1
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Ruppen I, Verscheure L, Vandenheede I, Ortiz A, de Melo IS, Liebig T, Sandra P, Beydon ME, Sandra K. Characterization of mAb size heterogeneity originating from a cysteine to tyrosine substitution using denaturing and native LC-MS. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2023; 236:115743. [PMID: 37757547 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2023.115743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2023] [Revised: 09/19/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
Upon assessing the comparability between a biosimilar mAb and its reference product by non-reducing CE-SDS, increased levels of a heavy-heavy-light chain (HHL) variant, present as a low molecular weight (LMW) peak, were observed. RPLC-MS applied at top, middle-up and bottom-up level revealed the existence of Cys-to-Tyr substitutions, predominantly at position HC226 involved in connecting LC and HC, explaining the abundant HHL levels. Antigen binding was not impacted by the presence of this size variant suggesting a non-covalent association of Tyr substituted HHL and LC. The latter complex is not maintained in the denaturing conditions associated with CE-SDS and RPLC-MS. Its existence could, nevertheless, be confirmed by native SEC-MS which preserves non-covalent protein interactions during separation and electrospray ionization. Amino acid analysis furthermore demonstrated a depletion of Cys during the fed-batch process indicating that the observed size/sequence variant is not of genetic but rather of metabolic origin. Native SEC-MS showed that supplementing the cell culture medium with Cys halts misincorporation of Tyr and promotes the formation of the desired mAb structure. To the best of our knowledge, Cys-to-Tyr substitutions preventing interchain disulfide bridge formation have not been described earlier. This observation adds to the impressive structural heterogeneity reported to date for mAbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabel Ruppen
- mAbxience Research, Manuel Pombo Angulo 28, 28050 Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Alexia Ortiz
- RIC group, President Kennedypark 26, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | | | - Timo Liebig
- mAbxience Research, Manuel Pombo Angulo 28, 28050 Madrid, Spain
| | - Pat Sandra
- RIC group, President Kennedypark 26, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium
| | | | - Koen Sandra
- RIC group, President Kennedypark 26, 8500 Kortrijk, Belgium.
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2
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Yan Y, Xing T, Liu AP, Zhang Z, Wang S, Li N. Post-Column Denaturation-Assisted Native Size-Exclusion Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry for Rapid and In-Depth Characterization of High Molecular Weight Variants in Therapeutic Monoclonal Antibodies. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2021; 32:2885-2894. [PMID: 34786946 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.1c00289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The high molecular weight (HMW) size variants present in therapeutic monoclonal antibody (mAb) samples need to be closely monitored and characterized due to their impact on product safety and efficacy. Because of the complexity and often low abundances in final drug substance (DS) samples, characterization of such HMW species is challenging and traditionally requires offline enrichment of the HMW species followed by analysis using various analytical tools. Here, we report the development of a postcolumn denaturation-assisted native SEC-MS method that allows rapid and in-depth characterization of mAb HMW species directly from unfractionated DS samples. This method not only provides high-confidence identification of HMW complexes based on accurate mass measurement of both the intact assembly and the constituent subunits but also allows in-depth analysis of the interaction nature and location. In addition, using the extracted ion chromatograms, derived from high-quality, native-like mass spectra, the elution profiles of each noncovalent and/or nondissociable complex can be readily reconstructed, facilitating the comprehension of a complex HMW profile. The utility of this novel method was demonstrated in different applications, ranging from enriched HMW characterization at late stage development, comparability assessment due to process changes, and forced degradation study of coformulated mAbs. As this method does not require prior enrichment, it is thus desirable for providing both rapid and in-depth characterization of HMW species during the development of therapeutic mAbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuetian Yan
- Analytical Chemistry Group, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, New York 10591-6707, United States
| | - Tao Xing
- Analytical Chemistry Group, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, New York 10591-6707, United States
| | - Anita P Liu
- Analytical Chemistry Group, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, New York 10591-6707, United States
| | - Zhengqi Zhang
- Analytical Chemistry Group, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, New York 10591-6707, United States
| | - Shunhai Wang
- Analytical Chemistry Group, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, New York 10591-6707, United States
| | - Ning Li
- Analytical Chemistry Group, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., 777 Old Saw Mill River Road, Tarrytown, New York 10591-6707, United States
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3
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Rouby G, Tran NT, Leblanc Y, Taverna M, Bihoreau N. Investigation of monoclonal antibody dimers in a final formulated drug by separation techniques coupled to native mass spectrometry. MAbs 2021; 12:e1781743. [PMID: 32633190 PMCID: PMC7531515 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2020.1781743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are highly complex proteins that must be exhaustively characterized according to the regulatory authorities' recommendations. MAbs display micro-heterogeneity mainly due to their post-translational modifications, but also to their susceptibility to chemical and physical degradations. Among these degradations, aggregation is quite frequent, initiated by protein denaturation and then dimer formation. Here, we investigated the nature and structure of the high molecular weight species (HMW) present at less than 1% in an unstressed formulated roledumab biopharmaceutical, as a model of high purity mAb. HMW species were first purified through preparative size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) and then analyzed by a combination of chromatographic methods (ion-exchange chromatography (IEX), SEC) coupled to native mass spectrometry (MS), as well as sodium dodecyl sulfate–polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and capillary gel electrophoresis under non-reducing conditions. Both covalently and non-covalently bound dimers were identified at a proportion of 50/50. In-depth characterization of the HMW fraction by SEC and IEX hyphenated to native MS revealed the presence of three mAb dimer forms having the same mass, but differing by their charge and size. They were attributed to different compact and elongated dimers. Finally, high-resolution middle-up approaches using different enzymes (IdeS and IgdE) were performed to determine the mAb domains implicated in the dimerization. Our results revealed that the roledumab dimers were associated mainly by a single Fab-to-Fab arm-bound association.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Rouby
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay , 92296, Châtenay-Malabry, France.,Analytical Department, LFB , Courtaboeuf (Les Ulis), France
| | - N T Tran
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay , 92296, Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Y Leblanc
- Analytical Department, LFB , Courtaboeuf (Les Ulis), France
| | - M Taverna
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut Galien Paris-Saclay , 92296, Châtenay-Malabry, France.,Institut Universitaire de France , Paris, France
| | - N Bihoreau
- Analytical Department, LFB , Courtaboeuf (Les Ulis), France
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4
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Khanal O, Kumar V, Lenhoff AM. Displacement to separate host-cell proteins and aggregates in cation-exchange chromatography of monoclonal antibodies. Biotechnol Bioeng 2020; 118:164-174. [PMID: 32910459 DOI: 10.1002/bit.27559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2020] [Revised: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
An efficient and consistent method of monoclonal antibody (mAb) purification can improve process productivity and product consistency. Although protein A chromatography removes most host-cell proteins (HCPs), mAb aggregates and the remaining HCPs are challenging to remove in a typical bind-and-elute cation-exchange chromatography (CEX) polishing step. A variant of the bind-and-elute mode is the displacement mode, which allows strongly binding impurities to be preferentially retained and significantly improves resin utilization. Improved resin utilization renders displacement chromatography particularly suitable in continuous chromatography operations. In this study we demonstrate and exploit sample displacement between a mAb and impurities present at low prevalence (0.002%-1.4%) using different multicolumn designs and recycling. Aggregate displacement depends on the residence time, sample concentration, and solution environment, the latter by enhancing the differences between the binding affinities of the product and the impurities. Displacement among the mAb and low-prevalence HCPs resulted in an effectively bimodal-like distribution of HCPs along the length of a multi-column system, with the mAb separating the relatively more basic group of HCPs from those that are more acidic. Our findings demonstrate that displacement of low-prevalence impurities along multiple CEX columns allows for selective separation of mAb aggregates and HCPs that persist through protein A chromatography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ohnmar Khanal
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Vijesh Kumar
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
| | - Abraham M Lenhoff
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
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5
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Bansal R, Dash R, Rathore AS. Impact of mAb Aggregation on Its Biological Activity: Rituximab as a Case Study. J Pharm Sci 2020; 109:2684-2698. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2020.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 05/14/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
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6
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Wälchli R, Vermeire PJ, Massant J, Arosio P. Accelerated Aggregation Studies of Monoclonal Antibodies: Considerations for Storage Stability. J Pharm Sci 2019; 109:595-602. [PMID: 31676272 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2019.10.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2019] [Revised: 10/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Aggregation of mAbs is a crucial concern with respect to their safety and efficacy. Among the various properties of protein aggregates, it is emerging that their size can potentially impact their immunogenicity. Therefore, stability studies of antibody formulations should not only evaluate the rate of monomer loss but also determine the size distribution of the protein aggregates, which in turn depends on the aggregation mechanism. Here, we study the aggregation behavior of different formulations of 2 monoclonal immunoglobulins (IgGs) in the temperature range from 5°C to 50°C over 52 weeks of storage. We show that the aggregation kinetics of both antibodies follow non-Arrhenius behavior and that the aggregation mechanisms change between 40°C and 5°C, leading to different types of aggregates. Specifically, for a given monomer conversion, dimer formation dominates at low temperatures, while larger aggregates are formed at higher temperatures. We further show that the stability ranking of different molecules as well as of different formulations is drastically different at 40°C and 5°C while it correlates better between 30°C and 5°C. Our findings have implications for the level of information provided by accelerated aggregation studies with respect to protein stability under storage conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben Wälchli
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1-5/10, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Pieter-Jan Vermeire
- UCB Pharma, BioTech Sciences, Formulation Development, Chemin du Foriest, 1420 Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Jan Massant
- UCB Pharma, BioTech Sciences, Formulation Development, Chemin du Foriest, 1420 Braine-l'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Paolo Arosio
- Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1-5/10, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland.
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7
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Streamlining the polishing step development process via physicochemical characterization of monoclonal antibody aggregates. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1598:101-112. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.03.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 03/21/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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8
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Wang L, Subasic C, Minchin RF, Kaminskas LM. Drug formulation and nanomedicine approaches to targeting lymphatic cancer metastases. Nanomedicine (Lond) 2019; 14:1605-1621. [PMID: 31166140 DOI: 10.2217/nnm-2018-0478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Lymphatic metastasis plays an important role in cancer progression and prognosis. However, conventional small-molecule chemotherapy drugs inefficiently access the lymphatic system, making the effective eradication of lymphatic metastases difficult without dose-limiting toxicity. Various formulation and nanomedicine-based approaches can be used to significantly enhance the trafficking of small-molecule, peptide and protein drugs toward the lymphatic system to enhance drug exposure at sites of lymphatic cancer growth. However, a number of obstacles exist in translating improved lymphatic exposure into improved chemotherapeutic outcomes. This review highlights the opportunities and challenges inherent in employing formulation and nanomedicinal approaches to improve chemotherapeutic drug activity within the lymphatic system and, importantly, at sites of lymphatic cancer metastasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lili Wang
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Christopher Subasic
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Rodney F Minchin
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Lisa M Kaminskas
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
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9
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Monoclonal Antibody Dimers Induced by Low pH, Heat, or Light Exposure Are Not Immunogenic Upon Subcutaneous Administration in a Mouse Model. J Pharm Sci 2019; 109:730-738. [PMID: 31029572 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2019.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The presence of protein aggregates is commonly believed to be an important risk factor for immunogenicity of therapeutic proteins. Among all types of aggregates, dimers are relatively abundant in most commercialized monoclonal antibody (mAb) products. The aim of this study was to investigate the immunogenicity of artificially created mAb dimers relative to that of unstressed and stressed mAb monomers. A monoclonal murine IgG1 (mIgG1) antibody was exposed to low pH, elevated temperature, or UV irradiation to induce dimerization. Dimers and monomers were purified via size-exclusion chromatography. Physicochemical analysis revealed that upon all stress conditions, new deamidation or oxidation or both of amino acids occurred. Nevertheless, the secondary and tertiary structures of all obtained dimers were similar to those of unstressed mIgG1. Isolated dimers were administered subcutaneously in Balb/c mice, and development of antidrug antibodies and accumulation of follicular T helper cells in draining lymph nodes and spleens were determined. None of the tested dimers or stressed monomers were found to be more immunogenic than the unstressed control in our mouse model. In conclusion, both dimers and monomers generated by using 3 different stress factors have a low immunogenicity similar to that of the unstressed monomers.
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10
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Zhang J, Woods C, He F, Han M, Treuheit MJ, Volkin DB. Structural Changes and Aggregation Mechanisms of Two Different Dimers of an IgG2 Monoclonal Antibody. Biochemistry 2018; 57:5466-5479. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.8b00575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jun Zhang
- Process Development, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, California 91320, United States
| | - Christopher Woods
- Process Development, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, California 91320, United States
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Macromolecule and Vaccine Stabilization Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66049, United States
| | - Feng He
- Process Development, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, California 91320, United States
| | - Mei Han
- Pharmacokinetics & Drug Metabolism, Amgen Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Michael J. Treuheit
- Process Development, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, California 91320, United States
| | - David B. Volkin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Macromolecule and Vaccine Stabilization Center, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66049, United States
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11
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Abstract
Disulfide linkage is critical to protein folding and structural stability. The location of disulfide linkages for antibodies is routinely discovered by comparing the chromatograms of the reduced and non-reduced peptide mapping with location identification confirmed by collision-induced dissociation (CID) mass spectrometry (MS)/MS. However, CID product spectra of disulfide-linked peptides can be difficult to interpret, and provide limited information on the backbone region within the disulfide loop. Here, we applied an electron-transfer dissociation (ETD)/CID combined fragmentation method that identifies the disulfide linkage without intensive LC comparison, and yet maps the disulfide location accurately. The native protein samples were digested using trypsin for proteolysis. The method uses RapiGest SF Surfactant and obviates the need for reduction/alkylation and extensive sample manipulation. An aliquot of the digest was loaded onto a C4 analytical column. Peptides were gradient-eluted and analyzed using a Thermo Scientific LTQ Orbitrap Elite mass spectrometer for the ETD-triggered CID MS3 experiment. Survey MS scans were followed by data-dependent scans consisting of ETD MS2 scans on the most intense ion in the survey scan, followed by 5 MS3 CID scans on the 5 most intense ions in the ETD MS2 scan. We were able to identify the disulfide-mediated structural variants A and A/B forms and their corresponding disulfide linkages in an immunoglobulin G2 monoclonal antibody with λ light chain (IgG2λ), where the location of cysteine linkages were unambiguously determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyan Guan
- a Process Development, Amgen Inc. , Thousand Oaks , CA , United States
| | - Le Zhang
- a Process Development, Amgen Inc. , Thousand Oaks , CA , United States
| | - Jette Wypych
- a Process Development, Amgen Inc. , Thousand Oaks , CA , United States
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12
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van den Bremer ETJ, Labrijn AF, van den Boogaard R, Priem P, Scheffler K, Melis JPM, Schuurman J, Parren PWHI, de Jong RN. Cysteine-SILAC Mass Spectrometry Enabling the Identification and Quantitation of Scrambled Interchain Disulfide Bonds: Preservation of Native Heavy-Light Chain Pairing in Bispecific IgGs Generated by Controlled Fab-arm Exchange. Anal Chem 2017; 89:10873-10882. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.7b02543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Patrick Priem
- Genmab, Yalelaan 60, 3584CM, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Kai Scheffler
- Thermo Fisher Scientific GmbH, Im Steingrund 4-6, 63303, Dreieich, Germany
| | | | | | - Paul W. H. I. Parren
- Department
of Immunohematology and Blood Transfusion, Leiden University Medical Center, Albinusdreef 2, 2333
ZA, Leiden, The Netherlands
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13
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Identification and characterization of monoclonal antibody fragments cleaved at the complementarity determining region using orthogonal analytical methods. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2017; 1048:121-129. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2017.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2016] [Revised: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/18/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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14
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Purdie JL, Kowle RL, Langland AL, Patel CN, Ouyang A, Olson DJ. Cell culture media impact on drug product solution stability. Biotechnol Prog 2016; 32:998-1008. [DOI: 10.1002/btpr.2289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Revised: 04/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer L. Purdie
- Bioproduct Research and Development, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company; Indianapolis IN 46285
| | - Ronald L. Kowle
- Bioproduct Research and Development, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company; Indianapolis IN 46285
| | - Amie L. Langland
- Bioproduct Research and Development, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company; Indianapolis IN 46285
| | - Chetan N. Patel
- Biotechnology Discovery Research, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company; Indianapolis IN 46285
| | - Anli Ouyang
- Bioproduct Research and Development, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company; Indianapolis IN 46285
| | - Donald J. Olson
- Bioproduct Research and Development, Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly and Company; Indianapolis IN 46285
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15
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Plath F, Ringler P, Graff-Meyer A, Stahlberg H, Lauer ME, Rufer AC, Graewert MA, Svergun D, Gellermann G, Finkler C, Stracke JO, Koulov A, Schnaible V. Characterization of mAb dimers reveals predominant dimer forms common in therapeutic mAbs. MAbs 2016; 8:928-40. [PMID: 27031922 DOI: 10.1080/19420862.2016.1168960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The formation of undesired high molecular weight species such as dimers is an important quality attribute for therapeutic monoclonal antibody formulations. Therefore, the thorough understanding of mAb dimerization and the detailed characterization mAb dimers is of great interest for future pharmaceutical development of therapeutic antibodies. In this work, we focused on the analyses of different mAb dimers regarding size, surface properties, chemical identity, overall structure and localization of possible dimerization sites. Dimer fractions of different mAbs were isolated to a satisfactory purity from bulk material and revealed 2 predominant overall structures, namely elongated and compact dimer forms. The elongated dimers displayed one dimerization site involving the tip of the Fab domain. Depending on the stress applied, these elongated dimers are connected either covalently or non-covalently. In contrast, the compact dimers exhibited non-covalent association. Several interaction points were detected for the compact dimers involving the hinge region or the base of the Fab domain. These results indicate that mAb dimer fractions are rather complex and may contain more than one kind of dimer. Nevertheless, the overall appearance of mAb dimers suggests the existence of 2 predominant dimeric structures, elongated and compact, which are commonly present in preparations of therapeutic mAbs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Friederike Plath
- a Analytical Development and Quality Control, Pharmaceutical Technical Development Europe, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd. , Basel , Switzerland
| | - Philippe Ringler
- b Center for Cellular Imaging and Nano Analytics, Biozentrum University of Basel , Basel , Switzerland
| | | | - Henning Stahlberg
- b Center for Cellular Imaging and Nano Analytics, Biozentrum University of Basel , Basel , Switzerland
| | - Matthias E Lauer
- d Chemical Biology, Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd. , Basel , Switzerland
| | - Arne C Rufer
- d Chemical Biology, Roche Pharmaceutical Research and Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd. , Basel , Switzerland
| | - Melissa A Graewert
- e European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Hamburg Outstation , Hamburg , Germany
| | - Dmitri Svergun
- e European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Hamburg Outstation , Hamburg , Germany
| | | | - Christof Finkler
- a Analytical Development and Quality Control, Pharmaceutical Technical Development Europe, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd. , Basel , Switzerland
| | - Jan O Stracke
- a Analytical Development and Quality Control, Pharmaceutical Technical Development Europe, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd. , Basel , Switzerland
| | - Atanas Koulov
- g Analytical Development and Quality Control, Lonza AG , Basel , Switzerland
| | - Volker Schnaible
- a Analytical Development and Quality Control, Pharmaceutical Technical Development Europe, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd. , Basel , Switzerland
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16
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17
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Kluters S, Wittkopp F, Jöhnck M, Frech C. Application of linear pH gradients for the modeling of ion exchange chromatography: Separation of monoclonal antibody monomer from aggregates. J Sep Sci 2015; 39:663-75. [DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201500994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2015] [Revised: 10/21/2015] [Accepted: 10/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Simon Kluters
- Institute of Biochemistry; Mannheim University of Applied Sciences; Mannheim Germany
| | - Felix Wittkopp
- Institute of Biochemistry; Mannheim University of Applied Sciences; Mannheim Germany
| | - Matthias Jöhnck
- Biopharm Process Solutions; Merck Millipore; Darmstadt Germany
| | - Christian Frech
- Institute of Biochemistry; Mannheim University of Applied Sciences; Mannheim Germany
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18
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Characterization of cysteine related variants in an IgG2 antibody by LC–MS with an automated data analysis approach. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2015; 997:30-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2015.04.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Revised: 04/21/2015] [Accepted: 04/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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19
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Rayner LE, Hui GK, Gor J, Heenan RK, Dalby PA, Perkins SJ. The solution structures of two human IgG1 antibodies show conformational stability and accommodate their C1q and FcγR ligands. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:8420-38. [PMID: 25659433 PMCID: PMC4375494 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.631002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2014] [Revised: 01/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The human IgG1 antibody subclass shows distinct properties compared with the IgG2, IgG3, and IgG4 subclasses and is the most exploited subclass in therapeutic antibodies. It is the most abundant subclass, has a half-life as long as that of IgG2 and IgG4, binds the FcγR receptor, and activates complement. There is limited structural information on full-length human IgG1 because of the challenges of crystallization. To rectify this, we have studied the solution structures of two human IgG1 6a and 19a monoclonal antibodies in different buffers at different temperatures. Analytical ultracentrifugation showed that both antibodies were predominantly monomeric, with sedimentation coefficients s20,w (0) of 6.3-6.4 S. Only a minor dimer peak was observed, and the amount was not dependent on buffer conditions. Solution scattering showed that the x-ray radius of gyration Rg increased with salt concentration, whereas the neutron Rg values remained unchanged with temperature. The x-ray and neutron distance distribution curves P(r) revealed two peaks, M1 and M2, whose positions were unchanged in different buffers to indicate conformational stability. Constrained atomistic scattering modeling revealed predominantly asymmetric solution structures for both antibodies with extended hinge structures. Both structures were similar to the only known crystal structure of full-length human IgG1. The Fab conformations in both structures were suitably positioned to permit the Fc region to bind readily to its FcγR and C1q ligands without steric clashes, unlike human IgG4. Our molecular models for human IgG1 explain its immune activities, and we discuss its stability and function for therapeutic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucy E Rayner
- From the Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, Darwin Building, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Gar Kay Hui
- From the Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, Darwin Building, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Jayesh Gor
- From the Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, Darwin Building, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - Richard K Heenan
- the ISIS Facility, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Harwell Oxford, Didcot OX11 0QX, United Kingdom, and
| | - Paul A Dalby
- the Department of Biochemical Engineering, Division of Engineering, Roberts Building, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 7JE, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen J Perkins
- From the Department of Structural and Molecular Biology, Division of Biosciences, Darwin Building, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom,
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Remmele RL, Bee JS, Phillips JJ, Mo WD, Higazi DR, Zhang J, Lindo V, Kippen AD. Characterization of Monoclonal Antibody Aggregates and Emerging Technologies. ACS SYMPOSIUM SERIES 2015. [DOI: 10.1021/bk-2015-1202.ch005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Richard L. Remmele
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GH, United Kingdom
| | - Jared S. Bee
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GH, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan J. Phillips
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GH, United Kingdom
| | - Wenjun David Mo
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GH, United Kingdom
| | - Daniel R. Higazi
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GH, United Kingdom
| | - Jifeng Zhang
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GH, United Kingdom
| | - Vivian Lindo
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GH, United Kingdom
| | - Alistair D. Kippen
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune One MedImmune Way, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20878, United States
- Analytical Biotechnology, Biopharmaceutical Development, MedImmune Granta Park, Cambridge CB21 6GH, United Kingdom
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21
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Utilization of a precolumn with size exclusion and reversed-phase modes for size-exclusion chromatographic analysis of polysorbate-containing protein aggregates. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2014; 953-954:68-72. [PMID: 24576768 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2014.01.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2013] [Revised: 01/23/2014] [Accepted: 01/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) is a useful method for quantification of protein aggregates because of its high throughput capacity and highly quantitative performance. One of the problems in this method concerns polysorbates, which are well-known additives for protein-containing products to prevent protein aggregation, but frequently interfere with the photometric detection of protein aggregates. We developed a new SEC method that can separate polysorbates from protein sample solutions in an on-line mode with a precolumn with size exclusion and reversed-phase mixed modes. The precolumn can effectively trap polysorbates in aqueous mobile phase, and the trapped polysorbates are easily eluted with acetonitrile-containing aqueous mobile phase to clean the precolumn. Small parts of protein aggregates may be also trapped on the precolumn depending on temperature and proteins. Setting appropriate column temperature can minimize such inconvenient trapping of aggregates.
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22
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Sadavarte RH, Ghosh R. A Thermal-Cycling Method for Disaggregating Monoclonal Antibody Oligomers. J Pharm Sci 2014; 103:870-8. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.23863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Revised: 12/07/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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23
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Yang J, Goetze AM, Flynn GC. Assessment of naturally occurring covalent and total dimer levels in human IgG1 and IgG2. Mol Immunol 2013; 58:108-15. [PMID: 24321397 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2013.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2013] [Revised: 11/13/2013] [Accepted: 11/14/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Antibody dimers, two self-associated monomers, have been detected on both recombinantly expressed and endogenous human IgG proteins. Nearly 10 years ago, Yoo et al. (2003) described low levels of IgG2 covalent dimer, in human serum, but did not quantify the levels. Here we quantify the total and covalent dimer levels of IgG2 and IgG1 in human blood, and study the origin of covalent dimer formation. Low levels (<1%) of total IgG1 and IgG2 dimers were measured in freshly prepared human plasma. Both IgG1 and IgG2 covalent dimers were also found in plasma. Whereas IgG1 covalent dimer levels were significantly reduced by steps intended to eliminate artifacts during sample preparation, IgG2 covalent dimer levels remain stable in such conditions. About 0.4% of IgG2 in plasma was in a covalent dimer form, yet very little (<0.03%) of IgG1 covalent dimer could be considered naturally occurring. IgG2 dimer also formed in vitro under conditions designed to mimic those in blood, suggesting that formation occurs in vivo during circulation. Thus, small amounts of covalent IgG2 dimer do appear to form naturally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jane Yang
- Department of Process and Product Development, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, 91320, United States
| | - Andrew M Goetze
- Department of Process and Product Development, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, 91320, United States
| | - Gregory C Flynn
- Department of Process and Product Development, Amgen Inc., Thousand Oaks, 91320, United States.
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Iwura T, Fukuda J, Yamazaki K, Kanamaru S, Arisaka F. Intermolecular interactions and conformation of antibody dimers present in IgG1 biopharmaceuticals. J Biochem 2013; 155:63-71. [PMID: 24155259 DOI: 10.1093/jb/mvt095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Intermolecular interactions and conformation in dimer species of Palivizumab, a monoclonal antibody (IgG1), were investigated to elucidate the physical and chemical properties of the dimerized antibody. Palivizumab solution contains ∼1% dimer and 99% monomer. The dimer species was isolated by size-exclusion chromatography and analysed by a number of methods including analytical ultracentrifugation-sedimantetion velocity (AUC-SV). AUC-SV in the presence of sodium dodecyl sulphate indicated that approximately half of the dimer fraction was non-covalently associated, whereas the other half was dimerized by covalent bond. Disulphide bond and dityrosine formation were likely to be involved in the covalent dimerization. Limited proteolysis of the isolated dimer by Lys-C and mass spectrometry for the resultant products indicated that the dimer species were formed by Fab-Fc or Fab-Fab interactions, whereas Fc-Fc interactions were not found. It is thus likely that the dimerization occurs mainly via the Fab region. With regard to the conformation of the dimer species, the secondary and tertiary structures were shown to be almost identical to those of the monomer. Furthermore, the thermal stability turned out also to be very similar between the dimer and monomer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takafumi Iwura
- Graduate School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 B-9 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 226-8501; and Bio Process Research and Development Laboratories, Production Division, Kyowa Hakko Kirin Co., Ltd.; 100-1 Hagiwara-machi, Takasaki, Gunma 370-0013, Japan
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25
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Iacob RE, Bou-Assaf GM, Makowski L, Engen JR, Berkowitz SA, Houde D. Investigating monoclonal antibody aggregation using a combination of H/DX-MS and other biophysical measurements. J Pharm Sci 2013; 102:4315-29. [PMID: 24136070 DOI: 10.1002/jps.23754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2013] [Revised: 09/17/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
To determine how structural changes in antibodies are connected with aggregation, the structural areas of an antibody prone to and/or impacted by aggregation must be identified. In this work, the higher-order structure and biophysical properties of two different monoclonal antibody (mAb) monomers were compared with their simplest aggregated form, that is, dimers that naturally occurred during normal production and storage conditions. A combination of hydrogen/deuterium exchange mass spectrometry and other biophysical measurements was used to make the comparison. The results show that the dimerization process for one of the mAb monomers (mAb1) displayed no differences in its deuterium uptake between monomer and dimer forms. However, the other mAb monomer (mAb2) showed subtle changes in hydrogen/deuterium exchange as compared with its dimer form. In this case, differences observed were located in specific functional regions of the CH 2 domain and the hinge region between CH 1 and CH 2 domains. The importance and the implications of these changes on the antibody structure and mechanism of aggregation are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roxana E Iacob
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, 02115
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26
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Deperalta G, Alvarez M, Bechtel C, Dong K, McDonald R, Ling V. Structural analysis of a therapeutic monoclonal antibody dimer by hydroxyl radical footprinting. MAbs 2012; 5:86-101. [PMID: 23247543 DOI: 10.4161/mabs.22964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydroxyl radical footprinting is a covalent labeling strategy used to probe the conformational properties of proteins in solution. We describe the first application of this high resolution technique for characterizing the structure of a therapeutic monoclonal antibody (mAb) dimer. As monitored by size-exclusion chromatography (SEC), therapeutic mAbs typically contain small amounts of a dimer species relative to the primary monomeric form in its drug substance or drug product. To determine its structural orientation, a sample enriched in an IgG1 mAb dimer was oxidized by hydroxyl radicals generated by exposure of the aqueous solution to synchrotron X-rays in millisecond timescales. The antibody monomer that served as a control was oxidized in a similar fashion. The oxidized samples were digested with trypsin and analyzed by RP-UHPLC-MS. The footprinting data show that peptides displaying decreased rates of oxidation (i.e., regions of increased protection) in the dimer are localized in the light and heavy chains of the Fab domain. The interface region for the monomers comprising the dimer was thus inferred to be between their Fab arms, allowing us to model two possible theoretical dimer orientations: a head-to-head, single arm-bound Fab-to-Fab dimer, and a head-to-head, double arm-bound Fab (') 2-to-Fab (') 2 dimer. Lower resolution fragment-SEC analysis of the dimer and monomer samples treated with papain or FabRICATOR enzyme provided complimentary evidence to support the Fab/Fab orientation of the IgG1 dimer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Galahad Deperalta
- Protein Analytical Chemistry, Genentech, Inc., South San Francisco, CA, USA.
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27
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Strand J, Huang CT, Xu J. Characterization of Fc-fusion protein aggregates derived from extracellular domain disulfide bond rearrangements. J Pharm Sci 2012; 102:441-53. [PMID: 23242781 DOI: 10.1002/jps.23421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2012] [Revised: 11/05/2012] [Accepted: 11/28/2012] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Aggregation of protein biotherapeutics has consequences for decreasing production and has been implicated in immunogenicity. The mechanisms of protein aggregation vary depending on the protein and the expression system utilized, making it difficult to elucidate the conditions that promote their formation. Nonnative aggregation of recombinant immunoglobulin G protein therapeutics from mammalian expression systems has been extensively studied. To better understand the mechanisms behind aggregation of glycosylated fusion proteins produced in Chinese hamster ovarian cells, we have examined the high-molecular-weight (HMW) species of activin receptor-like kinase 1 Fc fusion protein. Size-exclusion chromatography and sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis indicate that two populations of aggregate exist: (1) nondisulfide-linked, higher-order aggregates and (2) disulfide-linked oligomers. The largest aggregated species have increased nonnative structure, whereas the smallest aggregated species maintain structure similar to monomer. The HMW species display decreased levels of O-linked glycosylation, higher occupancy of high-mannose N-linked oligosaccharide structures, and overall less sialylation as their size increases. Disulfide-linked aggregate species were found to associate through the extracellular domain. N-linked glycosylation on the extracellular domain (ECD) appears to discourage disulfide-linked aggregation. Elucidation of the specific mechanisms behind disulfide-linked aggregate formation may assist in designing processes that limit aggregate formation in cell culture, with implications for increased production.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Strand
- Acceleron Pharma, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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Thompson NJ, Rosati S, Rose RJ, Heck AJR. The impact of mass spectrometry on the study of intact antibodies: from post-translational modifications to structural analysis. Chem Commun (Camb) 2012. [PMID: 23183499 DOI: 10.1039/c2cc36755f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) are important therapeutics, targeting a variety of diseases ranging from cancers to neurodegenerative disorders. In developmental stages and prior to clinical use, these molecules require thorough structural characterisation, but their large size and heterogeneity present challenges for most analytical techniques. Over the past 20 years, mass spectrometry (MS) has transformed from a tool for small molecule analysis to a technique that can be used to study large intact proteins and non-covalent protein complexes. Here, we review several MS-based techniques that have emerged for the analysis of intact mAbs and discuss the prospects of using these technologies for the analysis of biopharmaceuticals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie J Thompson
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics, Bijvoet Center for Biomolecular Research and Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Liu H, May K. Disulfide bond structures of IgG molecules: structural variations, chemical modifications and possible impacts to stability and biological function. MAbs 2012; 4:17-23. [PMID: 22327427 DOI: 10.4161/mabs.4.1.18347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 305] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The disulfide bond structures established decades ago for immunoglobulins have been challenged by findings from extensive characterization of recombinant and human monoclonal IgG antibodies. Non-classical disulfide bond structure was first identified in IgG4 and later in IgG2 antibodies. Although, cysteine residues should be in the disulfide bonded states, free sulfhydryls have been detected in all subclasses of IgG antibodies. In addition, disulfide bonds are susceptible to chemical modifications, which can further generate structural variants such as IgG antibodies with trisulfide bond or thioether linkages. Trisulfide bond formation has also been observed for IgG of all subclasses. Degradation of disulfide bond through β-elimination generates free sulfhydryls disulfide and dehydroalanine. Further reaction between free sulfhydryl and dehydroalanine leads to the formation of a non-reducible cross-linked species. Hydrolysis of the dehydroalanine residue contributes substantially to antibody hinge region fragmentation. The effect of these disulfide bond variations on antibody structure, stability and biological function are discussed in this review.
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30
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Structure and Function of Purified Monoclonal Antibody Dimers Induced by Different Stress Conditions. Pharm Res 2012; 29:2047-59. [DOI: 10.1007/s11095-012-0732-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2011] [Accepted: 03/05/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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31
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Gjelstrup LC, Andersen SH, Petersen SV, Enghild JJ, Blom AM, Vorup-Jensen T, Thiel S. The role of higher-order protein structure in supporting binding by heteroclitic monoclonal antibodies: the monoclonal antibody KIM185 to CD18 also binds C4-binding protein. Mol Immunol 2011; 49:38-47. [PMID: 21856004 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2011.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2011] [Revised: 07/18/2011] [Accepted: 07/20/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Heteroclitic monoclonal antibodies are characterized by the ability to bind multiple epitopes with little or no similarity. Such antibodies have been reported earlier, but insight into to the molecular basis of this propensity is limited. Here we report that the KIM185 antibody to human CD18 reacts with the plasma protein C4b-binding protein (C4BP). This was revealed during affinity purification procedures where human serum was incubated with surfaces coated with monoclonal antibodies to CD18. Other monoclonal antibodies to CD18 (KIM127 and TS1/18) showed no such interaction with C4BP. We constructed a sandwich-type time-resolved immunofluorometric assay using KIM185 both as capture and developing antibody. By use of proteolytic fragments of KIM185 and recombinant deletion mutants of C4BP the interaction sites were mapped to the variable region of KIM185 and the oligomerization domain of C4BP, respectively. C4BP is a large oligomeric plasma protein that binds activated complement factor C4b and other endogenous ligands as well as microorganisms. By use of the recent crystallographic data on the structure of CD11c/CD18 and prediction of the secondary structure of the C4BP oligomerization domain, we show that epitopes bound by KIM185 in these proteins are unlikely to share any major structural similarity. However, both antigens may form oligomers that would enable avid binding by the antibody. Our report points to the astonishing ability of heteroclitic antibodies to accommodate the binding of multiple proteins with no or little structural similarity within the confined space of the variable regions.
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Vázquez-Rey M, Lang DA. Aggregates in monoclonal antibody manufacturing processes. Biotechnol Bioeng 2011; 108:1494-508. [DOI: 10.1002/bit.23155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 334] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2010] [Revised: 03/06/2011] [Accepted: 03/30/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Kayser V, Chennamsetty N, Voynov V, Helk B, Forrer K, Trout BL. Evaluation of a non-Arrhenius model for therapeutic monoclonal antibody aggregation. J Pharm Sci 2011; 100:2526-42. [PMID: 21268027 DOI: 10.1002/jps.22493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2010] [Revised: 12/23/2010] [Accepted: 01/03/2011] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Understanding antibody aggregation is of great significance for the pharmaceutical industry. We studied the aggregation of five different therapeutic monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) with size-exclusion chromatography-high-performance liquid chromatography (SEC-HPLC), fluorescence spectroscopy, electron microscopy, and light scattering methods at various temperatures with the aim of gaining insight into the aggregation process and developing models of it. In particular, we find that the kinetics can be described by a second-order model and are non-Arrhenius. Thus, we develop a non-Arrhenius model to connect accelerated aggregation experiments at high temperature to long-term storage experiments at low temperature. We evaluate our model by predicting mAb aggregation and comparing it with long-term behavior. Our results suggest that the number of monomers and mAb conformations within aggregates vary with the size and age of the aggregates, and that only certain sizes of aggregates are populated in the solution. We also propose a kinetic model based on conformational changes of proteins and monomer peak loss kinetics from SEC-HPLC. This model could be employed for a detail analysis of mAb aggregation kinetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veysel Kayser
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, USA
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Abstract
A short review is given of some of the effects of the stresses encountered during bioprocessing of protein and carbohydrate-based macromolecular systems. This is of relevance to the effectiveness and safety of protein or peptide drugs themselves (such as insulin and monoclonal antibodies) and for the integrity of delivery systems (such as various carbohydrate-based hydrogel or mucoadhesive polymers). Some carbohydrate polymers are themselves bioactive or immunostimulatory and particular use is being made of polysaccharide and glycoconjugate vaccines whose effectiveness can be severely effected by chain degradation. Stability criteria include molecular weight and conformation and techniques ranging from simple viscomery measurements to sophisticated analytical ultracentrifuge and multi-angle light scattering coupled to size exclusion chromatography and precision viscometry measurements have been useful in this regard. We focus on some recent work on the degradation and aggregation of immunoglobulin G4-based monoclonal antibodies in response to repeated freezing and thawing and long-term storage, looking at the possible connection between conformation change and aggregation, the effects of storage conditions on the stability of chitosan mucoadhesive systems used for nasal and oral delivery. We look at the effects of sterilization conditions (thermal and irradiation) on the stability of a variety of other polysaccharides such as starches, κ-carrageenan, carboxymethylcellulose, alginate, low- and high-methoxy pectins, guar, and xyloglucans and consider the use of a relatively new method for the evaluation of the molecular weight distribution of glycoconjugate vaccines with molecular weights as high as 100 × 10(6) g/mol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen E Harding
- National Centre for Macromolecular Hydrodynamics, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington LE12 5RD, UK.
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Kükrer B, Filipe V, van Duijn E, Kasper PT, Vreeken RJ, Heck AJR, Jiskoot W. Mass spectrometric analysis of intact human monoclonal antibody aggregates fractionated by size-exclusion chromatography. Pharm Res 2010; 27:2197-204. [PMID: 20680668 PMCID: PMC2939344 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-010-0224-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2010] [Accepted: 07/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Purpose The aim of this study was to develop a method to characterize intact soluble monoclonal IgG1 antibody (IgG) oligomers by mass spectrometry. Methods IgG aggregates (dimers, trimers, tetramers and high-molecular-weight oligomers) were created by subjecting an IgG formulation to several pH jumps. Protein oligomer fractions were isolated by high performance size exclusion chromatography (HP-SEC), dialyzed against ammonium acetate pH 6.0 (a mass spectrometry-compatible volatile buffer), and analyzed by native electrospray ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ESI-TOF MS). Results Monomeric and aggregated IgG fractions in the stressed IgG formulation were successfully isolated by HP-SEC. ESI-TOF MS analysis enabled us to determine the molecular weight of the monomeric IgG as well as the aggregates, including dimers, trimers and tetramers. HP-SEC separation and sample preparation proved to be necessary for good quality signal in ESI-TOF MS. Both the HP-SEC protocol and the ESI-TOF mass spectrometric technique were shown to leave the IgG oligomers largely intact. Conclusions ESI-TOF MS is a useful tool complementary to HP-SEC to identify and characterize small oligomeric protein aggregates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Başak Kükrer
- Division of Drug Delivery Technology Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Vasco Filipe
- Division of Drug Delivery Technology Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Esther van Duijn
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Group and Netherlands Proteomics Center, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Piotr T. Kasper
- Netherlands Metabolomics Center, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
- Division of Analytical Biosciences Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Rob J. Vreeken
- Netherlands Metabolomics Center, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
- Division of Analytical Biosciences Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Albert J. R. Heck
- Biomolecular Mass Spectrometry and Proteomics Group and Netherlands Proteomics Center, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Wim Jiskoot
- Division of Drug Delivery Technology Leiden/Amsterdam Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9502, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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Lau H, Pace D, Yan B, McGrath T, Smallwood S, Patel K, Park J, Park SS, Latypov RF. Investigation of degradation processes in IgG1 monoclonal antibodies by limited proteolysis coupled with weak cation-exchange HPLC. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2010; 878:868-76. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2010.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2009] [Revised: 01/25/2010] [Accepted: 02/03/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Andersen CB, Manno M, Rischel C, Thórólfsson M, Martorana V. Aggregation of a multidomain protein: a coagulation mechanism governs aggregation of a model IgG1 antibody under weak thermal stress. Protein Sci 2010; 19:279-90. [PMID: 20014440 DOI: 10.1002/pro.309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Using an IgG1 antibody as a model system, we have studied the mechanisms by which multidomain proteins aggregate at physiological pH when incubated at temperatures just below their lowest thermal transition. In this temperature interval, only minor changes to the protein conformation are observed. Light scattering consistently showed two coupled phases: an initial fast phase followed by several hours of exponential growth of the scattered intensity. This is the exact opposite of the lag-time behavior typically observed in protein fibrillation. Dynamic light scattering showed the rapid formation of an aggregate species with a hydrodynamic radius of about 25 nm, which then increased in size throughout the experiment. Theoretical analysis of our light scattering data showed that the aggregate number density goes through a maximum in time providing compelling evidence for a coagulation mechanism in which aggregates fuse together. Both the analysis as well as size-exclusion chromatography of incubated samples showed the actual increase in aggregate mass to be linear and reach saturation long before all molecules had been converted to aggregates. The CH2 domain is the only domain partly unfolded in the temperature interval studied, suggesting a pivotal role of this least stable domain in the aggregation process. Our results show that for multidomain proteins at temperatures below their thermal denaturation, transient unfolding of a single domain can prime the molecule for aggregation, and that the formation of large aggregates is driven by coagulation.
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38
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Changes in the quality of antibodies produced by Chinese hamster ovary cells during the death phase of cell culture. J Biosci Bioeng 2010; 109:281-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2009.09.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2009] [Revised: 09/16/2009] [Accepted: 09/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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39
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Van Buren N, Rehder D, Gadgil H, Matsumura M, Jacob J. Elucidation of two major aggregation pathways in an IgG2 antibody. J Pharm Sci 2009; 98:3013-30. [PMID: 18680168 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Two major aggregation pathways observed in an IgG2 molecule are described. Different aggregate species generated by long-term incubation of the antibody at 37 degrees C were collected by a semi-preparative size exclusion chromatography method. These purified species were analyzed extensively by denaturing size-exclusion chromatography methods. The major aggregation pathway at low pH (4.0) resulted in the formation of both dimers and high molecular weight (HMW) aggregates. It was found that these dimers and HMW aggregates contain antibody molecules that have a peptide bond cleavage between an aspartic acid and proline residue in the CH2 domain. Evidence that unfolding of the CH2 domain may be driving the aggregation at low pH is presented. At higher pH (pH - 6.0), formation of a dimer having approximately 75% covalent character was the major aggregation pathway while formation of higher molecular weight aggregates were largely suppressed. The covalent dimer consisted of both disulfide linked antibody molecules and another species (approximately 26%) that was formed due to nondisulfide covalent bonds between two heavy chains. At pH - 5.0, both dimer and higher molecular weight aggregates were formed and the aggregation pathway was a combination of the major pathways observed at pH - 4.0 and 6.0. The dimer species formed at pH - 5.0 had a larger contribution from covalent species-both disulfide and nondisulfide linked, while the HMW aggregate contained a higher percentage of molecules that had the peptide bond cleavage in the CH2 domain. The dimer formed at pH - 6.0 was found to have identical secondary and tertiary structure as the intact antibody molecule. However, the dimer and higher molecular weight aggregate formed at pH - 4.0 have altered secondary and tertiary structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas Van Buren
- Analytical and Formulation Sciences, Amgen Inc., 1201 Amgen Ct. W, Seattle, WA 98119, USA
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Perico N, Purtell J, Dillon TM, Ricci MS. Conformational Implications of an Inversed pH-Dependent Antibody Aggregation. J Pharm Sci 2009; 98:3031-42. [DOI: 10.1002/jps.21539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Mehboob S, Guo L, Fu W, Mittal A, Yau T, Truong K, Johlfs M, Long F, Fung LWM, Johnson ME. Glutamate racemase dimerization inhibits dynamic conformational flexibility and reduces catalytic rates. Biochemistry 2009; 48:7045-55. [PMID: 19552402 PMCID: PMC2734939 DOI: 10.1021/bi9005072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Glutamate racemase (RacE) is a bacterial enzyme that converts l-glutamate to d-glutamate, an essential precursor for peptidoglycan synthesis. In prior work, we have shown that both isoforms cocrystallize with d-glutamate as dimers, and the enzyme is in a closed conformation with limited access to the active site [May, M., et al. (2007) J. Mol. Biol. 371, 1219-1237]. The active site of RacE2 is especially restricted. We utilize several computational and experimental approaches to understand the overall conformational dynamics involved during catalysis when the ligand enters and the product exits the active site. Our steered molecular dynamics simulations and normal-mode analysis results indicate that the monomeric form of the enzyme is more flexible than the native dimeric form. These results suggest that the monomeric enzyme might be more active than the dimeric form. We thus generated site-specific mutations that disrupt dimerization and find that the mutants exhibit significantly higher catalytic rates in the d-Glu to l-Glu reaction direction than the native enzyme. Low-resolution models restored from solution X-ray scattering studies correlate well with the first six normal modes of the dimeric form of the enzyme, obtained from NMA. Thus, along with the local active site residues, global domain motions appear to be implicated in the catalytically relevant structural dynamics of this enzyme and suggest that increased flexibility may accelerate catalysis. This is a novel observation that residues distant from the catalytic site restrain catalytic activity through formation of the dimer structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahila Mehboob
- Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607
| | - Liang Guo
- BioCAT, Advanced Photon Source, Argonne National Laboratory, 9700 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL 60439
| | - Wentao Fu
- Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607
| | - Anuradha Mittal
- Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607
| | - Tiffany Yau
- Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607
| | - Kent Truong
- Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607
| | - Mary Johlfs
- Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607
| | - Fei Long
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607
| | - Leslie W.-M. Fung
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607
| | - Michael E. Johnson
- Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL 60607
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Garidel P, Hoffmann C, Blume A. A thermodynamic analysis of the binding interaction between polysorbate 20 and 80 with human serum albumins and immunoglobulins: A contribution to understand colloidal protein stabilisation. Biophys Chem 2009; 143:70-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2009.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2009] [Revised: 04/03/2009] [Accepted: 04/08/2009] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Hoffmann C, Blume A, Miller I, Garidel P. Insights into protein-polysorbate interactions analysed by means of isothermal titration and differential scanning calorimetry. EUROPEAN BIOPHYSICS JOURNAL: EBJ 2009; 38:557-68. [PMID: 19189101 DOI: 10.1007/s00249-009-0404-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2008] [Revised: 01/01/2009] [Accepted: 01/02/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Therapeutic proteins formulated as liquid solutions at high protein concentration are very sensitive to chemical and physical degradation. Especially avoiding the formation of protein aggregates is very crucial for product quality. In order to stabilize the colloidal properties of protein therapeutics various excipient are used. Especially the detergents polysorbate 20 and 80 are common. However, the mechanism upon which the detergents protect the protein from aggregation is not really known. The present study investigates the interaction of polysorbate 20 and 80 with different proteins: lysozyme, bovine serum albumin (BSA) and an immunoglobulin. The interaction and binding of the detergents to the proteins is investigated by isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). From ITC the thermodynamic parameters (DeltaH: change in enthalpy, DeltaS: entropy and DeltaG: free energy) upon binding are derived as well as the binding constant K (a). The thermal stability of the proteins in the presence of the detergent is assessed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The results show that both detergents bind to BSA with K (a) between 8 and 12 x 10(3) M(-1) with DeltaH -50 to -60 kJ/mol (25 degrees C). One to two detergent molecules bind to BSA. The presence of both detergents induces a weak stabilisation of the thermal denaturation properties of BSA. However, the interaction of polysorbate 20 and 80 with lysozyme and the immunoglobulin is quite negligible. The presence of the detergents up to a concentration of 2 mM has no impact on the heat capacity curve neither a destabilisation nor a stabilisation of the native conformation is observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Hoffmann
- Physical Chemistry, Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Halle/Saale, Germany
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Zhang Z, Pan H, Chen X. Mass spectrometry for structural characterization of therapeutic antibodies. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2009; 28:147-76. [PMID: 18720354 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 237] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Antibodies, also known as immunoglobulins, have emerged as one of the most promising classes of therapeutics in the biopharmaceutical industry. The need for complete characterization of the quality attributes of these molecules requires sophisticated techniques. Mass spectrometry (MS) has become an essential analytical tool for the structural characterization of therapeutic antibodies, due to its superior resolution over other analytical techniques. It has been widely used in virtually all phases of antibody development. Structural features determined by MS include amino acid sequence, disulfide linkages, carbohydrate structure and profile, and many different post-translational, in-process, and in-storage modifications. In this review, we will discuss various MS-based techniques for the structural characterization of monoclonal antibodies. These techniques are categorized as mass determination of intact antibodies, and as middle-up, bottom-up, top-down, and middle-down structural characterizations. Each of these techniques has its advantages and disadvantages in terms of structural resolution, sequence coverage, sample consumption, and effort required for analyses. The role of MS in glycan structural characterization and profiling will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongqi Zhang
- Process and Product Development, Amgen, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320, USA.
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Abstract
Heterogeneity of monoclonal antibodies is common due to the various modifications introduced over the lifespan of the molecules from the point of synthesis to the point of complete clearance from the subjects. The vast number of modifications presents great challenge to the thorough characterization of the molecules. This article reviews the current knowledge of enzymatic and nonenzymatic modifications of monoclonal antibodies including the common ones such as incomplete disulfide bond formation, glycosylation, N-terminal pyroglutamine cyclization, C-terminal lysine processing, deamidation, isomerization, and oxidation, and less common ones such as modification of the N-terminal amino acids by maleuric acid and amidation of the C-terminal amino acid. In addition, noncovalent associations with other molecules, conformational diversity and aggregation of monoclonal antibodies are also discussed. Through a complete understanding of the heterogeneity of monoclonal antibodies, strategies can be employed to better identify the potential modifications and thoroughly characterize the molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongcheng Liu
- Process Sciences Department, Abbott Bioresearch Center, 100 Research Drive, Worcester, Massachusetts 01605, USA.
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Lu Y, Harding SE, Rowe AJ, Davis KG, Fish B, Varley P, Gee C, Mulot S. The Effect of a Point Mutation on the Stability of IgG4 as Monitored by Analytical Ultracentrifugation. J Pharm Sci 2008; 97:960-9. [PMID: 17722105 DOI: 10.1002/jps.21016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
There is presently considerable interest in the state of aggregation and biophysical integrity of antibody preparations, and recent advances in the analysis of data from the analytical ultracentrifuge renders it a powerful probe of these stability phenomena, under both storage and freeze-thaw conditions. Solutions of a wild-type IgG4 antibody and a single amino acid hinge mutant IgG4m (serine residue 241 converted to proline) were exposed to different accelerated stress conditions, namely (i) elevated temperature storage for various periods (up to 59 days at 37 degrees C) or (ii) a series of freeze-thaw cycles (storage at -80 degrees C then incubation at 20 degrees C for 1 h under different conditions). Analysis using the nondisruptive probe of sedimentation velocity in the analytical ultracentrifuge indicated that for both antibodies the monomer was always the most common species present whatever storage regime had been used. Sedimentation coefficient distribution analysis showed that other higher oligomer species and half-antibodies were present, and appeared to be not in chemical equilibrium with each other. Solution heterogeneity was found to increase considerably with treatment for both native and hinge-mutant antibodies although the latter appeared to be more resistant to freeze-thaw-induced aggregation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanling Lu
- National Centre for Macromolecular Hydrodynamics, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, LE12 5RD, UK
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