Characterization of protein complexes in extracellular vesicles by intact extracellular vesicle crosslinking mass spectrometry (iEVXL)

Immunogenicity of Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising next-generation therapeutics and drug delivery systems due to demonstrated safety and efficacy in preclinical models and early-stage clinical trials. There is an urgent need to address the immunogenicity of EVs (beyond the apparent lack of immunotoxicity) to advance clinical development. To date, few studies have assessed unintended immunological recognition of EVs. An in-depth understanding of EV-induced immunogenicity and clearance is necessary to develop effective therapeutic strategies, including approaches to mitigate immunological recognition when undesired. This article summarizes various factors involved in the potential immunogenicity of EVs and strategies to reduce immunological recognition for improved therapeutic benefit.

Food-derived extracellular vesicles in the human gastrointestinal tract: Opportunities for personalised nutrition and targeted therapeutics

Food-derived extracellular vesicles (FDEVs) such as those found in mammalian milk and plants are of great interest for both their health benefits and ability to act as biological nanocarriers. While the extracellular vesicle (EV) field is expanding rapidly to perform characterisation studies on FDEVs from plants, yeasts and bacteria, species-specific differences in EV uptake and function in the human gastrointestinal (GI) tract are poorly understood. Moreover, the effects of food processing on the EV surfaceome and intraluminal content also raises questions surrounding biological viability once consumed. Here, I present a case for increasing community-wide focus on understanding the cellular uptake of FDEVs from different animal, plant, yeast, and bacterial species and how this may impact their function in the human, which will have implications for human health and therapeutic strategies alike.

Cellular Uptake of Engineered Extracellular Vesicles: Biomechanisms, Engineered Strategies, and Disease Treatment

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), lipid-enclosed nanosized membrane vesicles, are regarded as new vehicles and therapeutic agents in intercellular communication. During internal circulation, if EVs are not effectively taken up by recipient cells, they will be cleared as "cellular waste" and unable to deliver therapeutic components. It can be seen that cells uptake EVs are the prerequisite premise for sharing intercellular biological information. However, natural EVs have a low rate of absorption by their recipient cells, off-target delivery, and rapid clearance from circulation, which seriously reduces the utilization rate. Affecting the uptake rate of EVs through engineering technologies is essential for therapeutic applications. Engineering strategies for customizing EV uptake can potentially overcome these limitations and enable desirable therapeutic uses of EVs. In this review, the mechanism and influencing factors of natural EV uptake will be described in detail. Targeting each EV uptake mechanism, the strategies of engineered EVs and their application in diseases will be emphatically discussed. Finally, the future challenges and perspectives of engineered EVs are presented multidimensionally.

Challenges associated with using extracellular vesicles as biomarkers in neurodegenerative disease

INTRODUCTION

The hunt for new biomarkers - for the diagnosis of subcategories of disease, or for the monitoring of the efficacy of novel therapeutics - is an increasingly relevant challenge in the current era of precision medicine. In neurodegenerative research, the aim is to look for simple tools which can predict cognitive or motor decline early, and to determine whether these can also be used to test the efficacy of new interventions. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are thought to play an important role in intercellular communication and have been shown to play a vital role in a number of diseases.

AREAS COVERED

The aim of this review is to examine what we know about EVs in neurodegeneration and to discuss their potential to be diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in the future. It will cover the techniques used to isolate and study EVs and what is currently known about their presence in neurodegenerative diseases. In particular, we will discuss what is required for standardization in biomarker research, and the challenges associated with using EVs within this framework.

EXPERT OPINION

The technical challenges associated with isolating EVs consistently, combined with the complex techniques required for their efficient analysis, might preclude 'pure' EV populations from being used as effective biomarkers. Whilst biomarker discovery is important for more effective diagnosis, monitoring, prediction and prognosis in neurodegenerative disease, reproducibility and ease-of-use should be the priorities.

Comprehensive profiling of extracellular vesicles in uveitis and scleritis enables biomarker discovery and mechanism exploration

BACKGROUND

Uveitis and posterior scleritis are sight-threatening diseases with undefined pathogenesis and accurate diagnosis remains challenging.

METHODS

Two plasma-derived extracellular vesicle (EV) subpopulations, small and large EVs, obtained from patients with ankylosing spondylitis-related uveitis, Behcet's disease uveitis, Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome, and posterior scleritis were subjected to proteomics analysis alongside plasma using SWATH-MS. A comprehensive bioinformatics analysis was performed on the proteomic profiles of sEVs, lEVs, and plasma. Candidate biomarkers were validated in a new cohort using ELISA. Pearson correlation analysis was performed to analyze the relationship between clinical parameters and proteomic data. Connectivity map database was used to predict therapeutic agents.

RESULTS

In total, 3,668 proteins were identified and over 3000 proteins were quantified from 278 samples. When comparing diseased group to healthy control, the proteomic profiles of the two EV subgroups were more correlated with disease than plasma. Comprehensive bioinformatics analysis highlighted potential pathogenic mechanisms for these diseases. Potential biomarker panels for four diseases were identified and validated. We found a negative correlation between plasma endothelin-converting enzyme 1 level and mean retinal thickness. Potential therapeutic drugs were proposed, and their targets were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides a proteomic landscape of plasma and EVs involved in ankylosing spondylitis-related uveitis, Behcet's disease uveitis, Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome, and posterior scleritis, offers insights into disease pathogenesis, identifies valuable biomarker candidates, and proposes promising therapeutic agents.