Role of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in progression of mouse skin carcinogenesis

A caffeic acid electrochemical sensor amplified with GNR/CoFe2O4@NiO and 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate; a new perspective for food analysis

Determining Caffeic acid is important as an antioxidant compound in food. In this study, caffeic acid (CA) was measured using a carbon paste electrode modified with GNR/CoFe₂O₄@NiO and 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate (EMIM Ac) as ion liquid. A simple sensor showed a higher current than a bare carbon paste; thus, it can be said that the modified electrode has a higher sensitivity for detecting CA. The linear range of this sensor and its detection limit was equal to 0.01-100.0 μM and 0.01 μM, respectively. Moreover, the developed electrode indicated outstanding selectivity in the presence of several interferences, high sensitivity, reproducibility, and long-term stability. The percentage recovery of CA obtained with the developed sensor affirmed its reliability for CA determination in real samples. The modified sensor's accuracy was confirmed to identify this analyte according to the results.

Ellagic acid inhibits migration and invasion by prostate cancer cell lines

Polyphenolic compounds from pomegranate fruit extracts (PFEs) have been reported to possess antiproliferative, pro-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory and anti-invasion effects in prostate and other cancers. However, the mechanisms responsible for the inhibition of cancer invasion remain to be clarified. In the present study, we investigated anti-invasive effects of ellagic acid (EA) in androgen-independent human (PC-3) and rat (PLS10) prostate cancer cell lines in vitro. The results indicated that non-toxic concentrations of EA significantly inhibited the motility and invasion of cells examined in migration and invasion assays. The EA treatment slightly decreased secretion of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 but not MMP-9 from both cell lines. We further found that EA significantly reduced proteolytic activity of collagenase/gelatinase secreted from the PLS-10 cell line. Collagenase IV activity was also concentration-dependently inhibited by EA. These results demonstrated that EA has an ability to inhibit invasive potential of prostate cancer cells through action on protease activity.

Trim44 facilitates the migration and invasion of human lung cancer cells via the NF-κB signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Trim44 is an important member of the tripartite motif-containing protein (TRIM) family. Recent research reported that Trim44 might play an important role in tumorigenesis, although its role in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and the related mechanisms is not yet known.

METHODS

In this study we analyzed 30 pairs of NSCLC tumors and the matched adjacent normal tissue to define the relationship between Trim44 and NSCLC tumors. The function of Trim44 in cell migration and invasion was determined by overexpression of Trim44 in normal bronchial epithelial cell line 16HE or knockdown of Trim44 in A549 cells, respectively. Whether Trim44-mediated NF-κB signaling activation was involved in Trim44-mediated promotion of lung cancer was tested by q-PCR analysis and cell migration and invasion assay using PDTC, an inhibitor of NF-κB.

RESULTS

We found that Trim44 was upregulated in NSCLC tumors (14/30 cases; 46.7%). Furthermore, Trim44 was upregulated in many NSCLC cell lines, especially in A549 and H441. Moreover, Trim44 significantly enhanced cell migration and invasion ability, which was related to increased CXCR6 and matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9). Knockdown of Trim44 in A549 cells by siRNA showed a diminished effect in cell migration and invasion. Further investigation revealed that blocking the NF-κB signaling pathway using PDTC, an inhibitor of NF-κB, reversed the expression of CXCR6 and MMP9, and alleviated the promotion of migration and invasion mediated by Trim44.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that Trim44 promotes NSCLC development through activation of NF-κB signaling via upregulating CXCL16 and MMP9 expression.

Regulation of fibulin-2 gene expression by integrin α3β1 contributes to the invasive phenotype of transformed keratinocytes

The laminin-binding integrin α3β1 is highly expressed in epidermal keratinocytes, where it regulates both cell-autonomous and paracrine functions that promote wound healing and skin tumorigenesis. However, the roles for α3β1 in regulating gene expression programs that control the behaviors of immortalized or transformed keratinocytes remain underexplored. In the current study, we used a microarray approach to identify genes that are regulated by α3β1 in immortalized keratinocytes. α3β1-Responsive genes included several genes that are involved in extracellular matrix proteolysis or remodeling, including fibulin-2 and secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine. However, α3β1-dependent induction of specific target genes was influenced by the genetic lesion that triggered immortalization, as α3β1-dependent fibulin-2 expression occurred in cells immortalized by either SV40 large T antigen or p53-null mutation, whereas α3β1-dependent expression of secreted protein acidic and rich in cysteine occurred only in the former cells. Interestingly, quantitative PCR arrays did not reveal strong patterns of α3β1-dependent gene expression in freshly isolated primary keratinocytes, suggesting that this regulation is acquired during immortalization. p53-null keratinocytes transformed with oncogenic RasV12 retained α3β1-dependent fibulin-2 expression, and RNAi-mediated knockdown of fibulin-2 in these cells reduced invasion, although not their tumorigenic potential. These findings demonstrate a prominent role for α3β1 in immortalized/transformed keratinocytes in regulating fibulin-2 and other genes that promote matrix remodeling and invasion.

Kuguacin J, a triterpeniod from Momordica charantia leaf, modulates the progression of androgen-independent human prostate cancer cell line, PC3

In this study, we focused on the in vitro effects of Kuguacin J (KuJ), a purified component of bitter melon (Momordica charantia) leaf extract (BMLE), on the androgen-independent human prostate cancer cell line PC3 and the in vivo effect of dietary BMLE on prostate carcinogenesis using a PC3-xenograph model. KuJ exerted a strong growth-inhibitory effect on PC3 cells. Growth inhibition was mainly through G1-arrest: KuJ markedly decreased the levels of cyclins (D1 and E), cyclin-dependent kinases (Cdk2 and Cdk4) and proliferating cell nuclear antigen. Interestingly, KuJ also dramatically decreased the levels of survivin expressed by PC3 cells. In addition, KuJ exerted anti-invasive effects on PC3 cells, significantly inhibiting migration and invasion: KuJ inhibited secretion of the active forms of MMP-2, MMP-9 and uPA by PC3 cells. In addition, KuJ treatment significantly decreased the expression of membrane type 1-MMP (MT1-MMP) by PC3 cells. In vivo, 1% and 5% BMLE in the diet resulted in 63% and 57% inhibition of PC3 xenograft growth without adverse effect on host body weight. Our results suggest that KuJ is a promising new candidate chemopreventive and chemotherapeutic agent for prostate cancer.

Anethole exerts antimetatstaic activity via inhibition of matrix metalloproteinase 2/9 and AKT/mitogen-activated kinase/nuclear factor kappa B signaling pathways

Anethole is known to possess anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor activities and to be a main constituent of fennel, anise, and camphor. In the present study, we evaluated anti-metastatic and apoptotic effects of anethole on highly-metastatic HT-1080 human fibrosarcoma tumor cells. Despite weak cytotoxicity against HT-1080 cells, anethole inhibited the adhesion to Matrigel and invasion of HT-1080 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Anethole was also able to down-regulate the expression of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2 and -9 and up-regulate the gene expression of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1. The similar inhibitory effect of anethole on MMP-2 and -9 activities was confirmed by zymography assay. Furthermore, anethole significantly decreased mRNA expression of urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA), but not uPA receptor (uPAR). In addition, anethole suppressed the phosphorylation of AKT, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38 and nuclear transcription factor kappa B (NF-κB) in HT-1080 cells. Taken together, our findings indicate that anethole is a potent anti-metastatic drug that functions through inhibiting MMP-2/9 and AKT/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/NF-κB signal transducers.

Momordica charantia leaf extract suppresses rat prostate cancer progression in vitro and in vivo

Cancer metastasis is a major cause of death in cancer patients, with invasion as a first step greatly contributing to the failure of clinical treatments. Any compounds with an inhibitory influence on this process are therefore of prime interest. Momordica charantia (bitter melon) is widely consumed as a vegetable and especially as a folk medicine in Asia. Here, we investigated the anti-invasive effects of bitter melon leaf extract (BMLE) on a rat prostate cancer cell line (PLS10) in vitro and in vivo. The results indicated that non-toxic concentrations of BMLE significantly inhibited the migration and invasion of cells in vitro. The results of zymography showed that BMLE inhibited the secretion of MMP-2, MMP-9 and urokinase plasminogen activator (uPA) from PLS10. Real-time RT-PCR revealed that BMLE not only significantly decreased gene expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9, but also markedly increased the mRNA level of TIMP-2, known to have inhibitory effects on the activity of MMP-2. An EnzChek gelatinase/collagenase assay showed that collagenase type IV activity was partially inhibited by BMLE. In the in vivo study, intravenous inoculation of PLS10 to nude mice resulted in a 100% survival rate in the mice given a BMLE-diet as compared with 80% in the controls. The incidence of lung metastasis did not show any difference, but the percentage lung area occupied by metastatic lesions was slightly decreased in the 0.1% BMLE treatment group and significantly decreased with 1% BMLE treatment as compared with the control. Thus, the results indicate for the first time an anti-metastatic effect of BMLE both in vitro and in vivo.

Anti-invasion effect of rosmarinic acid via the extracellular signal-regulated kinase and oxidation-reduction pathway in Ls174-T cells

Rosmarinic acid is a major phenylpropanoid isolated from Prunella vulgaris L., which is a composition of herbal tea for centuries in China. However, the anti-invasion activity on Ls174-T human colon carcinoma cells has not been studied. In this study, we investigated the anti-metastasis functions according to wound healing assay, adhesion assay, and Transwell assay and found that rosmarinic acid could inhibit migration, adhesion, and invasion dose-dependently. Rosmarinic acid also could decrease the level of reactive oxygen species by enhancing the level of reduced glutathione hormone. In addition, rosmarinic acid repressed the activity and expression of matrix metalloproteinase-2,9. According to Western blot and quantitative real-time PCR assay, rosmarinic acid may inhibit metastasis from colorectal carcinoma mainly via the pathway of extracellular signal-regulated kinase. In animal experiment, intraperitoneal administration of 2 mg of rosmarinic acid reduced weight of tumors and the number of lung nodules significantly compared with those of control group. Therefore, these results demonstrated that rosmarinic acid can effectively inhibit tumor metastasis in vitro and in vivo.

Digging in the "soil" of the aorta to understand the growth of abdominal aortic aneurysms

Extensive studies into the etiology of aortic aneurysm disease have focused on the characteristic and unique inflammatory infiltration and elaboration of products of inflammatory cells which can result in matrix degradation. While these changes clearly have a significant impact on the development of aneurysm disease, little attention has been paid to the changes in the parenchymal cells of the aorta. Under normal conditions, the vascular smooth muscle cells which populate the aortic wall are responsible for the maintenance of the matrix components of the media, particularly the elastic fibers. As our understanding of the mechanisms of aneurysm formation and normal arterial anatomy become more sophisticated, it is clear that specific changes to these smooth muscle cells make them active participants in the medial matrix destruction characteristic of aneurysm disease. As others have described for intimal arterial disease, this is the "soil" from which aortic aneurysms grow.

Tumor promoter TPA stimulates MMP-9 secretion from human keratinocytes by activation of superoxide-producing NADPH oxidase

Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) is involved in physiological tissue remodelling processes as well as in tumor invasion and metastasis. The tumor promoter 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) increases MMP-9 secretion from normal human epidermal keratinocytes (NHEK) in vivo and in vitro. Here we show that the flavoprotein inhibitor diphenyleneiodinium (DPI) and the NADPH oxidase inhibitor apocynin block TPA-induced MMP-9 secretion of NHEK in vitro. Furthermore, N-acetyl-L-cysteine and L-cysteine lowered TPA-induced MMP-9 secretion, suggesting an involvement of reactive oxygen species(ROS). TPA exerts its effect on MMP-9 gene expression and secretion via the superoxide-producing enzyme NADPH oxidase: TPA rapidly stimulates generation of superoxide anion as well as gene expression of two cytosolic NADPH oxidase subunits (p47-phox and p67-phox) after 2 h, which is followed by induction of MMP-9 gene expression after 4 h. Taken together, the novel finding herein is the TPA-induced MMP-9 secretion from normal human epidermal keratinocytes through a NADPH oxidase dependent pathway.

An activating beta1 integrin mutation increases the conversion of benign to malignant skin tumors

Identifying the physiologic relevance of cancer-associated genetic polymorphisms is a major challenge. Several changes in the coding sequence of beta integrin subunits have now been described in human tumors. One of these, T188Ibeta1, was identified as a heterozygous mutation in a poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) and shown to activate extracellular matrix adhesion and inhibit keratinocyte differentiation in vitro. To study its contribution to tumor development, we overexpressed the mutant or wild-type (WT) human beta1 subunit in the basal layer of mouse epidermis using the keratin 14 promoter. The transgenic integrins were expressed at the cell surface and were functional, with the T188Ibeta1 subunit promoting cell spreading to a greater extent than WTbeta1. Epidermal proliferation and differentiation were unaffected and no expansion of the stem cell compartment was detected. During chemical carcinogenesis, both transgenes increased papilloma formation, but only the T188Ibeta1 transgene stimulated the conversion of papillomas to SCCs. Papillomas bearing the mutation showed increased Erk activity and reduced differentiation. SCCs expressing T188Ibeta1 were less well-differentiated than those expressing WTbeta1. These observations establish that the expression of a genetic variant in the I-like domain of beta1 integrins does not affect normal epidermal homeostasis, but increases tumor susceptibility and influences tumor type.

The Increased Expression of Matrix Metalloproteinase-9 Messenger RNA in the Non-lesional Skin of Patients with Large Plaque Psoriasis Vulgaris

BACKGROUND

A difference of the interleukin-18 (IL-18) mRNA expression among several proinflammatory genes was previously observed between large plaque (LP) psoriasis patients (more than 5 cm lesions are typical) and small plaque (SP) psoriasis patients (1~2 cm lesions are typical). Therefore, it is necessary to test whether there is any difference in the expression of the genes that activate IL-18 or the expression of genes that are induced by IL-18.

OBJECTIVE

To test the differential mRNA expressions of caspase-1, STAT-6, MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9 and TIMP-1 according to the clinical types of psoriasis vulgaris lesions in Korean patients, we have analyzed the skin samples of psoriasis vulgaris patients.

METHODS

The total cellular RNA of skin samples from groups of patient with LP and SP psoriasis was analyzed by performing real-time PCR (the Taqman method) to compare the differences in the mRNA expressions.

RESULTS

The caspase-1 and STAT-6 mRNA expression levels from the SP lesional skin of the patients were increased compared with the caspase-1 and STAT-6 mRNA expression levels from SP non-lesional skin or normal skin, but these expression levels from the SP non-lesional skin were not significantly different from those of the LP non-lesional skin. Among MMP-1, MMP-2, MMP-9 and TIMP-1, the expressions of MMP-1, MMP-2 and MMP-9 mRNA were increased in the SP lesional skin compared with those of the SP non-lesional skin. The MMP-1 mRNA expressions in both the LP and SP lesional skin were increased compared with those in the normal skin (p=0.028 and p=0.007 respectively). The MMP-9 mRNA expression in the LP non-lesional skin was elevated compared with the MMP-9 mRNA expression in the SP non-lesional skin (p=0.047). The TIMP-1 mRNA expression levels from the non-lesional skin and the lesional skin of the psoriasis patients and the normal skin samples were not significantly different.

CONCLUSION

The increased expression of MMP-9 mRNA in the LP non-lesional skin compared to that of the SP non-lesional skin in the psoriatic skin suggests that the increased MMP-9 mRNA expression is related to the large size type of lesion.

An immortalization-dependent switch in integrin function up-regulates MMP-9 to enhance tumor cell invasion

Integrins, the major receptors for cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix, play important roles during tumor progression. However, it is still unclear whether genetic lesions that occur during carcinoma development can lead to altered integrin function, and how changes in integrin function contribute to subsequent carcinoma progression. Loss-of-function mutations in p53 and activating mutations in H-Ras, which immortalize and transform epithelial cells, respectively, are common causal events in squamous cell carcinoma (SCC). Phenotypes resulting from these two genetic lesions promote SCC progression and are, therefore, potential targets for anticancer therapies. We developed a model system of keratinocyte transformation that has allowed us to investigate the individual roles of p53 mutation and oncogenic Ras mutation in the acquisition of integrin alpha3beta1-regulated phenotypes that promote SCC progression. Using this model, we show that keratinocyte immortalization by p53-null mutation causes a switch in alpha3beta1 function that induces matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 gene expression in tumorigenic cells. This acquired alpha3beta1-dependent regulation of MMP-9 was maintained during subsequent transformation by oncogenic Ras, and it promoted invasion of tumorigenic keratinocytes. Our results show that loss of p53 function leads to changes in integrin-mediated gene regulation that occur during SCC progression and play a critical role in tumor cell invasion.

Inhibitory effect of DA-125, a new anthracyclin analog antitumor agent, on the invasion of human fibrosarcoma cells by down-regulating the matrix metalloproteinases

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), zinc-dependent proteolytic enzymes, play a pivotal role in tumor metastasis by cleavage of extracellular matrix as well as non-matrix substrates. In this study, we examined the influence of DA-125, a new anthracyclin analog, on the gene expression of MMPs (MMP-2, MMP-9 and MT1-MMP), tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases (TIMP-1 and TIMP-2) and in vitro invasiveness of human fibrosarcoma cells. Dose-dependent decreases of MMPs and TIMPs mRNA levels were observed in DA-125-treated HT1080 human fibrosarcoma cells detected by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction. Gelatin zymography analysis also showed a significant down-regulation of MMP-2 and MMP-9 expression in HT1080 cells treated with DA-125 compared to controls. In addition, DA-125 inhibited the invasion, motility and cell migration, and colony formation of tumor cells. These data, therefore, provide direct evidence for the role of DA-125 as a potential cancer chemotherapeutic agent, which can markedly inhibit the invasive capacity of malignant cells. Further, to clarify the transcriptional regulatory pathway, we primarily investigated the role of nuclear factor-kappaB (NF-kappaB) in the expression of MMPs by DA-125 in HT1080 cells. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay demonstrated that DA-125 modulates the binding activity of NF-kappaB. Using the luciferase reporter gene assay, a dose-dependent down-regulation of NF-kappaB-mediated luciferase expression was also observed. These results suggest that DA-125 down-regulates MMPs expression in HT1080 cells through the NF-kappaB-mediated pathway.

TNF-alpha regulates epithelial expression of MMP-9 and integrin alphavbeta6 during tumour promotion. A role for TNF-alpha in keratinocyte migration?

Mice deficient in TNF-alpha (TNF-alpha(-/-) mice) are resistant to skin carcinogenesis and expression of MMP-9 is inhibited in TNF-alpha(-/-) mice during skin tumour development. In the early stages of tumour promotion, MMP-9 protein initially localized to the follicular epidermis but subsequently began to accumulate in the interfollicular epidermis of wild-type but not TNF-alpha(-/-) mice. Inhibition of TNF-alpha or MMP-9 function reduced keratinocyte migration in vitro. In addition, a deficiency of TNF-alpha delayed re-epithelialization in vivo and this correlated with reduced MMP-9 expression. Collectively, these data suggest that MMP-9 regulates keratinocyte migration in a TNF-alpha-dependent manner. Expression profiling of genes that control cell adhesion and migration revealed markedly lower levels of the integrin subunits alphav and beta6 in TNF-alpha(-/-) compared with wild-type keratinocytes in vitro. alphavbeta6 expression was upregulated by keratinocytes in vitro and during tumour promotion in vivo in a TNF-alpha-dependent manner. Furthermore, alphavbeta6 blockade significantly inhibited keratinocyte migration and TNF-alpha-stimulated MMP-9 expression in vitro. These data illustrate a novel TNF-alpha-dependent mechanism for the control of alphavbeta6 expression and suggest one pathway for TNF-alpha regulation of MMP-9. Increased MMP-9 and alphavbeta6 expression may stimulate epithelial cell migration during tumour formation and may be one mechanism whereby TNF-alpha acts as an endogenous tumour promoter.

Expression of both TNF-alpha receptor subtypes is essential for optimal skin tumour development

Keratinocyte-derived TNF-alpha acts as an endogenous tumour promoter and can also regulate AP-1 activity in mouse epidermis. To gain further insight into TNF-alpha signalling during skin tumour formation, mice deficient in TNFR1 (TNFR1-/- mice) or TNFR2 (TNFR2-/- mice) were subjected to chemical carcinogenesis. Tumour multiplicity was significantly reduced in TNFR1-/- and TNFR2-/- mice compared to wild-type (wt) mice, suggesting that both receptors have protumour activity. However, TNFR1-/- mice were markedly more resistant to tumour development than TNFR2-/- mice indicating that TNFR1 is the major mediator of TNF-alpha-induced tumour formation. TNFR1 and TNFR2 were both expressed in wt epidermis during tumour promotion and by primary keratinocytes in vitro. TPA-induced c-Jun expression was transient in TNFR1-/- and TNFR2-/- compared to wt epidermis and this was reflected by reduced induction of the AP-1-responsive genes granulocyte/macrophage-colony stimulating factor, matrix metalloproteinase-9 and matrix metalloproteinase-3. These genes were differentially regulated in TNFR1-/- compared to TNFR2-/- epidermis, suggesting that the TNF-alpha receptors act independently via different AP-1 complexes to transduce TNF-alpha signals during tumour promotion. In addition, TNFR2 cooperated with TNFR1 to optimise TNFR1-mediated TNF-alpha bioactivity on keratinocytes in vitro. Our data provide further insight into TNF-alpha signalling in malignancy and provide some rationale for the use of TNF-alpha antagonists in the treatment of cancer.

Hyaluronan-oligosaccharide-induced transcription of metalloproteases

Activated dendritic epidermal Langerhans cells and metastatic tumour cells share many properties. Both cell types can invade the surrounding tissue, enter the lymphatic system and travel to regional lymph nodes. We have recently shown that fragments of the extracellular matrix component hyaluronan, which are typically produced at sites of inflammation, can activate dendritic cells. Upon activation, dendritic cells upregulate expression of matrix metalloproteases (MMPs). These observations prompted us to investigate whether exposure to hyaluronan fragments also induces MMP expression in tumour cells. Here, we report that MMP-9, MMP-13 and urokinase plasminogen activator are upregulated in murine 3LL tumour cells after exposure to mixed-size hyaluronan. Similarly upregulated MMP-9 and MMP-13 expression was observed in primary fibroblasts. By using size-fractionated hyaluronan preparations, we show that the enhanced expression of MMP-9 and MMP-13 is only induced by small hyaluronan (HA) fragments. Although our data suggest that HA-fragment-induced MMP-9 and MMP-13 expression is receptor mediated, they rule out an involvement of the hyaluronan receptors CD44, RHAMM/IHAP and TLR-4. Finally, we show that HA fragment-induced MMP-9 transcription is mediated via NF-κB. Our results suggest that the metastasis-associated HA degradation in tumours might promote invasion by inducing MMP expression.

Alterations in signal transduction pathways implicated in tumour progression during multistage mouse skin carcinogenesis

The multistage mouse skin carcinogenesis model, although an artificial one, is an ideal system to study the timing of qualitative and quantitative alterations which take place during the different stages of chemical carcinogenesis, allowing analysis of the events that lead to the transition from the stage of initiation to the stage of promotion and finally to the progression of carcinogenesis. In this review we focus on the role of the H-ras gene and its target molecules during mouse skin carcinogenesis. Besides H-ras, which is a critical target of chemical carcinogens, we report alterations in oncosuppressor genes. Finally, we examine the potential suppression of metastatic dynamics of spindle cells after biological or chemical inhibition of the signalling cascades involved in mouse skin carcinogenesis.