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Abstract
Rapid and specific assaying of molecules that report on a pathophysiological condition, environmental pollution, or drug concentration is pivotal for establishing efficient and accurate diagnostic systems. One of the main components required for the construction of these systems is the recognition element (receptor) that can identify target analytes. Oligonucleotide switching structures, or aptamers, have been widely studied as selective receptors that can precisely identify targets in different analyzed matrices with minimal interference from other components in an antibody-like recognition process. These aptasensors, especially when integrated into sensing platforms, enable a multitude of sensors that can outperform antibody-based sensors in terms of flexibility of the sensing strategy and ease of deployment to areas with limited resources. Research into compounds that efficiently enhance signal transduction and provide a suitable platform for conjugating aptamers has gained huge momentum over the past decade. The multifaceted nature of conjugated polymers (CPs), notably their versatile electrical and optical properties, endows them with a broad range of potential applications in optical, electrical, and electrochemical signal transduction. Despite the substantial body of research demonstrating the enhanced performance of sensing devices using doped or nanostructure-embedded CPs, few reviews are available that specifically describe the use of conjugated polymers in aptasensing. The purpose of this review is to bridge this gap and provide a comprehensive description of a variety of CPs, from a historical viewpoint, underpinning their specific characteristics and demonstrating the advances in biosensors associated with the use of these conjugated polymers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Razieh Salimian
- Universite de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, CNRS, IPREM, Pau 64053, France
| | - Corinne Nardin
- Universite de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour, E2S UPPA, CNRS, IPREM, Pau 64053, France
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2
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Recent Developments and Implementations of Conductive Polymer-Based Flexible Devices in Sensing Applications. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14183730. [PMID: 36145876 PMCID: PMC9504310 DOI: 10.3390/polym14183730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2022] [Revised: 09/03/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Flexible sensing devices have attracted significant attention for various applications, such as medical devices, environmental monitoring, and healthcare. Numerous materials have been used to fabricate flexible sensing devices and improve their sensing performance in terms of their electrical and mechanical properties. Among the studied materials, conductive polymers are promising candidates for next-generation flexible, stretchable, and wearable electronic devices because of their outstanding characteristics, such as flexibility, light weight, and non-toxicity. Understanding the interesting properties of conductive polymers and the solution-based deposition processes and patterning technologies used for conductive polymer device fabrication is necessary to develop appropriate and highly effective flexible sensors. The present review provides scientific evidence for promising strategies for fabricating conductive polymer-based flexible sensors. Specifically, the outstanding nature of the structures, conductivity, and synthesis methods of some of the main conductive polymers are discussed. Furthermore, conventional and innovative technologies for preparing conductive polymer thin films in flexible sensors are identified and evaluated, as are the potential applications of these sensors in environmental and human health monitoring.
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Firda PBD, Malik YT, Oh JK, Wujcik EK, Jeon JW. Enhanced Chemical and Electrochemical Stability of Polyaniline-Based Layer-by-Layer Films. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13172992. [PMID: 34503032 PMCID: PMC8433781 DOI: 10.3390/polym13172992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 08/28/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Polyaniline (PANI) has been widely used as an electroactive material in various applications including sensors, electrochromic devices, solar cells, electroluminescence, and electrochemical energy storage, owing to PANI’s unique redox properties. However, the chemical and electrochemical stability of PANI-based materials is not sufficiently high to maintain the performance of devices under many practical applications. Herein, we report a route to enhancing the chemical and electrochemical stability of PANI through layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly. PANI was assembled with different types of polyelectrolytes, and a comparative study between three different PANI-based layer-by-layer (LbL) films is presented here. Polyacids of different acidity and molecular structure, i.e., poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), polystyrene sulfonate (PSS), and tannic acid (TA), were used. The effect of polyacids’ acidity on film growth, conductivity, and chemical and electrochemical stability of PANI was investigated. The results showed that the film growth of the LbL system depended on the acidic strength of the polyacids. All LbL films exhibited improved chemical and electrochemical stability compared to PANI films. The doping level of PANI was strongly affected by the type of dopants, resulting in different chemical and electrochemical properties; the strongest polyacid (PSS) can provide the highest conductivity and chemical stability of conductive PANI. However, the electrochemical stability of PANI/PAA was found to be better than all the other films.
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Affiliation(s)
- Putri Bintang Dea Firda
- Department of Chemistry, Kookmin University, 77, Jeongneung-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-702, Korea; (P.B.D.F.); (Y.T.M.)
| | - Yoga Trianzar Malik
- Department of Chemistry, Kookmin University, 77, Jeongneung-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-702, Korea; (P.B.D.F.); (Y.T.M.)
| | - Jun Kyun Oh
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, Dankook University, 152 Jukjeon-ro, Suji-gu, Yongin-si 16890, Korea;
| | - Evan K. Wujcik
- Materials Engineering and Nanosensor [MEAN] Laboratory, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, The University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL 35487, USA;
| | - Ju-Won Jeon
- Department of Chemistry, Kookmin University, 77, Jeongneung-ro, Seongbuk-gu, Seoul 136-702, Korea; (P.B.D.F.); (Y.T.M.)
- Correspondence:
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4
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Zhang M, Nautiyal A, Du H, Wei Z, Zhang X, Wang R. Electropolymerization of polyaniline as high-performance binder free electrodes for flexible supercapacitor. Electrochim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2021.138037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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5
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K N, Rout CS. Conducting polymers: a comprehensive review on recent advances in synthesis, properties and applications. RSC Adv 2021; 11:5659-5697. [PMID: 35686160 PMCID: PMC9133880 DOI: 10.1039/d0ra07800j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 179] [Impact Index Per Article: 59.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Conducting polymers are extensively studied due to their outstanding properties, including tunable electrical property, optical and high mechanical properties, easy synthesis and effortless fabrication and high environmental stability over conventional inorganic materials. Although conducting polymers have a lot of limitations in their pristine form, hybridization with other materials overcomes these limitations. The synergetic effects of conducting polymer composites give them wide applications in electrical, electronics and optoelectronic fields. An in-depth analysis of composites of conducting polymers with carbonaceous materials, metal oxides, transition metals and transition metal dichalcogenides etc. is used to study them effectively. Here in this review we seek to describe the transport models which help to explain the conduction mechanism, relevant synthesis approaches, and physical properties, including electrical, optical and mechanical properties. Recent developments in their applications in the fields of energy storage, photocatalysis, anti-corrosion coatings, biomedical applications and sensing applications are also explained. Structural properties play an important role in the performance of the composites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Namsheer K
- Centre for Nano and Material Sciences, Jain University, Jain Global Campus Jakkasandra, Ramanagaram Bangalore-562112 India
| | - Chandra Sekhar Rout
- Centre for Nano and Material Sciences, Jain University, Jain Global Campus Jakkasandra, Ramanagaram Bangalore-562112 India
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Synthesis and Characterization of Polyaniline-Chitosan Patches with Enhanced Stability in Physiological Conditions. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:polym12122870. [PMID: 33266121 PMCID: PMC7761375 DOI: 10.3390/polym12122870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2020] [Revised: 11/05/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Electroconductive polymeric patches are being developed in the hope to interface with the electroresponsive tissues. For these constructs, conjugated polymers are considered as conductive components for their electroactive nature. Conversely, the clinical applications of these conductive polymeric patches are limited due to their short operational time, a decrease in their electroactivity occurs with the passage of time. This paper reports on the polymerization of aniline on prefabricated chitosan films on microscopic glass slides in the presence of sodium phytate. The strong chelation among sodium phytate, aniline and chitosan led to the formation of electoconductive polymeric patch. We assume that immobilization of sodium phytate in the polymeric patch helps to prevent electric deterioration, extend its electronic stability and reduce sheet resistance. The patch oxidized after three weeks (21 days) of incubation in phosphate buffer (pH 7.4 as physiological medium). This feasible fabrication technique set the foundation to design electronically stable, conjugated polymer-based patches, by providing a robust system of conduction that could be used with electroactive tissues such as cardiac muscles at the interface.
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A mechanistic approach for the modulation of band gap of nanopolyaniline using various heterogeneous carbon nanostructures. Polym Bull (Berl) 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00289-019-02927-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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9
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Baibarac M, Matea A, Daescu M, Mercioniu I, Quillard S, Mevellec JY, Lefrant S. Polyaniline photoluminescence quenching induced by single-walled carbon nanotubes enriched in metallic and semiconducting tubes. Sci Rep 2018; 8:9518. [PMID: 29934614 PMCID: PMC6015054 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27769-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The influence of single-walled carbon nanotubes enriched in semiconductor (S-SWNTs) and metallic (M-SWNTs) tubes on the photoluminescence (PL) of polyaniline (PANI), electrosynthesized in the presence of the H2SO4 and HCl solutions, is reported. The emission bands peaked at 407-418 and 440-520 nm indicate that the electropolymerization of aniline (ANI) leads to the formation of short and longer macromolecular chains (MCs), respectively. We demonstrate that the reaction product consists of ANI tetramers (TT) and trimers (TR) as well as PANI-salt. Using Raman scattering and IR absorption spectroscopy, a covalent functionalization of SWNTs with shorter and longer MCs of PANI-salt is demonstrated. The presence of S-SWNTs and M-SWNTs induces a decrease in ANI TT weight in the reaction product mass consisting in S-SWNTs and M-SWNTs covalently functionalized with PANI-emeraldine salt (ES) and PANI-leucoemeraldine salt (LS), respectively. A PANI PL quenching is reported to be induced of the S-SWNTs and M-SWNTs. A de-excitation mechanism is proposed to explain PANI PL quenching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihaela Baibarac
- National Institute of Materials Physics, Laboratory of Optical Processes in Nanostructured Materials, P.O. Box MG-7, R077125, Bucharest, Romania.
| | - Adelina Matea
- National Institute of Materials Physics, Laboratory of Optical Processes in Nanostructured Materials, P.O. Box MG-7, R077125, Bucharest, Romania.,Faculty of Physics, University of Bucharest, 405A Atomistilor, P.O. Box MG-1, 077125, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Monica Daescu
- National Institute of Materials Physics, Laboratory of Optical Processes in Nanostructured Materials, P.O. Box MG-7, R077125, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Ionel Mercioniu
- National Institute of Materials Physics, Laboratory of Optical Processes in Nanostructured Materials, P.O. Box MG-7, R077125, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Sophie Quillard
- Institut des Mateŕiaux "Jean Rouxel", 2 rue de la Houssinieŕe, B.P. 32229, F-44322, Nantes, cedex 3, France
| | - Jean-Yves Mevellec
- Institut des Mateŕiaux "Jean Rouxel", 2 rue de la Houssinieŕe, B.P. 32229, F-44322, Nantes, cedex 3, France
| | - Serge Lefrant
- Institut des Mateŕiaux "Jean Rouxel", 2 rue de la Houssinieŕe, B.P. 32229, F-44322, Nantes, cedex 3, France
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Soni R, Kashyap V, Nagaraju D, Kurungot S. Realizing High Capacitance and Rate Capability in Polyaniline by Enhancing the Electrochemical Surface Area through Induction of Superhydrophilicity. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:676-686. [PMID: 29243906 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b15534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Polyaniline (PANI) as a pseudocapacitive material has very high theoretical capacitance of 2000 F g-1. However, its practical capacitance has been limited by low electrochemical surface area (ESA) and unfavorable wettability toward aqueous electrolytes. This work deals with a strategy wherein the high ESA of PANI has been achieved by the induction of superhydrophilicity together with the alignment of PANI exclusively on the surface of carbon fibers as a thin layer to form a hybrid assembly. Superhydrophilicity is induced by electrochemical functionalization of the Toray carbon paper, which further induces superhydrophilicity to the electrodeposited PANI layer on the paper, thereby ensuring a high electrode-electrolyte interface. The Toray paper is electrochemically functionalized by the anodization method, which generates a highly active electrochemical surface as well as greater wettability (superhydrophilic) of the carbon fibers. Because of the strong interaction of anilinium chloride with the hydrophilic carbon surface, PANI is polymerized exclusively over the surface of the fibers without any appreciable aggregation or agglomeration of the polymer. The PANI-Toray paper assembly in the solid-state prototype supercapacitor can provide a high gravimetric capacitance of 1335 F g-1 as well as a high areal capacitance of 1.3 F cm-2 at a current density of 10 A g-1. The device also exhibits high rate capability, delivering 1217 F g-1 at a current density of 50 A g-1 and a high energy density of 30 W h kg-1 at a power density of 2 kW kg-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roby Soni
- Physical and Materials Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory , Pune, Maharashtra 411008, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory Campus , Pune, Maharashtra 411008, India
| | - Varchaswal Kashyap
- Physical and Materials Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory , Pune, Maharashtra 411008, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory Campus , Pune, Maharashtra 411008, India
| | - Divya Nagaraju
- Physical and Materials Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory , Pune, Maharashtra 411008, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory Campus , Pune, Maharashtra 411008, India
| | - Sreekumar Kurungot
- Physical and Materials Chemistry Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory , Pune, Maharashtra 411008, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory Campus , Pune, Maharashtra 411008, India
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Zhang Q, Kaisti M, Prabhu A, Yu Y, Song YA, Rafailovich MH, Rahman A, Levon K. Polyaniline-functionalized ion-sensitive floating-gate FETs for the on-chip monitoring of peroxidase-catalyzed redox reactions. Electrochim Acta 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2017.12.130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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12
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Katunin A, Krukiewicz K, Catalanotti G. Modeling and synthesis of all-polymeric conducting composite material for aircraft lightning strike protection applications. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2017.07.138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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13
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Mawad D, Mansfield C, Lauto A, Perbellini F, Nelson GW, Tonkin J, Bello SO, Carrad DJ, Micolich AP, Mahat MM, Furman J, Payne D, Lyon AR, Gooding JJ, Harding SE, Terracciano CM, Stevens MM. A conducting polymer with enhanced electronic stability applied in cardiac models. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2016; 2:e1601007. [PMID: 28138526 PMCID: PMC5262463 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.1601007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2016] [Accepted: 10/27/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Electrically active constructs can have a beneficial effect on electroresponsive tissues, such as the brain, heart, and nervous system. Conducting polymers (CPs) are being considered as components of these constructs because of their intrinsic electroactive and flexible nature. However, their clinical application has been largely hampered by their short operational time due to a decrease in their electronic properties. We show that, by immobilizing the dopant in the conductive scaffold, we can prevent its electric deterioration. We grew polyaniline (PANI) doped with phytic acid on the surface of a chitosan film. The strong chelation between phytic acid and chitosan led to a conductive patch with retained electroactivity, low surface resistivity (35.85 ± 9.40 kilohms per square), and oxidized form after 2 weeks of incubation in physiological medium. Ex vivo experiments revealed that the conductive nature of the patch has an immediate effect on the electrophysiology of the heart. Preliminary in vivo experiments showed that the conductive patch does not induce proarrhythmogenic activities in the heart. Our findings set the foundation for the design of electronically stable CP-based scaffolds. This provides a robust conductive system that could be used at the interface with electroresponsive tissue to better understand the interaction and effect of these materials on the electrophysiology of these tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damia Mawad
- Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
- Corresponding author. (D.M.); (M.M.S.)
| | - Catherine Mansfield
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Antonio Lauto
- Biomedical Engineering and Neuroscience Research Group, University of Western Sydney, Penrith, New South Wales 2751, Australia
| | - Filippo Perbellini
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | | | - Joanne Tonkin
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Sean O. Bello
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Damon J. Carrad
- School of Physics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Adam P. Micolich
- School of Physics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Mohd M. Mahat
- Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
- Faculty of Applied Sciences Universiti Teknologi Mara, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Jennifer Furman
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - David Payne
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
| | - Alexander R. Lyon
- National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
- National Institute for Health Research Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton Hospital, London, U.K
| | - J. Justin Gooding
- School of Chemistry, Australian Centre for NanoMedicine and Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Convergent Bio-Nano Science and Technology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Sian E. Harding
- National Institute for Health Research Cardiovascular Biomedical Research Unit, Royal Brompton Hospital, London, U.K
| | | | - Molly M. Stevens
- Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
- Department of Materials, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, U.K
- Corresponding author. (D.M.); (M.M.S.)
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Mooss VA, Athawale AA. Polyaniline-graphene oxide nanocomposites: Influence of nonconducting graphene oxide on the conductivity and oxidation-reduction mechanism of polyaniline. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/pola.28277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Vandana A. Mooss
- Department of Chemistry; Savitribai Phule Pune University; Pune Maharashtra 411007 India
| | - Anjali A. Athawale
- Department of Chemistry; Savitribai Phule Pune University; Pune Maharashtra 411007 India
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Duan W, Ronen A, Walker S, Jassby D. Polyaniline-Coated Carbon Nanotube Ultrafiltration Membranes: Enhanced Anodic Stability for In Situ Cleaning and Electro-Oxidation Processes. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2016; 8:22574-22584. [PMID: 27525344 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.6b07196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Electrically conducting membranes (ECMs) have been reported to be efficient in fouling prevention and destruction of aqueous chemical compounds. In the current study, highly conductive and anodically stable composite polyaniline-carbon nanotube (PANI-CNT) ultrafiltration (UF) ECMs were fabricated through a process of electropolymerization of aniline on a CNT substrate under acidic conditions. The resulting PANI-CNT UF ECMs were characterized by scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, a four-point conductivity probe, cyclic voltammetry, and contact angle goniometry. The utilization of the PANI-CNT material led to significant advantages, including: (1) increased electrical conductivity by nearly an order of magnitude; (2) increased surface hydrophilicity while not impacting membrane selectivity or permeability; and (3) greatly improved stability under anodic conditions. The membrane's anodic stability was evaluated in a pH-controlled aqueous environment under a wide range of anodic potentials using a three-electrode cell. Results indicate a significantly reduced degradation rate in comparison to a CNT-poly(vinyl alcohol) ECM under high anodic potentials. Fouling experiments conducted with bovine serum albumin demonstrated the capacity of the PANI-CNT ECMs for in situ oxidative cleaning, with membrane flux restored to its initial value under an applied potential of 3 V. Additionally, a model organic compound (methylene blue) was electrochemically transformed at high efficiency (90%) in a single pass through the anodically charged ECM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenyan Duan
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California , Riverside 92521, California, United States
| | - Avner Ronen
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California , Riverside 92521, California, United States
| | - Sharon Walker
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California , Riverside 92521, California, United States
| | - David Jassby
- Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of California , Riverside 92521, California, United States
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