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Seoane-Rivero R, Ares-Elejoste P, Gondra K, Amini S, de Hoyos PL, Gonzalez-Alriols M. Sustainable Epoxy Composites with UV Resistance Based on New Kraft Lignin Coatings. Molecules 2024; 29:3697. [PMID: 39125101 PMCID: PMC11313785 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29153697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2024] [Revised: 08/01/2024] [Accepted: 08/02/2024] [Indexed: 08/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Currently, the composite industry is focusing on more environmentally friendly resources in order to generate a new range of biobased materials. In this manuscript, we present a new work using lignocellulosic wastes from the paper industry to incorporate into biobased epoxy systems. The manufactured materials were composed of kraft lignin, glass fiber, and a sustainable epoxy system, obtaining a 40% biobased content. Using a vacuum infusion process, we fabricated the composites and analyzed their mechanical and UV resistance properties. The findings reveal a significant correlation between the lignin content and flexural modulus and strength, showing an increase of 69% in the flexural modulus and 134% in the flexural strength with the presence of 5% of lignin content. Moreover, it is necessary to highlight that the presence of synthesized lignin inhibits the UV degradation of the biobased epoxy coating. We propose that the use of lignocellulosic-based wastes could improve the mechanical properties and generate UV resistance in the composite materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rubén Seoane-Rivero
- GAIKER Technology Centre, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Parque Tecnológico de Bizkaia, Edificio 202, 48170 Zamudio, Spain
| | - Patricia Ares-Elejoste
- GAIKER Technology Centre, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Parque Tecnológico de Bizkaia, Edificio 202, 48170 Zamudio, Spain
| | - Koldo Gondra
- GAIKER Technology Centre, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Parque Tecnológico de Bizkaia, Edificio 202, 48170 Zamudio, Spain
| | - Sara Amini
- Biorefinery Processes Research Group, Chemical & Environmental Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Gipuzkoa, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Plaza Europa 1, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Pedro-Luis de Hoyos
- Biorefinery Processes Research Group, Chemical & Environmental Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Gipuzkoa, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Plaza Europa 1, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Maria Gonzalez-Alriols
- Biorefinery Processes Research Group, Chemical & Environmental Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Gipuzkoa, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Plaza Europa 1, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
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2
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Pappa CP, Cailotto S, Gigli M, Crestini C, Triantafyllidis KS. Kraft (Nano)Lignin as Reactive Additive in Epoxy Polymer Bio-Composites. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:553. [PMID: 38399931 PMCID: PMC10893208 DOI: 10.3390/polym16040553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024] Open
Abstract
The demand for high-performance bio-based materials towards achieving more sustainable manufacturing and circular economy models is growing significantly. Kraft lignin (KL) is an abundant and highly functional aromatic/phenolic biopolymer, being the main side product of the pulp and paper industry, as well as of the more recent 2nd generation biorefineries. In this study, KL was incorporated into a glassy epoxy system based on the diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) and an amine curing agent (Jeffamine D-230), being utilized as partial replacement of the curing agent and the DGEBA prepolymer or as a reactive additive. A D-230 replacement by pristine (unmodified) KL of up to 14 wt.% was achieved while KL-epoxy composites with up to 30 wt.% KL exhibited similar thermo-mechanical properties and substantially enhanced antioxidant properties compared to the neat epoxy polymer. Additionally, the effect of the KL particle size was investigated. Ball-milled kraft lignin (BMKL, 10 μm) and nano-lignin (NLH, 220 nm) were, respectively, obtained after ball milling and ultrasonication and were studied as additives in the same epoxy system. Significantly improved dispersion and thermo-mechanical properties were obtained, mainly with nano-lignin, which exhibited fully transparent lignin-epoxy composites with higher tensile strength, storage modulus and glass transition temperature, even at 30 wt.% loadings. Lastly, KL lignin was glycidylized (GKL) and utilized as a bio-based epoxy prepolymer, achieving up to 38 wt.% replacement of fossil-based DGEBA. The GKL composites exhibited improved thermo-mechanical properties and transparency. All lignins were extensively characterized using NMR, TGA, GPC, and DLS techniques to correlate and justify the epoxy polymer characterization results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina P. Pappa
- Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece;
| | - Simone Cailotto
- Department of Molecular Sciences and Nanosystems, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, 30170 Venice Mestre, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Matteo Gigli
- Department of Molecular Sciences and Nanosystems, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, 30170 Venice Mestre, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Claudia Crestini
- Department of Molecular Sciences and Nanosystems, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, 30170 Venice Mestre, Italy (C.C.)
| | - Konstantinos S. Triantafyllidis
- Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece;
- Center for Interdisciplinary Research and Innovation (CIRI-AUTH), 57001 Thessaloniki, Greece
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3
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Capretti M, Giammaria V, Santulli C, Boria S, Del Bianco G. Use of Bio-Epoxies and Their Effect on the Performance of Polymer Composites: A Critical Review. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4733. [PMID: 38139984 PMCID: PMC10747679 DOI: 10.3390/polym15244733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
This study comprehensively examines recent developments in bio-epoxy resins and their applications in composites. Despite the reliability of traditional epoxy systems, the increasing demand for sustainability has driven researchers and industries to explore new bio-based alternatives. Additionally, natural fibers have the potential to serve as environmentally friendly substitutes for synthetic ones, contributing to the production of lightweight and biodegradable composites. Enhancing the mechanical properties of these bio-composites also involves improving the compatibility between the matrix and fibers. The use of bio-epoxy resins facilitates better adhesion of natural composite constituents, addressing sustainability and environmental concerns. The principles and methods proposed for both available commercial and especially non-commercial bio-epoxy solutions are investigated, with a focus on promising renewable sources like wood, food waste, and vegetable oils. Bio-epoxy systems with a minimum bio-content of 20% are analyzed from a thermomechanical perspective. This review also discusses the effect of incorporating synthetic and natural fibers into bio-epoxy resins both on their own and in hybrid form. A comparative analysis is conducted against traditional epoxy-based references, with the aim of emphasizing viable alternatives. The focus is on addressing their benefits and challenges in applications fields such as aviation and the automotive industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Capretti
- School of Science and Technology, Mathematics Division, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri 9, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (M.C.); (V.G.); (S.B.); (G.D.B.)
| | - Valentina Giammaria
- School of Science and Technology, Mathematics Division, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri 9, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (M.C.); (V.G.); (S.B.); (G.D.B.)
| | - Carlo Santulli
- School of Science and Technology, Geology Division, University of Camerino, Via Gentile III da Varano 7, 62032 Camerino, Italy
| | - Simonetta Boria
- School of Science and Technology, Mathematics Division, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri 9, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (M.C.); (V.G.); (S.B.); (G.D.B.)
| | - Giulia Del Bianco
- School of Science and Technology, Mathematics Division, University of Camerino, Via Madonna delle Carceri 9, 62032 Camerino, Italy; (M.C.); (V.G.); (S.B.); (G.D.B.)
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4
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Lu X, Gu X. A review on lignin-based epoxy resins: Lignin effects on their synthesis and properties. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 229:778-790. [PMID: 36603715 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 12/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Lignin can be used as a sustainable alternative to bisphenol A (BPA) to prepared lignin-based epoxy resins. Lignin effects including molecular weight, phenolic content, G/S unit ratio and flexible/rigid linkage ratio on epoxy synthesis and performance were summarized comprehensively. The incorporation of lignin with a higher molecular weight would lead to the higher rigidity of epoxy crosslinking network. Higher contents of ether bonds in lignin would provide higher structural flexibility of lignin incorporated epoxy thermosets. Lignin with higher contents of phenolic hydroxyls was more beneficial for improving the reactivity of its epoxy products after glycidylation. Due to the excellent charring capacity of lignin, higher contents of residue char can be produced at higher additions of lignin at high temperatures, while the loss of crosslinking density caused by the increasing lignin addition (especially for the macromolecular lignin) would deteriorate the thermal stability of their thermosets. Several applications of lignin-based epoxy resins were also mentioned based on their mechanical, thermal and chemical properties, such as coatings (with anticorrosion and UV-blocking), adhesives (with highly crosslinking network, excellent mechanical, and thermal properties) and flame retardants (with high charring capability).
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Lu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab for the Chemistry and Utilization of Agro-forest Biomass, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Xiaoli Gu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, Jiangsu Provincial Key Lab for the Chemistry and Utilization of Agro-forest Biomass, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, China.
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5
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Zhang X, Mahajan JS, J Korley LT, Epps TH, Wu C. Reduced genotoxicity of lignin-derivable replacements to bisphenol A studied using in silico, in vitro, and in vivo methods. MUTATION RESEARCH. GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2023; 885:503577. [PMID: 36669816 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2022.503577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Bisguaiacols, lignin-derivable bisphenols, are considered promising and possibly safer alternatives to bisphenol A (BPA), but comprehensive toxicity investigations are needed to ensure safety. Most toxicity studies of BPA and its analogues have focused on potential estrogenic activity, and only limited toxicological data are available on other toxicity aspects, such as genotoxicity at low exposure levels. In this study, the genotoxicity of six lignin-derivable bisguaiacols with varying regioisomer contents and degrees of methoxy substitution was investigated using a multi-tiered method, consisting of in silico simulations, in vitro Ames tests, and in vivo comet tests. The toxicity estimation software tool, an application that predicts toxicity of chemicals using quantitative structure-activity relationships, calculated that the majority of the lignin-derivable bisguaiacols were non-mutagenic. These results were supported by Ames tests using five tester strains (TA98, TA100, TA102, TA1535, and TA1537) at concentrations ranging from 0.5 pmol/plate to 5 nmol/plate. The potential genotoxicity of bisguaiacols was further evaluated using in vivo comet testing in fetal chicken livers, and in addition to the standard alkaline comet assay, the formamidopyrimidine DNA glycosylase enzyme-modified comet assay was employed to investigate oxidative DNA damage in the liver samples. The oxidative stress analyses indicated that the majority of lignin-derivable analogues showed no signs of mutagenicity (mutagenic index < 1.5) or genotoxicity, in comparison to BPA and bisphenol F, likely due to the methoxy groups on the lignin-derivable aromatics. These findings reinforce the potential of lignin-derivable bisphenols as safer alternatives to BPA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinwen Zhang
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - Jignesh S Mahajan
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - LaShanda T J Korley
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - Thomas H Epps
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States; Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - Changqing Wu
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States.
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6
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Liu G, Jin C, Huo S, Kong Z, Chu F. Preparation and properties of novel bio-based epoxy resin thermosets from lignin oligomers and cardanol. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 193:1400-1408. [PMID: 34740690 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.10.203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A series of lignin-based epoxy resins (LEPs) were prepared by the reaction of epichlorohydrin with lignin oligomers derived from partial reductive depolymerization of lignin. To overcome the high viscosity and brittleness defects in practical applications, the LEPs were blended with renewable epoxied cardanol glycidyl ether (ECGE) and then cured with methyltetrahydrophthalic anhydride (MeTHPA) to form high-performance epoxy thermosets. The effects of degree of lignin depolymerization, chemical composition of lignin oligomers and dosage of ECGE on thermal and mechanical properties of the cured products were investigated. The LEP/MeTHPA thermosets exhibited good thermal and mechanical properties. Especially, by separating monomer-rich fractions from lignin oligomers, the thermal and mechanical properties of the cured product were improved obviously. Notably, the incorporation of ECGE also possessed a positive effect on reinforcing and toughening the cured products. With 20 wt% ECGE loadings, the tensile, flexural and impact strength of the cured product reached the maximum value of 77 MPa, 115 MPa and 14 kJ/m2, respectively, which were equivalent to the commercial bisphenol A epoxy resins thermosets. These findings indicated that the novel bio-based epoxy resins from lignin oligomers and cardanol could be utilized as renewable alternatives for BPA epoxy resins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guifeng Liu
- Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, CAF, Nanjing 210042, China; National Engineering Lab. for Biomass Chemical Utilization, Nanjing 210042, China; Key Lab. of Chemical Engineering of forest Products, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Nanjing 210042, China; Key Lab. of Biomass Energy and Material of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210042, China; Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Can Jin
- Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, CAF, Nanjing 210042, China; National Engineering Lab. for Biomass Chemical Utilization, Nanjing 210042, China; Key Lab. of Chemical Engineering of forest Products, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Nanjing 210042, China; Key Lab. of Biomass Energy and Material of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210042, China; Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Shuping Huo
- Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, CAF, Nanjing 210042, China; National Engineering Lab. for Biomass Chemical Utilization, Nanjing 210042, China; Key Lab. of Chemical Engineering of forest Products, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Nanjing 210042, China; Key Lab. of Biomass Energy and Material of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210042, China; Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210037, China
| | - Zhenwu Kong
- Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, CAF, Nanjing 210042, China; National Engineering Lab. for Biomass Chemical Utilization, Nanjing 210042, China; Key Lab. of Chemical Engineering of forest Products, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Nanjing 210042, China; Key Lab. of Biomass Energy and Material of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210042, China; Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210037, China.
| | - Fuxiang Chu
- Institute of Chemical Industry of Forest Products, CAF, Nanjing 210042, China; National Engineering Lab. for Biomass Chemical Utilization, Nanjing 210042, China; Key Lab. of Chemical Engineering of forest Products, National Forestry and Grassland Administration, Nanjing 210042, China; Key Lab. of Biomass Energy and Material of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210042, China; Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources of Jiangsu Province, Nanjing 210037, China.
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7
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Zhang Y, Wang H, Eberhardt TL, Gu Q, Pan H. Preparation of carboxylated lignin-based epoxy resin with excellent mechanical properties. Eur Polym J 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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8
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Klapiszewski Ł, Podkościelna B, Goliszek M, Kubiak A, Młynarczyk K, Jesionowski T. Synthesis, characterization and aging tests of functional rigid polymeric biocomposites with kraft lignin. Int J Biol Macromol 2021; 178:344-353. [PMID: 33652053 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.02.193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 02/13/2021] [Accepted: 02/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
This study concerns the synthesis of biocomposites with kraft lignin, investigation of their physicochemical properties, and tests of their resistance to environmental factors such as UV irradiation and water. The biocomposites were synthesized using bisphenol A glycerolate (1 glycerol/phenol) diacrylate (BPA.DA) as a main monomer, ethylene glycol dimethacrylate (EGDMA) as a reactive diluent, and kraft lignin (L) as an environmentally friendly filler, in a UV curing process. Morphological analysis of the resulting materials was carried out using scanning electron microscopy and confocal microscopy. Thermal properties were investigated using thermogravimetric analysis. Tensile and flexural tests were performed for all obtained materials. Additionally, the wettability and swelling of the obtained composite samples were analyzed. The changes observed in the structure and properties of the polymers as a result of aging were investigated by means of ATR-FTIR analysis, optical profilometry and hardness tests. The results obtained regarding the effect of lignin addition on the properties of composite materials, with particular emphasis on their resistance to environmental factors, may be of crucial importance for their further applications, inter alia as UV-curable coating materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz Klapiszewski
- Poznan University of Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Berdychowo 4, PL-60965 Poznan, Poland.
| | - Beata Podkościelna
- Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Faculty of Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej 2, PL-20031 Lublin, Poland.
| | - Marta Goliszek
- Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Faculty of Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej 2, PL-20031 Lublin, Poland
| | - Adam Kubiak
- Poznan University of Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Berdychowo 4, PL-60965 Poznan, Poland
| | - Karolina Młynarczyk
- Maria Curie-Skłodowska University, Faculty of Chemistry, Institute of Chemistry, Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej 2, PL-20031 Lublin, Poland
| | - Teofil Jesionowski
- Poznan University of Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Berdychowo 4, PL-60965 Poznan, Poland
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9
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Nikafshar S, Wang J, Dunne K, Sangthonganotai P, Nejad M. Choosing the Right Lignin to Fully Replace Bisphenol A in Epoxy Resin Formulation. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:1184-1195. [PMID: 33464727 PMCID: PMC7986108 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202002729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 12/23/2020] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Thirteen unmodified lignin samples from different biomass sources and isolation processes were characterized and used to entirely replace bisphenol A (BPA) in the formulation of solubilized epoxy resins using a developed novel method. The objective was to measure the reactivity of different lignins toward bio-based epichlorohydrin (ECH). The epoxy contents of various bio-based epoxidized lignins were measured by titration and 1 H NMR spectroscopy methods. A partial least square regression (PLS-R) model with 92 % fitting accuracy and 90 % prediction ability was developed to find correlations between lignin properties and their epoxy contents. The results showed that lignins with higher phenolic hydroxy content and lower molecular weights were more suitable for replacing 100 % of toxic BPA in the formulation of epoxy resins. Additionally, two epoxidized lignin samples (highest epoxy contents) cured by using a bio-based hardener (Cardolite GX-3090) were found to show comparable thermomechanical performances and thermal stabilities to a petroleum-based (DGEBA) epoxy system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saeid Nikafshar
- Department of ForestryMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMI48824USA
| | - Jiarun Wang
- Department of ChemistryMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMI48824USA
| | - Kevin Dunne
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials ScienceMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMI48824USA
| | - Prakit Sangthonganotai
- Advanced Biochemical (Thailand) Co.Ltd No. 944 Mitrtown Office Tower, 14th FloorRama 4 RoadWangmai Sub-District, Pathumwan DistrictBangkok10330Thailand
| | - Mojgan Nejad
- Department of ForestryMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMI48824USA
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials ScienceMichigan State UniversityEast LansingMI48824USA
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10
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Novel lignin-containing high-performance adhesive for extreme environment. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 164:1832-1839. [PMID: 32758609 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.07.307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2020] [Revised: 07/26/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The gradual depletion of petroleum is a main challenge restricting the development for the fine chemicals, such as epoxy resin adhesive. In this study, a novel lignin-containing high-performance epoxy resin adhesive is synthesized using lignin as precursor material. Lignin is a unique biomacromolecule with three dimensional network structure, large molecular weight, and aromatic structure. The lignin is simply hydrolyzed and modified by epichlorohydrin to obtain lignin-based epoxy prepolymer. The hydrolysis process effectively reduces the molecular weight and improves the chemical reactivity of lignin, thus increasing the number of modified functional groups and the dispersibility of lignin concurrently. With the introduction of the lignin-based epoxy prepolymers, the shear strength of the adhesive increases obviously and reaches 10.42 MPa, which displays 228% of the shear strength of commercial epoxy resin adhesives. Furthermore, the lignin-containing epoxy resin adhesive still displays excellent mechanical properties in extreme environments, including extreme temperature and high humidity environment.
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11
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Peng Y, Nicastro KH, Epps Iii TH, Wu C. Methoxy groups reduced the estrogenic activity of lignin-derivable replacements relative to bisphenol A and bisphenol F as studied through two in vitro assays. Food Chem 2020; 338:127656. [PMID: 32798821 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.127656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Revised: 06/27/2020] [Accepted: 07/20/2020] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Bisguaiacols are promising lignin-derivable alternatives to bisphenol A (BPA), but limited bioassay data are available on their estrogenic activity (EA). Herein, we investigated the estrogen receptor alpha (ERα)-mediated EA of six newly synthesized bisguaiacols, which differed in the number and location of methoxy substituents, through in vitro assays: MCF-7 cell proliferation and VM7Luc4E2 transactivation. The six bisguaiacols had undetectable EA at concentrations less than 10-7 M, most importantly, with significantly lower EA than BPA over an environmentally relevant range of 10-10-10-7 M. Adding a single methoxy group led to significant reduction in EA in all cases, relative to BPA and one petroleum-derived BPA analogue (bisphenol F, BPF), and the incorporation of more methoxy groups had subtler, but pronounced, impacts on either ERα binding or MCF-7 cell proliferation. In short, the six lignin-inspired bisguaiacols presented herein are viewed as promising sustainable alternatives to BPA and BPF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Peng
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - Kaleigh H Nicastro
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - Thomas H Epps Iii
- Department of Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States; Department of Materials Science & Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States
| | - Changqing Wu
- Department of Animal and Food Sciences, University of Delaware, Newark, DE 19716, United States.
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12
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Scholten PBV, Moatsou D, Detrembleur C, Meier MAR. Progress Toward Sustainable Reversible Deactivation Radical Polymerization. Macromol Rapid Commun 2020; 41:e2000266. [PMID: 32686239 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202000266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2020] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The recent focus of media and governments on renewability, green chemistry, and circular economy has led to a surge in the synthesis of renewable monomers and polymers. In this review, focussing on renewable monomers for reversible deactivation radical polymerizations (RDRP), it is highlighted that for the majority of the monomers and polymers reported, the claim to renewability is not always accurate. By closely examining the sustainability of synthetic routes and the renewability of starting materials, fully renewable monomers are identified and discussed in terms of sustainability, polymerization behavior, and properties obtained after polymerization. The holistic discussion considering the overall preparation process of polymers, that is, monomer syntheses, origin of starting materials, solvents used, the type of RDRP technique utilized, and the purification method, allows to highlight certain topics which need to be addressed in order to progress toward not only (partially) renewable, but sustainable monomers and polymers using RDRPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip B V Scholten
- Center for Education and Research on Macromolecules, CESAM Research Unit, Department of Chemistry, University of Liege, Sart-Tilman B6a, Liege, 4000, Belgium.,Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Materialwissenschaftliches Zentrum MZE, Straße am Forum 7, Karlsruhe, 76131, Germany
| | - Dafni Moatsou
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Materialwissenschaftliches Zentrum MZE, Straße am Forum 7, Karlsruhe, 76131, Germany
| | - Christophe Detrembleur
- Center for Education and Research on Macromolecules, CESAM Research Unit, Department of Chemistry, University of Liege, Sart-Tilman B6a, Liege, 4000, Belgium
| | - Michael A R Meier
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Materialwissenschaftliches Zentrum MZE, Straße am Forum 7, Karlsruhe, 76131, Germany.,Laboratory of Applied Chemistry, Institute of Toxicology and Genetics, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, 76344, Germany
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13
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O’Dea RM, Willie JA, Epps TH. 100th Anniversary of Macromolecular Science Viewpoint: Polymers from Lignocellulosic Biomass. Current Challenges and Future Opportunities. ACS Macro Lett 2020; 9:476-493. [PMID: 35648496 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.0c00024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Sustainable polymers from lignocellulosic biomass have the potential to reduce the environmental impact of commercial plastics while also offering significant performance and cost benefits relative to petrochemical-derived macromolecules. However, most currently available biobased polymers are hampered by insufficient thermomechanical properties, low economic feasibility (e.g., high relative cost), and reduced scalability in comparison to petroleum-based incumbents. Future biobased materials must overcome these limitations to be competitive in the marketplace. Additionally, sustainability challenges at the beginning and end of the polymer lifecycle need to be addressed using green chemistry practices and improved end-of-life waste management strategies. This viewpoint provides an overview of recent developments that can mitigate many concerns with present materials and discusses key aspects of next-generation, biobased polymers derived from lignocellulosic biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert M. O’Dea
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Jordan A. Willie
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
| | - Thomas H. Epps
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
- Center for Research in Soft matter and Polymers (CRiSP), University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, United States
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14
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Gioia C, Colonna M, Tagami A, Medina L, Sevastyanova O, Berglund LA, Lawoko M. Lignin-Based Epoxy Resins: Unravelling the Relationship between Structure and Material Properties. Biomacromolecules 2020; 21:1920-1928. [PMID: 32160463 PMCID: PMC7997103 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.0c00057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
![]()
Here
we investigate the relationship between thermomechanical properties
and chemical structure of well-characterized lignin-based epoxy resins.
For this purpose, technical lignins from eucalyptus and spruce, obtained
from the Kraft process, were used. The choice of lignins was based
on the expected differences in molecular structure. The lignins were
then refined by solvent fractionation, and three fractions with comparable
molecular weights were selected to reduce effects of molar mass on
the properties of the final thermoset resins. Consequently, any differences
in thermomechanical properties are expected to correlate with molecular
structure differences between the lignins. Oxirane moieties were selectively
introduced to the refined fractions, and the resulting lignin epoxides
were subsequently cross-linked with two commercially available polyether
diamines (Mn = 2000 and 400) to obtain lignin-based epoxy resins.
Molecular-scale characterization of the refined lignins and their
derivatives were performed by 31P NMR, 2D-NMR, and DSC
methods to obtain the detailed chemical structure of original and
derivatized lignins. The thermosets were studied by DSC, DMA, and
tensile tests and demonstrated diverse thermomechanical properties
attributed to structural components in lignin and selected amine cross-linker.
An epoxy resin with a lignin content of 66% showed a Tg of 79 °C
from DMA, Young’s modulus of 1.7 GPa, tensile strength of 66
MPa, and strain to failure of 8%. The effect of molecular lignin structure
on thermomechanical properties was analyzed, finding significant differences
between the rigid guaiacyl units in spruce lignin compared with sinapyl
units in eucalyptus lignin. The methodology points toward rational
design of molecularly tailored lignin-based thermosets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Gioia
- University of Bologna, Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, Via Terracini 28, Bologna, 40131, Italy
| | - Martino Colonna
- University of Bologna, Department of Civil, Chemical, Environmental, and Materials Engineering, Via Terracini 28, Bologna, 40131, Italy
| | - Ayumu Tagami
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Fibre and Polymer Technology, Teknikringen, 56-58, Stockholm, 100 44, Sweden.,Nippon Paper Industries Co., Ltd., Research Laboratory, Oji, Kita-ku, Tokyo, 114-0002, Japan
| | - Lilian Medina
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, WWSC, Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology. KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Olena Sevastyanova
- KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Department of Fibre and Polymer Technology, Teknikringen, 56-58, Stockholm, 100 44, Sweden.,Wallenberg Wood Science Center, WWSC, Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology. KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lars A Berglund
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, WWSC, Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology. KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Martin Lawoko
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, WWSC, Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology. KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
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15
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Fang Z, Weisenberger MC, Meier MS. Utilization of Lignin-Derived Small Molecules: Epoxy Polymers from Lignin Oxidation Products. ACS APPLIED BIO MATERIALS 2020; 3:881-890. [DOI: 10.1021/acsabm.9b00954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Fang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
| | - Matthew C. Weisenberger
- Center for Applied Energy Research (CAER), University of Kentucky, 2540 Research Park Drive, Lexington, Kentucky 40511, United States
| | - Mark S. Meier
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40506, United States
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16
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Huang CH, Liu YL. Self-crosslinkable polymers from furan-functionalized Meldrum's acid and maleimides as effective precursors of free-standing and flexible crosslinked polymer films showing low dielectric constants. Polym Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/c9py01709g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The integration of Michael addition and Diels–Alder reaction in the synthesis of reactive polymers for self-standing and flexible crosslinked polymer films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Ho Huang
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- National Tsing Hua University
- 30013 Hsinchu
- Taiwan
| | - Ying-Ling Liu
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- National Tsing Hua University
- 30013 Hsinchu
- Taiwan
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17
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Zoghlami A, Paës G. Lignocellulosic Biomass: Understanding Recalcitrance and Predicting Hydrolysis. Front Chem 2019; 7:874. [PMID: 31921787 PMCID: PMC6930145 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2019.00874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 12/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Lignocellulosic biomass (LB) is an abundant and renewable resource from plants mainly composed of polysaccharides (cellulose and hemicelluloses) and an aromatic polymer (lignin). LB has a high potential as an alternative to fossil resources to produce second-generation biofuels and biosourced chemicals and materials without compromising global food security. One of the major limitations to LB valorisation is its recalcitrance to enzymatic hydrolysis caused by the heterogeneous multi-scale structure of plant cell walls. Factors affecting LB recalcitrance are strongly interconnected and difficult to dissociate. They can be divided into structural factors (cellulose specific surface area, cellulose crystallinity, degree of polymerization, pore size and volume) and chemical factors (composition and content in lignin, hemicelluloses, acetyl groups). Goal of this review is to propose an up-to-date survey of the relative impact of chemical and structural factors on biomass recalcitrance and of the most advanced techniques to evaluate these factors. Also, recent spectral and water-related measurements accurately predicting hydrolysis are presented. Overall, combination of relevant factors and specific measurements gathering simultaneously structural and chemical information should help to develop robust and efficient LB conversion processes into bioproducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aya Zoghlami
- FARE Laboratory, INRAE, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
| | - Gabriel Paës
- FARE Laboratory, INRAE, University of Reims Champagne-Ardenne, Reims, France
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18
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Huang CH, Liu YL. The Michael addition reaction of Meldrum's acid (MA): an effective route for the preparation of reactive precursors for MA-based thermosetting resins. Polym Chem 2019. [DOI: 10.1039/c8py01643g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Reactive monomers and polymers possessing Meldrum's acid groups from the Michael addition reaction are demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Ho Huang
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- National Tsing Hua University
- 30013 Hsinchu
- Taiwan
| | - Ying-Ling Liu
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- National Tsing Hua University
- 30013 Hsinchu
- Taiwan
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19
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Gioia C, Lo Re G, Lawoko M, Berglund L. Tunable Thermosetting Epoxies Based on Fractionated and Well-Characterized Lignins. J Am Chem Soc 2018; 140:4054-4061. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.7b13620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 152] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Gioia
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, WWSC, Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Giada Lo Re
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, WWSC, Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Martin Lawoko
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, WWSC, Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lars Berglund
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, WWSC, Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
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20
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Cyclocarbonated lignosulfonate as a bio-resourced reactive reinforcing agent for epoxy biocomposite: From natural waste to value-added bio-additive. J CO2 UTIL 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcou.2017.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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21
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François C, Pourchet S, Boni G, Rautiainen S, Samec J, Fournier L, Robert C, Thomas CM, Fontaine S, Gaillard Y, Placet V, Plasseraud L. Design and synthesis of biobased epoxy thermosets from biorenewable resources. CR CHIM 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crci.2017.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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