosis factors Col1a1, Fn1, and Tgfb), oxidative stress (significant increase in levels of antioxidants and decrease in oxidative markers), mineral disorders, and renal injury in adenine-treated mice (e.g. reduced levels of kidney injury markers NGAL and KIM-1). The combined proteomics and metabolomics analyses showed that sheep milk may affect the metabolic processes of several compounds, including proteins, lipids, minerals, and hormones in mice with adenine-induced chronic kidney disease. In addition, it may regulate the expression of fibrosis-related factors and inflammatory factors through the JAK1/STAT3/HIF-1α signaling pathway, thus exerting its renoprotective effects. Therefore, sheep milk may be beneficial for patients with CKD and should be evaluated in preclinical and clinical studies.

(-)-Gallocatechin Gallate Mitigates Metabolic Syndrome-Associated Diabetic Nephropathy in db/db Mice

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) significantly predisposes individuals to diabetes and is a prognostic factor for the progression of diabetic nephropathy (DN). This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of (-)-gallocatechin gallate (GCG) in alleviating signs of MetS-associated DN in db/db mice. We administered GCG and monitored its effects on several metabolic parameters, including food and water intake, urinary output, blood glucose levels, glucose and insulin homeostasis, lipid profiles, blood pressure, and renal function biomarkers. The main findings indicated that GCG intervention led to marked improvements in these metabolic indicators and renal function, signifying its potential in managing MetS and DN. Furthermore, transcriptome analysis revealed substantial modifications in gene expression, notably the downregulation of pro-inflammatory genes such as S100a8, S100a9, Cd44, Socs3, Mmp3, Mmp9, Nlrp3, IL-1β, Osm, Ptgs2, and Lcn2 and the upregulation of the anti-oxidative gene Gstm3. These genetic alterations suggest significant effects on pathways related to inflammation and oxidative stress. In conclusion, GCG demonstrates therapeutic efficacy for MetS-associated DN, mitigating metabolic disturbances and enhancing renal health by modulating inflammatory and oxidative responses.

CD44 and its implication in neoplastic diseases

CD44, a nonkinase single span transmembrane glycoprotein, is a major cell surface receptor for many other extracellular matrix components as well as classic markers of cancer stem cells and immune cells. Through alternative splicing of CD44 gene, CD44 is divided into two isoforms, the standard isoform of CD44 (CD44s) and the variant isoform of CD44 (CD44v). Different isoforms of CD44 participate in regulating various signaling pathways, modulating cancer proliferation, invasion, metastasis, and drug resistance, with its aberrant expression and dysregulation contributing to tumor initiation and progression. However, CD44s and CD44v play overlapping or contradictory roles in tumor initiation and progression, which is not fully understood. Herein, we discuss the present understanding of the functional and structural roles of CD44 in the pathogenic mechanism of multiple cancers. The regulation functions of CD44 in cancers-associated signaling pathways is summarized. Moreover, we provide an overview of the anticancer therapeutic strategies that targeting CD44 and preclinical and clinical trials evaluating the pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and drug-related toxicity about CD44-targeted therapies. This review provides up-to-date information about the roles of CD44 in neoplastic diseases, which may open new perspectives in the field of cancer treatment through targeting CD44.

Amniotic fluid stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles educate type 2 conventional dendritic cells to rescue autoimmune disorders in a multiple sclerosis mouse model

Dendritic cells (DCs) are essential orchestrators of immune responses and represent potential targets for immunomodulation in autoimmune diseases. Human amniotic fluid secretome is abundant in immunoregulatory factors, with extracellular vesicles (EVs) being a significant component. However, the impact of these EVs on dendritic cells subsets remain unexplored. In this study, we investigated the interaction between highly purified dendritic cell subsets and EVs derived from amniotic fluid stem cell lines (HAFSC-EVs). Our results suggest that HAFSC-EVs are preferentially taken up by conventional dendritic cell type 2 (cDC2) through CD29 receptor-mediated internalization, resulting in a tolerogenic DC phenotype characterized by reduced expression and production of pro-inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, treatment of cDC2 cells with HAFSC-EVs in coculture systems resulted in a higher proportion of T cells expressing the regulatory T cell marker Foxp3 compared to vehicle-treated control cells. Moreover, transfer of HAFSC-EV-treated cDC2s into an EAE mouse model resulted in the suppression of autoimmune responses and clinical improvement. These results suggest that HAFSC-EVs may serve as a promising tool for reprogramming inflammatory cDC2s towards a tolerogenic phenotype and for controlling autoimmune responses in the central nervous system, representing a potential platform for the study of the effects of EVs in DC subsets.

Osteopontin as a Biomarker in Interstitial Lung Diseases

Osteopontin (OPN) is a glycoprotein involved in Th1 and Th17 differentiation, and inflammation and tissue remodeling. OPN is a biomarker of disease activity in patients with autoimmune inflammatory conditions. This study aimed to assess the diagnostic and prognostic value of OPN in interstitial lung diseases (ILDs). Between May 2016 and October 2019, 344 patients with ILD were recruited at the Hospital Universitario Marqués de Valdecilla (Spain) and were prospectively followed-up. This study involved the determination of OPN serum levels by ELISA and OPN RNA expression quantified using qPCR. Six genetic polymorphisms in OPN (rs28357094, rs2853749, rs2853750, rs11728697, rs7695531, and rs1126616) were genotyped using TaqMan assays. OPN serum levels were also assessed in 140 healthy controls. OPN serum levels (median [interquartile range]) were significantly higher in ILD patients than in controls (1.05 [0.75-1.51] ng/mL versus 0.81 [0.65-0.98] ng/mL in healthy controls; p < 0.01). OPN serum levels were inversely correlated with the forced vital capacity. OPN serum levels were also higher in ILD patients who died or underwent lung transplantation when compared with the remaining ILD patients (1.15 [0.80-1.72] ng/mL versus 0.99 [0.66-1.32] ng/mL; p = 0.05). Survival worsened in ILD patients with OPN > 1.03 ng/mL at 1, 3, and 5 years. No statistically significant differences in the genetic frequencies of OPN polymorphisms or the RNA expression were found among the different ILD groups. Elevated levels of OPN in the serum may be a useful indicator in identifying patients with ILD who are more likely to experience poor outcomes.

Cell-cell communication in kidney fibrosis

Kidney fibrosis is a common outcome of a wide variety of chronic kidney diseases, in which virtually all kinds of renal resident and infiltrating cells are involved. As such, well-orchestrated intercellular communication is of vital importance in coordinating complex actions during renal fibrogenesis. Cell-cell communication in multicellular organisms is traditionally assumed to be mediated by direct cell contact or soluble factors, including growth factors, cytokines and chemokines, through autocrine, paracrine, endocrine and juxtacrine signaling mechanisms. Growing evidence also demonstrates that extracellular vesicles, lipid bilayer-encircled particles naturally released from almost all types of cells, can act as a vehicle to transfer a diverse array of biomolecules including proteins, mRNA, miRNA and lipids to mediate cell-cell communication. We recently described a new mode of intercellular communication via building a special extracellular niche by insoluble matricellular proteins. Kidney cells, upon injury, produce and secrete different matricellular proteins, which incorporate into the local extracellular matrix network, and regulate the behavior, trajectory and fate of neighboring cells in a spatially confined fashion. This extracellular niche-mediated cell-cell communication is unique in that it restrains the crosstalk between cells within a particular locality. Detailed delineation of this unique manner of intercellular communication will help to elucidate the mechanism of kidney fibrosis and could offer novel insights in developing therapeutic intervention.

Engineered Extracellular Vesicles in Chronic Kidney Diseases: A Comprehensive Review

Chronic kidney diseases (CKD) present a formidable global health challenge, characterized by a deficiency of effective treatment options. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), recognized as multifunctional drug delivery systems in biomedicine, have gained accumulative interest. Specifically, engineered EVs have emerged as a promising therapeutic approach for targeted drug delivery, potentially addressing the complexities of CKD management. In this review, we systematically dissect EVs, elucidating their classification, biogenesis, composition, and cargo molecules. Furthermore, we explore techniques for EV engineering and strategies for their precise renal delivery, focusing on cargo loading and transportation, providing a comprehensive perspective. Moreover, this review also discusses and summarizes the diverse therapeutic applications of engineered EVs in CKD, emphasizing their anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, renoprotective, and tissue-regenerating effects. It critically evaluates the challenges and limitations in translating EV therapies from laboratory settings to clinical applications, while outlining future prospects and emerging trends.

Osteopontin-driven partial epithelial-mesenchymal transition governs the development of middle ear cholesteatoma

Cholesteatoma is a common disease of the middle ear. Currently, surgical removal is the only treatment option and patients face a high risk of relapse. The molecular basis of cholesteatoma remains largely unknown. Here, we show that Osteopontin (OPN), a predominantly secreted protein, plays a crucial role in the development of middle ear cholesteatoma. Global transcriptome analysis revealed the loss of epithelial features and an enhanced immune response in human cholesteatoma tissues. Quantitative RT-PCR and immunohistochemical staining of middle ear cholesteatoma validated the reduced expression of epithelial markers, as well as the elevated expression of mesenchymal markers including Vimentin and Fibronectin, but not N-Cadherin, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) or ferroptosis suppressor protein 1 (FSP1), indicating a partial epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) state. Besides, the expression of OPN was significantly elevated in human cholesteatoma tissues. Treatment with OPN promoted cell proliferation, survival and migration and led to a partial EMT in immortalized human keratinocyte cells. Importantly, blockade of OPN signaling could remarkably improve the cholesteatoma-like symptoms in SD rats. Our mechanistic study demonstrated that the AKT-zinc finger E-box binding homeobox 2 (ZEB2) axis mediated the effects of OPN. Overall, these findings suggest that targeting the OPN signaling represents a promising strategy for the treatment of middle ear cholesteatoma.

Macrophage-Derived Exosomes as Advanced Therapeutics for Inflammation: Current Progress and Future Perspectives

The development of numerous diseases is significantly influenced by inflammation. Macrophage-derived exosomes (M-Exos) play a role in controlling inflammatory reactions in various conditions, including chronic inflammatory pain, hypertension, and diabetes. However, the specific targets and roles of M-Exos in regulating inflammation in diseases remain largely unknown. This review summarizes current knowledge on M-Exos biogenesis and provides updated information on M-Exos' biological function in inflammation modulation. Furthermore, this review highlights the functionalization and engineering strategies of M-Exos, while providing an overview of cutting-edge approaches to engineering M-Exos and advancements in their application as therapeutics for inflammation modulation. Finally, multiple engineering strategies and mechanisms are presented in this review along with their perspectives and challenges, and the potential contribution that M-Exos may have in diseases through the modulation of inflammation is discussed.

Immunoregulatory Roles of Osteopontin in Diseases

Osteopontin (OPN) is a multifunctional protein that plays a pivotal role in the immune system. It is involved in various biological processes, including cell adhesion, migration and survival. The study of the immunomodulatory effects of OPN is of paramount importance due to its potential therapeutic applications. A comprehensive understanding of how OPN regulates the immune response could pave the way for the development of novel treatments for a multitude of diseases, including autoimmune disorders, infectious diseases and cancer. Therefore, in the following paper, we provide a systematic overview of OPN and its immunoregulatory roles in various diseases, laying the foundation for the development of OPN-based therapies in the future.

Exploring the role of urinary extracellular vesicles in kidney physiology, aging, and disease progression

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), membranous vesicles present in all body fluids, are considered important messengers, carrying their information over long distance and modulating the gene expression profile of recipient cells. EVs collected in urine (uEVs) are mainly originated from the apical part of urogenital tract, following the urine flow. Moreover, bacterial-derived EVs are present within urine and may reflect the composition of microbiota. Consolidated evidence has established the involvement of uEVs in renal physiology, being responsible for glomerular and tubular cross talk and among different tubular segments. uEVs may also be involved in other physiological functions such as modulation of innate immunity, coagulation, or metabolic activities. Furthermore, it has been recently remonstrated that age, sex, endurance excise, and lifestyle may influence uEV composition and release, modifying their cargo. On the other hand, uEVs appear modulators of different urogenital pathological conditions, triggering disease progression. uEVs sustain fibrosis and inflammation processes, both involved in acute and chronic kidney diseases, aging, and stone formation. The molecular signature of uEVs collected from diseased patients can be of interest for understanding kidney physiopathology and for identifying diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers.

Single-Cell RNA Sequencing of Coronary Perivascular Adipose Tissue From End-Stage Heart Failure Patients Identifies SPP1+ Macrophage Subpopulation as a Target for Alleviating Fibrosis

BACKGROUND

Perivascular adipose tissue (PVAT) is vital for vascular homeostasis, and PVAT dysfunction is associated with increased atherosclerotic plaque burden. But the mechanisms underlining coronary PVAT dysfunction in coronary atherosclerosis remain elusive.

METHODS

We performed single-cell RNA sequencing of the stromal vascular fraction of coronary PVAT from 3 groups of heart transplant recipients with end-stage heart failure, including 3 patients with nonobstructive coronary atherosclerosis, 3 patients with obstructive coronary artery atherosclerosis, and 4 nonatherosclerosis control subjects. Bioinformatics was used to annotate the cellular populations, depict the cellular developmental trajectories and interactions, and explore the differences among 3 groups of coronary PVAT at the cellular and molecular levels. Pathological staining, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction, and in vitro studies were performed to validate the key findings.

RESULTS

Ten cell types were identified among 67 936 cells from human coronary PVAT. Several cellular subpopulations, including SPP1+ (secreted phosphoprotein 1) macrophages and profibrotic fibroadipogenic progenitor cells, were accumulated in PVAT surrounding atherosclerotic coronary arteries compared with nonatherosclerosis coronary arteries. The fibrosis percentage was increased in PVAT surrounding atherosclerotic coronary arteries, and it was positively associated with the grade of coronary artery stenosis. Cellular interaction analysis suggested OPN (osteopontin) secreted by SPP1+ macrophages interacted with CD44 (cluster of differentiation 44)/integrin on fibroadipogenic progenitor cells. Strikingly, correlation analyses uncovered that higher level of SPP1 in PVAT correlates with a more severe fibrosis degree and a higher coronary stenosis grade. In vitro studies showed that conditioned medium from atherosclerotic coronary PVAT promoted the migration and proliferation of fibroadipogenic progenitor cells, while such effect was prevented by blocking CD44 or integrin.

CONCLUSIONS

SPP1+ macrophages accumulated in the PVAT surrounding atherosclerotic coronary arteries, and they promoted the migration and proliferation of fibroadipogenic progenitor cells via OPN-CD44/integrin interaction and thus aggravated the fibrosis of coronary PVAT, which was positively correlated to the coronary stenosis burden. Therefore, SPP1+ macrophages in coronary PVAT may participate in the progression of coronary atherosclerosis.

Network Pharmacology Analysis and Machine-Learning Models Confirmed the Ability of YiShen HuoXue Decoction to Alleviate Renal Fibrosis by Inhibiting Pyroptosis

Purpose

YiShen HuoXue decoction (YSHXD) is a formulation that has been used clinically for the treatment of renal fibrosis (RF) for many years. We aimed to clarify therapeutic effects of YSHXD against RF and potential pharmacological mechanisms.

Materials and Methods

We used network pharmacology analysis and machine-learning to screen the core components and core targets of YSHXD against RF, followed by molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations to confirm the reliability of the results. Finally, we validated the network pharmacology analysis experimentally in HK-2 cells and a rat model of RF established by unilateral ureteral ligation (UUO).

Results

Quercetin, kaempferol, luteolin, beta-sitosterol, wogonin, stigmasterol, isorhamnetin, baicalein, and dihydrotanshinlactone progesterone were identified as the main active components of YSHXD in the treatment of unilateral ureteral ligation-induced RF, with IL-6, IL1β, TNF, AR, and PTGS2 as core target proteins. Molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations further confirmed the relationship between compounds and target proteins. The potential molecular mechanism of YSHXD predicted by network pharmacology analysis was confirmed in HK-2 cells and UUO rats. YSHXD downregulated NLRP3, ASC, NF-κBp65, Caspase-1, GSDMD, PTGS2, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-18, TNF-α, α-SMA and upregulated HGF, effectively alleviating the RF process.

Conclusion

YSHXD exerts important anti-inflammatory and anti-cellular inflammatory necrosis effects by inhibiting the NLRP3/caspase-1/GSDMD-mediated pyroptosis pathway, indicating that YSHXD represents a new strategy and complementary approach to RF therapy.

Biomodified Extracellular Vesicles Remodel the Intestinal Microenvironment to Overcome Radiation Enteritis

Ionizing radiation (IR) is associated with the occurrence of enteritis, and protecting the whole intestine from radiation-induced gut injury remains an unmet clinical need. Circulating extracellular vesicles (EVs) are proven to be vital factors in the establishment of tissue and cell microenvironments. In this study, we aimed to investigate a radioprotective strategy mediated by small EVs (exosomes) in the context of irradiation-induced intestinal injury. We found that exosomes derived from donor mice exposed to total body irradiation (TBI) could protect recipient mice against TBI-induced lethality and alleviate radiation-induced gastrointestinal (GI) tract toxicity. To enhance the protective effect of EVs, profilings of mouse and human exosomal microRNAs (miRNAs) were performed to identify the functional molecule in exosomes. We found that miRNA-142-5p was highly expressed in exosomes from both donor mice exposed to TBI and patients after radiotherapy (RT). Moreover, miR-142 protected intestinal epithelial cells from irradiation-induced apoptosis and death and mediated EV protection against radiation enteritis by ameliorating the intestinal microenvironment. Then, biomodification of EVs was accomplished via enhancing miR-142 expression and intestinal specificity of exosomes, and thus improved EV-mediated protection from radiation enteritis. Our findings provide an effective approach for protecting against GI syndrome in people exposed to irradiation.

Decoding the Intercellular Cross-Talking Between Immune Cells and Renal Innate Cells in Diabetic Kidney Disease by Bioinformatics

Aim

Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) continues to be devastating complication of diabetes mellitus. Immune response and inflammatory reaction play essential roles in the progression of DKD. But the specific mechanism of immune cells, and their act on renal innate cells remains unclear. This article focused on immune cells and their communication with renal innate cells to provide bioinformatic evidence for further understanding the immune mechanism in DKD.

Methods

Data were analyzed to evaluate the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and their pathways in DKD patients and mice. Gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was used to explore the immune inflammation-related pathways. CIBERSORT was applied to evaluate the distribution of inflammatory cells in different states. Cell-type DEGs and their enrichment pathways were further explored in podocytes, proximal tubule cells and injured tubule cells. Cellchat was used to reveal the cellular communication between immune cells and renal innate cells in DKD.

Results

GO and KEGG analysis showed that DEGs were mainly enriched in immune inflammation-related pathways. Monocytes, M2 macrophages and T cells were significantly increased in DKD samples, especially in renal tubule. ScRNA datasets showed that the immune cells number in DKD were significantly increased. Cell-type DEGs were involved in kidney growth and development. In DKD, the interaction numbers and strength between immune cells and innate cells were significantly increased. VISTANT, SPP1 and IGF signal flow were increased in DKD. SPP1-CD44, NRG1-ERBB4, NAMPT-INSR, and Igf1-Igf1r receptor ligand pairs were enhanced in DKD, which mediated the communication between immune-inflammatory cells and innate cells.

Conclusion

Our study explored the pathogenesis of renal injury promoted by immunoinflammatory in DKD. VISTANT, SPP1, and IGF signaling pathways and SPP1-CD44, NRG1-ERBB4, NAMPT-INSR, and Igf1- Igf1r receptor ligand pairs might occupy essential place in the occurrence and progress of DKD.

Extracellular vesicles: emerging roles, biomarkers and therapeutic strategies in fibrotic diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), a cluster of cell-secreted lipid bilayer nanoscale particles, universally exist in body fluids, as well as cell and tissue culture supernatants. Over the past years, increasing attention have been paid to the important role of EVs as effective intercellular communicators in fibrotic diseases. Notably, EV cargos, including proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, and metabolites, are reported to be disease-specific and can even contribute to fibrosis pathology. Thus, EVs are considered as effective biomarkers for disease diagnosis and prognosis. Emerging evidence shows that EVs derived from stem/progenitor cells have great prospects for cell-free therapy in various preclinical models of fibrotic diseases and engineered EVs can improve the targeting and effectiveness of their treatment. In this review, we will focus on the biological functions and mechanisms of EVs in the fibrotic diseases, as well as their potential as novel biomarkers and therapeutic strategies.

Sirtuin 6 is a key contributor to gender differences in acute kidney injury

Acute kidney injury (AKI) is rapidly increasing nowadays and at a high risk to progress into chronic kidney disease (CKD). Of note, men are more susceptive to AKI, suggesting gender differences in AKI patients. However, the underlying mechanisms remain largely unclear. To test it, we adopted two experimental models of AKI, including ischemia/reperfusion injury and rhabdomyolysis, which were constructed in age-matched male and female mice. We found severe damages of tubular apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and loss of renal function showing in male mice, while female mice only had very mild injury. We further tested the expression of Sirtuins, and found that female mice could preserve more Sirtuin members' expression in case of kidney damage. Among Sirtuin family, Sirtuin 6 was maximally preserved in injured kidney in female mice, suggesting its important role involved in the gender differences of AKI pathogenesis. We then found that knockdown of androgen receptor (AR) attenuated tubular damage, mitochondrial dysfunction and retarded the loss of renal function. Overexpression of Sirtuin 6 also showed similar results. Furthermore, in cultured tubular cells, dihydrotestosterone (DHT) decreased Sirtuin 6 expression and exacerbated cell apoptosis. Ectopic expression of Sirtuin 6 sufficiently inhibited DHT-induced cell apoptosis. Mechanically, we found AR inhibited Sirtuin 6, leading to the repression of binding of Sirtuin 6 with PGC-1α. This resulted in acetylation of PGC-1α and inhibition of its activity, further triggered the loss of mitochondrial homeostasis. Our results provided new insights to the underlying mechanisms of gender differences in AKI, suggesting Sirtuin 6 maybe a new therapeutic target for preventing AKI in male patients.

CDC20 inhibition alleviates fibrotic response of renal tubular epithelial cells and fibroblasts by regulating nuclear translocation of β-catenin

Fibrosis is a common pathological phenomenon in progressive kidney disease leading to eventual loss of kidney function. Previous studies demonstrated that CDC20 plays a role in cancers by regulating epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and the infiltration of fibroblasts, suggesting the potential of CDC20 in regulating fibrotic response. However, the role of CDC20 in renal fibrosis is yet unclear. Herein, we reported that renal CDC20 was remarkably upregulated in renal tubular epithelial cells and fibroblasts in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients, which was in line with a positive correlation with the severity of kidney fibrosis. In mice with unilateral urinary obstruction, CDC20 was also strikingly enhanced, and treatment with Apcin, an inhibitor of CDC20, ameliorated kidney fibrosis. Consistently, the pharmacological inhibition of CDC20 in mouse proximal tubular epithelial cells and rat fibroblasts attenuated TGF-β1-induced fibrotic responses, while overexpression of CDC20 aggravated such responses. Additional studies revealed that CDC20 induces nuclear translocation of β-catenin, which in turn initiates and promotes the pathological process of fibrosis in CKD. Thus, enhanced CDC20 in renal tubular cells and fibroblasts promotes renal fibrosis by activating β-catenin, and CDC20 inhibition may serve as a promising strategy for the prevention and treatment of renal fibrosis.

An update on renal fibrosis: from mechanisms to therapeutic strategies with a focus on extracellular vesicles

The increasing prevalence of chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a major global public health concern. Despite the complicated pathogenesis of CKD, renal fibrosis represents the most common pathological condition, comprised of progressive accumulation of extracellular matrix in the diseased kidney. Over the last several decades, tremendous progress in understanding the mechanism of renal fibrosis has been achieved, and corresponding potential therapeutic strategies targeting fibrosis-related signaling pathways are emerging. Importantly, extracellular vesicles (EVs) contribute significantly to renal inflammation and fibrosis by mediating cellular communication. Increasing evidence suggests the potential of EV-based therapy in renal inflammation and fibrosis, which may represent a future direction for CKD therapy.

Extracellular Vesicles in Kidney Diseases: Moving Forward

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are evolving as novel cell mediators, biomarkers, and therapeutic targets in kidney health and disease. They are naturally derived from cells both within and outside the kidney and carry cargo which mirrors the state of the parent cell. Thus, they are potentially more sensitive and disease-specific as biomarkers and messengers in various kidney diseases. Beside their role as novel communicators within the nephron, they likely communicate between different organs affected by various kidney diseases. Study of urinary EVs (uEVs) can help to fill current knowledge gaps in kidney diseases. However, separation and characterization are challenged by their heterogeneity in size, shape, and cargo. Fortunately, more sensitive and direct EV measuring tools are in development. Many clinical syndromes in nephrology from acute to chronic kidney and glomerular to tubular diseases have been studied. Yet, validation of biomarkers in larger cohorts is warranted and simpler tools are needed. Translation from in vitro to in vivo studies is also urgently needed. The therapeutic role of uEVs in kidney diseases has been studied extensively in rodent models of AKI. On the basis of the current exponential growth of EV research, the field of EV diagnostics and therapeutics is moving forward.

HucMSC exosomes attenuate partial bladder outlet obstruction-induced renal injury and cell proliferation via the Wnt/β-catenin pathway

Bladder outlet obstruction (BOO) can cause serious complications including kidney damage; nevertheless, there are currently no animal models for studying BOO-induced kidney damage. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are widely used in therapeutic studies of renal fibrosis. However, MSC-derived exosomes show improved safety profile and more controllable characteristics compared with those of MSCs. Herein, we established a kidney injury mouse model of partial bladder outlet obstruction (PBOO) and evaluated the effects of human umbilical cord MSC-derived exosomes (hucMSC-Exos) on PBOO-induced reflux kidney injury in this model. Exosomes were isolated from a hucMSC-conditioned medium, purified by ultracentrifugation, and examined. Living image was performed to indicate the distribution of hucMSC-Exos. The PBOO-treated mice interacted with PBS (phosphate-buffered saline) or hucMSC-Exos. Morphologic changes and expression of interstitial-fibrosis-related, cell proliferation and Wnt/β-catenin signaling-pathway indices were evaluated. At 7 days after induction of PBOO, structural destruction of renal tubules was observed. Expression of the interstitial markers and the cellular-proliferation index increased significantly in the PBOO group compared with the control group (p < 0.05). The isolated exosomes were 30-150 nm in diameter, showing a round shape and bilayer membrane structure with CD63, TSG101, Alix expressed, enriched in the kidney of the PBOO group. Administering hucMSC-Exos to post-PBOO mice reversed renal injury and suppressed expression of Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway-related proteins. hucMSC-Exos inhibited PBOO-induced kidney injury and cellular proliferation and suppressed the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway. Our findings will spur the development of novel hucMSC-Exo-mediated therapies for treating patients with renal fibrosis.

Poricoic acid A suppresses renal fibroblast activation and interstitial fibrosis in UUO rats via upregulating Sirt3 and promoting β-catenin K49 deacetylation

Renal interstitial fibrosis is the common pathological process of various chronic kidney diseases to end-stage renal disease. Inhibition of fibroblast activation attenuates renal interstitial fibrosis. Our previous studies show that poricoic acid A (PAA) isolated from Poria cocos is a potent anti-fibrotic agent. In the present study we investigated the effects of PAA on renal fibroblast activation and interstitial fibrosis and the underlying mechanisms. Renal interstitial fibrosis was induced in rats or mice by unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO). UUO rats were administered PAA (10 mg·kg−1·d−1, i.g.) for 1 or 2 weeks. An in vitro model of renal fibrosis was established in normal renal kidney fibroblasts (NRK-49F cells) treated with TGF-β1. We showed that PAA treatment rescued Sirt3 expression, and significantly attenuated renal fibroblast activation and interstitial fibrosis in both the in vivo and in vitro models. In TGF-β1-treated NRK-49F cells, we demonstrated that Sirt3 deacetylated β-catenin (a key transcription factor of fibroblast activation) and then accelerated its ubiquitin-dependent degradation, thus suppressing the protein expression and promoter activity of pro-fibrotic downstream target genes (twist, snail1, MMP-7 and PAI-1) to alleviate fibroblast activation; the lysine-49 (K49) of β-catenin was responsible for Sirt3-mediated β-catenin deacetylation. In molecular docking analysis, we found the potential interaction of Sirt3 and PAA. In both in vivo and in vitro models, pharmacological activation of Sirt3 by PAA significantly suppressed renal fibroblast activation via facilitating β-catenin K49 deacetylation. In UUO mice and NRK-49F cells, Sirt3 overexpression enhanced the anti-fibrotic effect of PAA, whereas Sirt3 knockdown weakened the effect. Taken together, PAA attenuates renal fibroblast activation and interstitial fibrosis by upregulating Sirt3 and inducing β-catenin K49 deacetylation, highlighting Sirt3 functions as a promising therapeutic target of renal fibroblast activation and interstitial fibrosis.

CD44 promotes angiogenesis in myocardial infarction through regulating plasma exosome uptake and further enhancing FGFR2 signaling transduction

BACKGROUND

Since angiogenesis occurs as the pathological process following myocardial infarction to alleviate ischemia, therapeutic angiogenesis has been proposed to be a cardioprotective strategy. CD44 has been implicated in endothelial cell functions and its role has been well established in angiogenesis for years. Although recent studies indicate the close correlation between CD44 and exosome, as well as the two being implicated in myocardial ischemia pathological processes, the effect and the underlying mechanism of CD44 and its regulated plasma exosome in pathological angiogenesis post-myocardial infarction have not been fully elucidated.

METHODS

In this study, we used CD44 knockout mice to study the in vivo impacts of CD44 on ischemic angiogenesis in myocardial infarction. Mouse cardiac function was measured by echocardiography, histological changes were observed by Evans Blue and TTC-double staining and Masson's trichrome staining, and molecular changes were detected by immunofluorescence. In the in vitro study, CD44 knockout HUVECs were generated and CD44 inhibitor was used to study the mechanism of CD44 on angiogenesis. We performed the immunoprecipitation, proximity ligation assay, and super-resolution imaging to study the mechanistic regulation of FGFR2 signaling transduction by CD44. Importantly, we also isolated plasma exosomes from myocardial infarction model mice and studied the effect of plasma exosomes on the activation of the FGFR2 signaling pathway and the related phenotypic alterations, including exosomes uptake and angiogenic function in primary mouse microvascular endothelial cells, and further discovered the regulation mechanism of exosomal miRNAs.

RESULTS

We observed that the expression of CD44 in the border zone of the infarcted heart was tightly related to pathological angiogenesis following myocardial ischemia. The depletion of CD44 impaired angiogenesis and impacts biogenesis and proangiogenic function of plasma exosomes. Subsequently, we found that CD44 mediated the activation of the FGFR2 signaling pathway as well as the caveolin 1-dependent uptake of exosomes in vascular endothelial cells. Most importantly, the proangiogenic therapeutic effect of plasma exosomal miRNAs depended upon the participation of CD44/FGFR2 signaling transduction in vascular endothelial cells.

CONCLUSION

CD44 and its regulated plasma exosomes have crucial potent angiogenic activity. Our studies elucidate that CD44 plays a key role in plasma exosomal miRNA-enhanced angiogenic FGFR2 singling transduction and ischemic angiogenesis in the early stage of myocardial infarction.

Gallic acid ameliorates calcium oxalate crystal-induced renal injury via upregulation of Nrf2/HO-1 in the mouse model of stone formation

BACKGROUND

High prevalence and reoccurrence rate of nephrolithiasis bring about serious socioeconomic and healthcare burden, necessitating the need of effective therapeutic agents. Previous study revealed that gallic acid (GAL) alters the nucleation pathway of calcium oxalate (CaOx). On the other hand, it appears protective role against oxidative injury. Whether GAL could protect against crystal-induced lesion in vivo, and its underlying mechanism is yet unsolved.

PURPOSE

This study aims to investigate the protective effects of GAL on the crystal-induced renal injury and its underlying mechanism in the mouse model of stone formation induced by glyoxylic acid.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

The mouse model of stone formation was established via successive intraperitoneal injection of glyoxylate. Proximal tubular epithelial cell line HK-2 treated with calcium oxalate monohydrate (COM) was used as in vitro model. The protective role of GAL on nephrolithiasis was tested by determination of tubular injury, crystal deposition and adhesion, levels of inflammatory cytokines, macrophage infiltration and the redox status of kidney. In vitro, effect of GAL on the ROS level and oxidative tubular injury induced by COM were detected, as well as major antioxidant pathway Nrf2/HO-1.

RESULTS

Administration of GAL alleviates the renal deposition and adhesion of CaOx stone. Meanwhile, GAL ameliorates the inflammation and renal tubular injury. Level of intracellular ROS, osteopontin and CD44 are reduced, either in the mouse model of stone formation or in the COM-treated HK-2 cells after treatment of GAL. Mechanistically, GAL activates Nrf2/HO-1 pathway in HK-2 cells. Silencing Nrf2 abrogates the protective effect of GAL on the oxidative injury and adhesion of COM in HK-2 cells.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our study demonstrates the protective effect of GAL on the deposition of kidney stone and consequent tubular injury. Induction of the antioxidant pathway Nrf2/HO-1 was found to decrease the level of ROS and oxidative injury, thus implying that GAL could be a potential therapeutic agent for the treatment of nephrolithiasis.

The role of extracellular vesicles in vascular calcification in chronic kidney disease

Widespread vascular calcification (VC) in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) is the pathological basis for the development of cardiovascular disease, and VC has been identified as an independent risk factor for increased cardiovascular mortality in cases of CKD. While VC was earlier thought to be a passive deposition process following calcium and phosphorus supersaturation, recent studies have suggested that it is an active, modifiable, biological process similar to bone development. The involvement of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in the process of VC has been reported as an important transporter of material transport and intercellular communication. This paper reviews the mechanism of the role of EVs, especially exosomes, in VC and the regulation of VC by stem cell-derived EVs, and discusses the possible and promising application of related therapeutic targets in the clinical setting.

Identification and analysis of the predictive urinary exosomal miR-195-5p in lupus nephritis based on renal miRNA-mRNA co-expression network

OBJECTIVE

Lupus nephritis (LN) is the main complication of systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), causing huge financial burden and poor quality of life. Due to the low compliance of renal biopsy, we aim to find a non-invasive biomarker of LN to optimize its predictive, preventive, and personalized medical service or management.

METHOD

Herein, we provided a bioinformatic screen combined clinical validation strategy for rapidly mining exosomal miRNAs for LN diagnosis and management. We screened out differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMs) and differentially expressed mRNAs (DEGs) in LN database and performed a miRNA-mRNA integrated analysis to select out reliable changed miRNAs in LN tissues by using R and Cytoscape. Urinary exosomes were collected by ultracentrifugation and analyzed by nano-tracking analysis and western blotting. Detection of aquaporin-2 showed the tubular source of urinary exosomes. Urinary exosomal miRNAs were detected by RT-qPCR and the target of miR-195-5p was verified by using bioinformatic, dual-luciferase, and western blotting.

RESULT

15 miRNAs and their 60 target mRNAs were contained in miRNA-mRNA integrated map. Bioinformatic analysis showed these miRNAs were involved in various cellular biological process. Exosomal miR-195-5p, miR-25-3p, miR-429, and miR-218-5p were verified in a small clinical group (n = 47). Urinary exosomal miR-195-5p, miR-25-3p, and miR-429 were downregulated in patients and miR-195-5p could recognize LN patients from SLE with good sensitivity and specificity, showing good potential in LN disease monitoring and diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

We analyzed and obtained a series of differential miRNAs in LN kidney tissues and suggested that urinary exosomal miR-195-5p could serve as a novel biomarker in LN. Further, miR-195-5p-CXCL10 axis could be a therapeutic target of LN.

The fibrogenic niche in kidney fibrosis: components and mechanisms

Kidney fibrosis, characterized by excessive deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) that leads to tissue scarring, is the final common outcome of a wide variety of chronic kidney diseases. Rather than being distributed uniformly across the kidney parenchyma, renal fibrotic lesions initiate at certain focal sites in which the fibrogenic niche is formed in a spatially confined fashion. This niche provides a unique tissue microenvironment that is orchestrated by a specialized ECM network consisting of de novo-induced matricellular proteins. Other structural elements of the fibrogenic niche include kidney resident and infiltrated inflammatory cells, extracellular vesicles, soluble factors and metabolites. ECM proteins in the fibrogenic niche recruit soluble factors including WNTs and transforming growth factor-β from the extracellular milieu, creating a distinctive profibrotic microenvironment. Studies using decellularized ECM scaffolds from fibrotic kidneys show that the fibrogenic niche autonomously promotes fibroblast proliferation, tubular injury, macrophage activation and endothelial cell depletion, pathological features that recapitulate key events in the pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease. The concept of the fibrogenic niche represents a paradigm shift in understanding of the mechanism of kidney fibrosis that could lead to the development of non-invasive biomarkers and novel therapies not only for chronic kidney disease, but also for fibrotic diseases of other organs.

Signaling pathways of chronic kidney diseases, implications for therapeutics

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a chronic renal dysfunction syndrome that is characterized by nephron loss, inflammation, myofibroblasts activation, and extracellular matrix (ECM) deposition. Lipotoxicity and oxidative stress are the driving force for the loss of nephron including tubules, glomerulus, and endothelium. NLRP3 inflammasome signaling, MAPK signaling, PI3K/Akt signaling, and RAAS signaling involves in lipotoxicity. The upregulated Nox expression and the decreased Nrf2 expression result in oxidative stress directly. The injured renal resident cells release proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines to recruit immune cells such as macrophages from bone marrow. NF-κB signaling, NLRP3 inflammasome signaling, JAK-STAT signaling, Toll-like receptor signaling, and cGAS-STING signaling are major signaling pathways that mediate inflammation in inflammatory cells including immune cells and injured renal resident cells. The inflammatory cells produce and secret a great number of profibrotic cytokines such as TGF-β1, Wnt ligands, and angiotensin II. TGF-β signaling, Wnt signaling, RAAS signaling, and Notch signaling evoke the activation of myofibroblasts and promote the generation of ECM. The potential therapies targeted to these signaling pathways are also introduced here. In this review, we update the key signaling pathways of lipotoxicity, oxidative stress, inflammation, and myofibroblasts activation in kidneys with chronic injury, and the targeted drugs based on the latest studies. Unifying these pathways and the targeted therapies will be instrumental to advance further basic and clinical investigation in CKD.