Stiffness changes of tumor HEp2 cells correlates with the inhibition and release of TRAIL-induced apoptosis pathways

Multiple Interactions Between Cancer Cells and the Tumor Microenvironment Modulate TRAIL Signaling: Implications for TRAIL Receptor Targeted Therapy

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) signaling is far more complex than initially anticipated and can lead to either anti- or protumorigenic effects, hampering the successful clinical use of therapeutic TRAIL receptor agonists. Cell autonomous resistance mechanisms have been identified in addition to paracrine factors that can modulate apoptosis sensitivity. The tumor microenvironment (TME), consisting of cellular and non-cellular components, is a source for multiple signals that are able to modulate TRAIL signaling in tumor and stromal cells. Particularly immune effector cells, also part of the TME, employ the TRAIL/TRAIL-R system whereby cell surface expressed TRAIL can activate apoptosis via TRAIL receptors on tumor cells, which is part of tumor immune surveillance. In this review we aim to dissect the impact of the TME on signaling induced by endogenous and exogenous/therapeutic TRAIL, thereby distinguishing different components of the TME such as immune effector cells, neutrophils, macrophages, and non-hematopoietic stromal cells. In addition, also non-cellular biochemical and biophysical properties of the TME are considered including mechanical stress, acidity, hypoxia, and glucose deprivation. Available literature thus far indicates that tumor-TME interactions are complex and often bidirectional leading to tumor-enhancing or tumor-reducing effects in a tumor model- and tumor type-dependent fashion. Multiple signals originating from different components of the TME simultaneously affect TRAIL receptor signaling. We conclude that in order to unleash the full clinical potential of TRAIL receptor agonists it will be necessary to increase our understanding of the contribution of different TME components on outcome of therapeutic TRAIL receptor activation in order to identify the most critical mechanism responsible for resistance, allowing the design of effective combination treatments.

Glutaraldehyde fixation preserves the trend of elasticity alterations for endothelial cells exposed to TNF-α

Among the users of atomic force microscopy based techniques, there is an ongoing discussion, whether cell elasticity measurements performed on fixed cells could be used for determination of the relative elasticity changes of the native (unfixed) cells subjected to physiologically active external agents. In this article, we present a case, for which the legitimacy of cell fixation for elasticity measurements is justified. We provide an evidence that the alterations of cell elasticity triggered by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) in EA.hy926 endothelial cells are preserved after glutaraldehyde (GA) fixation. The value of post-fixation elasticity parameter is a product of the elasticity parameter obtained for living cells and a constant value, dependent on the GA concentration. The modification of the initial value of elasticity parameter caused by remodeling of the cortical actin cytoskeleton is reflected in the elasticity measurements performed on fixed cells. Thus, such fixation procedure may be particularly helpful for experiments, where the influence of an external agent on the cell cortex should be assessed and AFM measurements of living cells are problematic or better statistics is needed.

The roles of cellular nanomechanics in cancer

The biomechanical properties of cells and tissues may be instrumental in increasing our understanding of cellular behavior and cellular manifestations of diseases such as cancer. Nanomechanical properties can offer clinical translation of therapies beyond what are currently employed. Nanomechanical properties, often measured by nanoindentation methods using atomic force microscopy, may identify morphological variations, cellular binding forces, and surface adhesion behaviors that efficiently differentiate normal cells and cancer cells. The aim of this review is to examine current research involving the general use of atomic force microscopy/nanoindentation in measuring cellular nanomechanics; various factors and instrumental conditions that influence the nanomechanical properties of cells; and implementation of nanoindentation methods to distinguish cancer cells from normal cells or tissues. Applying these fundamental nanomechanical properties to current discoveries in clinical treatment may result in greater efficiency in diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of cancer, which ultimately can change the lives of patients.

Culture dimensionality influences the resistance of glioblastoma stem-like cells to multikinase inhibitors

Sunitinib, an inhibitor of kinases, including VEGFR and platelet-derived growth factor receptor (PDGFR), efficiently induces apoptosis in vitro in glioblastoma (GBM) cells, but does not show any survival benefit in vivo. One detrimental aspect of current in vitro models is that they do not take into account the contribution of extrinsic factors to the cellular response to drug treatment. Here, we studied the effects of substrate properties including elasticity, dimensionality, and matrix composition on the response of GBM stem-like cells (GSC) to chemotherapeutic agents. Thirty-seven cell cultures, including GSCs, parenchymal GBM cells, and GBM cell lines, were treated with nine antitumor compounds. Contrary to the expected chemoresistance of GSCs, these cells were more sensitive to most agents than GBM parenchymal cells or GBM cell lines cultured on flat (two-dimensional; 2D) plastic or collagen-coated surfaces. However, GSCs cultured in collagen-based three-dimensional (3D) environments increased their resistance, particularly to receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors, such as sunitinib, BIBF1120, and imatinib. Differences in substrate rigidity or matrix components did not modify the response of GSCs to the inhibitors. Moreover, the MEK-ERK and PI3K-Akt pathways, but not PDGFR, mediate at least in part, this dimensionality-dependent chemoresistance. These findings suggest that survival of GSCs on 2D substrates, but not in a 3D environment, relies on kinases that can be efficiently targeted by sunitinib-like inhibitors. Overall, our data may help explain the lack of correlation between in vitro and in vivo models used to study the therapeutic potential of kinase inhibitors, and provide a rationale for developing more robust drug screening models.

Atomic Force Microscopy and pharmacology: from microbiology to cancerology

BACKGROUND

Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) has been extensively used to study biological samples. Researchers take advantage of its ability to image living samples to increase our fundamental knowledge (biophysical properties/biochemical behavior) on living cell surface properties, at the nano-scale.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

AFM, in the imaging modes, can probe cells morphological modifications induced by drugs. In the force spectroscopy mode, it is possible to follow the nanomechanical properties of a cell and to probe the mechanical modifications induced by drugs. AFM can be used to map single molecule distribution at the cell surface. We will focus on a collection of results aiming at evaluating the nano-scale effects of drugs, by AFM. Studies on yeast, bacteria and mammal cells will illustrate our discussion. Especially, we will show how AFM can help in getting a better understanding of drug mechanism of action.

MAJOR CONCLUSIONS

This review demonstrates that AFM is a versatile tool, useful in pharmacology. In microbiology, it has been used to study the drugs fighting Candida albicans or Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The major conclusions are a better understanding of the microbes' cell wall and of the drugs mechanism of action. In cancerology, AFM has been used to explore the effects of cytotoxic drugs or as an innovative diagnostic technology. AFM has provided original results on cultured cells, cells extracted from patient and directly on patient biopsies.

GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE

This review enhances the interest of AFM technologies for pharmacology. The applications reviewed range from microbiology to cancerology.

TNF-α and IFN-γ promote lymphocyte adhesion to endothelial junctional regions facilitating transendothelial migration

Inflammatory conditions induce redistribution of junctional adhesion receptors toward the apical regions of endothelial cells promoting lymphocyte TEM. Much of the molecular structures of TEM have been revealed; however, the biophysical mechanisms underlying this process remain to be fully elucidated. Here, we used immunofluorescence microscopy and AFM to study endothelial distribution of adhesion molecules upon lymphocyte activation and transmigration. Our immunofluorescence results revealed redistribution of JAM-A and PECAM-1 but not ICAM-1 or VCAM-1 toward the apical junctional regions of HUVECs following a 6-h stimulation with TNF-α and IFN-γ. Consistently, our SCFS studies revealed that Jurkat cell adhesion to stimulated HUVEC monolayers was significantly greater in junctional regions. Enhanced adhesion was mediated mostly by JAM-A receptors. Further AFM adhesion mapping of the homophilic JAM-A/JAM-A interaction on the surfaces of HUVECs revealed a greater number of JAM-A receptors available for binding along junctional regions after TNF-α and IFN-γ stimulation. Our data reveal for the first time that adhesion "hot spots" of JAM-A receptors are involved in initiating lymphocyte TEM under inflammatory conditions.