Morphology-based mammalian stem cell tests reveal potential developmental toxicity of donepezil

Validation of a mouse 3D gastruloid-based embryotoxicity assay in reference to the ICH S5(R3) guideline chemical exposure list

There is growing interest in establishing alternative methods in place of conventional animal tests to assess the developmental and reproductive toxicity (DART) of chemicals. Gastruloids are 3D aggregates of pluripotent stem cells that spontaneously exhibit axial elongation morphogenesis similar to gastrulation. They have been explored as in vitro embryogenesis models for developmental and toxicological studies. Here, a mouse gastruloid-based assay was validated for DART assessment in accordance with the ICH S5(R3) guideline, which provides the plasma concentration data of various reference drugs in rodents, specifically Cmax and AUC for NOAEL and LOAEL. First, adverse effect concentrations of the reference drugs and their known metabolites on gastruloid development were determined based on morphological impact, namely reduced growth or aberrant elongation. Then, the NOAEL to LOAEL concentration range obtained from the gastruloid assay was compared with that in rodents to examine similarities in sensitivity between the in vitro and in vivo assays for each chemical. For 18 out of the 24 reference drugs that have both NOAEL and LOAEL information in rodents, the sensitivity of the gastruloid assay was comparable to the in vivo assay within an 8-fold concentration margin. For 7 out of the 8 additional reference drugs that have only NOAEL or LOAEL information in rodents, the gastruloid assay was in line with the in vivo data. Altogether, these results support the effectiveness of the gastruloid assay, which may be exploited as a non-animal alternative method for DART assessment.

Developmental toxicity of remdesivir, an anti-COVID-19 drug, is implicated by in vitro assays using morphogenetic embryoid bodies of mouse and human pluripotent stem cells

BACKGROUND

Remdesivir is an antiviral drug approved for the treatment of COVID-19, whose developmental toxicity remains unclear. More information about the safety of remdesivir is urgently needed for people of childbearing potential, who are affected by the ongoing pandemic. Morphogenetic embryoid bodies (MEBs) are three-dimensional (3D) aggregates of pluripotent stem cells that recapitulate embryonic body patterning in vitro, and have been used as effective embryo models to detect the developmental toxicity of chemical exposures specifically and sensitively.

METHODS

MEBs were generated from mouse P19C5 and human H9 pluripotent stem cells, and used to examine the effects of remdesivir. The morphological effects were assessed by analyzing the morphometric parameters of MEBs after exposure to varying concentrations of remdesivir. The molecular impact of remdesivir was evaluated by measuring the transcript levels of developmental regulator genes.

RESULTS

The mouse MEB morphogenesis was impaired by remdesivir at 1-8 μM. Remdesivir affected MEBs in a manner dependent on metabolic conversion, and its potency was higher than GS-441524 and GS-621763, presumptive anti-COVID-19 drugs that act similarly to remdesivir. The expressions of developmental regulator genes, particularly those involved in axial and somite patterning, were dysregulated by remdesivir. The early stage of MEB development was more vulnerable to remdesivir exposure than the later stage. The morphogenesis and gene expression profiles of human MEBs were also impaired by remdesivir at 1-8 μM.

CONCLUSIONS

Remdesivir impaired mouse and human MEBs at concentrations that are comparable to the therapeutic plasma levels in humans, urging further investigation into the potential impact of remdesivir on developing embryos.

Gastruloids: A Novel System for Disease Modelling and Drug Testing

By virtue of its inaccessible nature, mammalian implantation stage development has remained one of the most enigmatic and hard to investigate periods of embryogenesis. Derived from pluripotent stem cells, gastruloids recapitulate key aspects of gastrula-stage embryos and have emerged as a powerful in vitro tool to study the architectural features of early post-implantation embryos. While the majority of the work in this emerging field has focused on the use of gastruloids to model embryogenesis, their tractable nature and suitability for high-throughput scaling, has presented an unprecedented opportunity to investigate both developmental and environmental aberrations to the embryo as they occur in vitro. This review summarises the recent developments in the use of gastruloids to model congenital anomalies, their usage in teratogenicity testing, and the current limitations of this emerging field.

Toward better assessments of developmental toxicity using stem cell-based in vitro embryogenesis models

In the past few decades, pluripotent stem cells have been explored as nonanimal alternatives to assess the developmental toxicity of chemicals. To date, numerous versions of stem cell-based assays have been reported that are allegedly effective. Nonetheless, none of the assays has become the gold standard in developmental toxicity assessment. Why? This article discusses several issues in the hope of facilitating the refinement of stem cell assays and their acceptance as the cornerstone in predictive developmental toxicology. Each stem cell assay is built on a limited representation of embryogenesis, so that multiple assays are needed to detect the diverse effects of various chemicals. To validate and compare the strengths and weaknesses of individual assays, standardized lists of reference chemicals should be established. Reference lists should consist of exposures defined by toxicokinetic data, namely maternal plasma concentrations that cause embryonic death or malformations, and also by the effects on the molecular machineries that control embryogenesis. Although not entirely replacing human or animal tests, carefully selected stem cell assays should serve as practical and ethical alternatives to proactively identify chemical exposures that disturb embryogenesis. To achieve this goal, unprecedented levels of coordination and conviction are required among research and regulatory communities.

Thin fluorinated polymer film microcavity arrays for 3D cell culture and label-free automated feature extraction

There is an increasing need for automated label-free morphometric analysis using brightfield microscopy images of 3D cell culture systems. This requires automated feature detection which can be achieved by improving the image contrast, e.g. by reducing the refractive index mismatch in the light path. Here, a novel microcavity platform fabricated using microthermoforming of thin fluorinated ethylene-propylene (FEP) films which match the refractive index of cell culture medium and provide a homogenous background signal intensity is described. FEP is chemically inert, mechanically stable and has been used as a substrate for light sheet microscopy. The microcavities promote formation of mouse embryonic stem cell (mESC) aggregates, which show axial elongation and germ layer specification similar to embryonic development. A label-free feature extraction pipeline based on a machine-learning plugin for FIJI is used to extract morphometric features from time-lapse imaging in a highly robust and reproducible manner. Lastly, the pipeline is utilized for testing the effect of the drug Latrunculin A on the mESC aggregates, highlighting the platform's potential for high-content screening (HCS) in drug discovery. This new microengineered tool is an important step towards label-free imaging of free-floating stem cell aggregates and paves the way for high-content drug testing and translational studies.

Dolutegravir impairs stem cell-based 3D morphogenesis models in a manner dependent on dose and timing of exposure: an implication for its developmental toxicity

Dolutegravir is an anti-retroviral drug of the integrase strand transfer inhibitor class used to treat HIV infection. It is the recommended first-line regimen for most people, including women of childbearing age. However, some human and animal studies have suggested that dolutegravir causes birth defects, although its developmental toxicity remains controversial. Here, we investigated the adverse effects of dolutegravir using pluripotent stem cell-based in vitro morphogenesis models that have previously been validated as effective tools to assess the developmental toxicity of various chemicals. Dolutegravir diminished the growth and axial elongation of the morphogenesis model of mouse pluripotent stem cells at exposures of 2 μM and above in a concentration-dependent manner. Concomitantly, dolutegravir altered the expression profiles of developmental regulator genes involved in embryonic patterning. The adverse effects were observed when the morphogenesis model was exposed to dolutegravir at early stages of development, but not at later stages. The potency and molecular impact of dolutegravir on the morphogenesis model were distinct from other integrase strand transfer inhibitors. Lastly, dolutegravir altered the growth and gene expression profiles of the morphogenesis model of human embryonic stem cells at 1 μM and above. These studies demonstrate that dolutegravir impairs morphological and molecular aspects of the in vitro morphogenesis models in a manner dependent on dose and timing of exposure through mechanisms that are unrelated to its action as an integrase strand transfer inhibitor. This finding will be useful for interpreting the conflicting outcomes regarding the developmental toxicity of dolutegravir in human and animal studies.

Exploring the binding mode of donepezil with calf thymus DNA using spectroscopic and molecular docking methods

Donepezil (DNP) is one of approved drugs to treat Alzheimer's disease (AD). However, the potential effect of DNP on DNA is still unclear. Therefore, the interaction of DNP with calf thymus DNA (DNA) was studied in vitro using spectroscopic and molecular docking methods. Steady-state and transient fluorescence experiments showed that there was a clear binding interaction between DNP and DNA, resulting from DNP fluorescence being quenched using DNA. DNP and DNA have one binding site between them, and the binding constant (K_b ) was 0.78 × 10⁴ L·mol^-1 at 298 K. In this binding process, hydrophobic force was the main interaction force, because enthalpy change (ΔH) and entropy change (ΔS) of DNP-DNA were 67.92 kJ·mol^-1 and 302.96 J·mol^-1 ·K^-1 , respectively. DNP bound to DNA in a groove-binding mode, which was verified using a competition displacement study and other typical spectroscopic methods. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrum results showed that DNP interacted with guanine (G) and cytosine (C) bases of DNA. The molecular docking results further supported the results of spectroscopic experiments, and suggested that both Pi-Sigma force and Pi-Alkyl force were the major hydrophobic force functioning between DNP and DNA.

Methoxyacetic acid inhibits histone deacetylase and impairs axial elongation morphogenesis of mouse gastruloids in a retinoic acid signaling-dependent manner

BACKGROUND

Teratogenic potential has been linked to various industrial compounds. Methoxyacetic acid (MAA) is a primary metabolite of the widely used organic solvent and plasticizer, methoxyethanol and dimethoxyethyl phthalate, respectively. Studies using model animals have shown that MAA acts as the proximate teratogen that causes various malformations in developing embryos. Nonetheless, the molecular mechanisms by which MAA exerts its teratogenic effects are not fully understood.

METHODS

Gastruloids of mouse P19C5 pluripotent stem cells, which recapitulate axial elongation morphogenesis of gastrulation-stage embryos, were explored as an in vitro model to investigate the teratogenic action of MAA. Morphometric parameters of gastruloids were measured to evaluate the morphogenetic effect, and transcript levels of various developmental regulator genes were examined to assess the impact on gene expression patterns. The effects of MAA on the level of retinoic acid (RA) signaling and histone deacetylase activity were also measured.

RESULTS

MAA reduced axial elongation of gastruloids at concentrations comparable to the teratogenic plasma level (5 mM) in vivo. MAA at 4 mM significantly altered the expression profiles of developmental regulator genes. In particular, it upregulated the RA signaling target genes. The concomitant suppression of RA signaling using a pharmacological agent alleviated the morphogenetic effect of MAA. MAA at 4 mM also significantly reduced the activity of purified histone deacetylase protein.

CONCLUSIONS

MAA impaired axial elongation morphogenesis in a RA signaling-dependent manner in mouse gastruloids, possibly through the inhibition of histone deacetylase.

A New Microengineered Platform for 4D Tracking of Single Cells in a Stem-Cell-Based In Vitro Morphogenesis Model

Recently developed stem-cell-based in vitro models of morphogenesis can help shed light on the mechanisms involved in embryonic patterning. These models are showcased using traditional cell culture platforms and materials, which allow limited control over the biological system and usually do not support high-content imaging. In contrast, using advanced microengineered tools can help in microscale control, long-term culture, and real-time data acquisition from such biological models and aid in elucidating the underlying mechanisms. Here, a new culturing, manipulation and analysis platform is described to study in vitro morphogenesis using thin polycarbonate film-based microdevices. A pipeline consisting of open-source software to quantify 3D cell movement using 4D image acquisition is developed to analyze cell migration within the multicellular clusters. It is shown that the platform can be used to control and study morphogenesis in non-adherent cultures of the P19C5 mouse stem cell line and mouse embryonic stem cells (mESCs) that show symmetry breaking and axial elongation events similar to early embryonic development. Using the new platform, it is found that localized cell proliferation and coordinated cell migration result in elongation morphogenesis of the P19C5 aggregates. Further, it is found that polarization and elongation of mESC aggregates are dependent on directed cell migration.

Single and joint toxic effects of four antibiotics on some metabolic pathways of zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae

In China, antibiotics are commonly used for human and veterinary medicine, and they are present in various environmental media. Thus, the toxic effects of antibiotics on organisms have attracted the attention of society and scientists alike. In this study, zebrafish embryos were used to test the single and joint toxicity of four antibiotics, sulfamonomethoxine (SMM), cefotaxime sodium (CFT), tetracycline (TC), enrofloxacin (ENR), and their combinations, combining the results of experimental and omics techniques. Following exposure to antibiotics for 120 h, the body lengths of zebrafish larvae in all 100 μg/L antibiotic groups were significantly shortened, and the reactive oxygen species (ROS) content in the 100 μg/L Mix group was significantly increased. Transcriptome sequencing (RNA-seq) showed that the mRNA level of numerous genes was significantly changed in the five antibiotic treatment groups. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analysis of the differentially expressed genes revealed a significant enrichment of the steroid biosynthesis and other metabolism pathways. Hub gene analysis highlighted dhcr24, acat1, aldh1a2, aldh8a1, suclg2, hadh, and hsdl2 as the key genes, and hub gene expression changes because of the antibiotic treatment suggested that the metabolic system of the zebrafish larvae was severely disrupted by the interaction with other genes. In conclusion, single or joint exposure to different antibiotics at environmental concentrations affected the early development and metabolic system of zebrafish larvae, and our results provide fundamental evidence for future studies of antibiotic toxicity in aquatic organisms.

Exposure-based assessment of chemical teratogenicity using morphogenetic aggregates of human embryonic stem cells

Pluripotent stem cells recapitulate many aspects of embryogenesis in vitro. Here, we established a novel culture system to differentiate human embryonic stem cell aggregates (HESCA), and evaluated its utility for teratogenicity assessment. Culture of HESCA with modulators of developmental signals induced morphogenetic and molecular changes associated with differentiation of the paraxial mesoderm and neuroectoderm. To examine impact of teratogenic exposures on HESCA differentiation, 18 compounds were tested, for which adequate information on in vivo plasma concentrations is available. HESCA treated with each compound were examined for gross morphology and transcript levels of 15 embryogenesis regulator genes. Significant alterations in the transcript levels were observed for 94% (15/16) of the teratogenic exposures within 5-fold margin, whereas no alteration was observed for 92% (11/12) of the non-teratogenic exposures. Our study demonstrates that transcriptional changes in HESCA serve as predictive indicator of teratogenicity in a manner comparable to in vivo exposure levels.

RHOA activity in expanding blastocysts is essential to regulate HIPPO-YAP signaling and to maintain the trophectoderm-specific gene expression program in a ROCK/actin filament-independent manner

STUDY QUESTION

What molecular signals are required to maintain the functional trophectoderm (TE) during blastocyst expansion of the late stage of preimplantation development?

SUMMARY ANSWER

The activity of ras homology family member A (RHOA) GTPases is necessary to retain the expanded blastocyst cavity and also to sustain the gene expression program specific to TE.

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

At the early stages of preimplantation development, the precursor of the TE lineage is generated through the molecular signals that integrate RHOA, RHO-associated coiled-coil containing protein kinase (ROCK), the apicobasal cell polarity, and the HIPPO-Yes-associated protein (YAP) signaling pathway. By contrast, molecular mechanisms regulating the maintenance of the TE characteristics at the later stage, which is crucial for blastocyst hatching and implantation, are scarcely understood.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

Expanding mouse blastocysts, obtained from crosses of the F1 (C57BL6 × DBA/2) strain, were exposed to chemical agents that interfere with RHOA, ROCK, or the actin cytoskeleton for up to 8 h, and effects on the blastocyst cavity, HIPPO-YAP signaling, and cell lineage-specific gene expression profiles were examined.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

Mouse embryos at the embryonic stage E3.5 (expanding blastocysts) and E4.5 (fully expanded blastocysts) were treated with RHOA inhibitor (C3 exoenzyme), ROCK inhibitor (Y27632), or actin filament disruptors (cytochalasin B and latrunculin A). The integrity of the blastocyst cavity was evaluated based on the gross morphology. Effects on HIPPO-YAP signaling were assessed based on the presence of nuclearized YAP protein by immunofluorescence staining and the expression of YAP/TEA domain family member (TEAD) target genes by quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR). The impact of these disruptors on cell lineages was evaluated based on expression of the TE-specific and inner cell mass-specific marker genes by qRT-PCR. The integrity of the apicobasal cell polarity was assessed by localization of protein kinase C zeta (PRKCZ; apical) and scribbled planar cell polarity (SCRIB; basal) proteins by immunofluorescence staining. For comparisons, cultured cell lines, NIH/3T3 (mouse fibroblast) and P19C5 (mouse embryonal carcinoma), were also treated with RHOA inhibitor, ROCK inhibitor, and actin filament disruptors for up to 8 h, and effects on HIPPO-YAP signaling were assessed based on expression of YAP/TEAD target genes by qRT-PCR. Each experiment was repeated using three independent batches of embryos (n = 40-80 per batch) or cell collections. Statistical analyses of data were performed, using one-way ANOVA and two-sample t-test.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

Inhibition of RHOA deflated the cavity, diminished nuclear YAP (P < 0.01), and down-regulated the YAP/TEAD target and TE-specific marker genes in both E3.5 and E4.5 blastocysts (P < 0.05), indicating that the maintenance of the key TE characteristics is dependent on RHOA activity. However, inhibition of ROCK or disruption of actin filament only deflated the blastocyst cavity, but did not alter HIPPO-YAP signaling or lineage-specific gene expressions, suggesting that the action of RHOA to sustain the TE-specific gene expression program is not mediated by ROCK or the actomyosin cytoskeleton. By contrast, ROCK inhibitor and actin filament disruptors diminished YAP/TEAD target gene expressions in cultured cells to a greater extent than RHOA inhibitor, implicating that the regulation of HIPPO-YAP signaling in expanding blastocysts is distinctly different from that in the cell lines. Furthermore, the apicobasal cell polarity proteins in the expanding blastocyst were mislocalized by ROCK inhibition but not by RHOA inhibition, indicating that cell polarity is not linked to regulation of HIPPO-YAP signaling. Taken together, our study suggests that RHOA activity is essential to maintain the TE lineage in the expanding blastocyst and it regulates HIPPO-YAP signaling and the lineage-specific gene expression program through mechanisms that are independent of ROCK or actomyosin cytoskeleton.

LARGE-SCALE DATA

Not applicable.

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

This study was conducted using one species, the mouse. Direct translation of the experiments and findings to human fertility preservation and ART requires further investigations.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

The elucidation of the mechanisms of TE formation is highly pertinent to fertility preservation in women. Our findings may raise awareness among providers of ART that the TE is sensitive to disturbance even in the late stage of blastocyst expansion and that rational approaches should be devised to avoid conditions that may impair the TE and its function.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTEREST(S)

This study was funded by grants from the Ingeborg v.F. McKee Fund of the Hawaii Community Foundation (16ADVC-78882 to V.B.A.), and the National Institutes of Health (P20 GM103457 and R03 HD088839 to V.B.A.). The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

Fluoxetine Inhibits Canonical Wnt Signaling to Impair Embryoid Body Morphogenesis: Potential Teratogenic Mechanisms of a Commonly Used Antidepressant

Fluoxetine is one of the most commonly prescribed antidepressants in the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) class. Epidemiologic studies have suggested a link between maternal fluoxetine use during pregnancy and an increased incidence of birth defects. However, the mechanisms by which fluoxetine adversely impacts embryonic developments are unknown. Here, we used the mouse P19C5 embryoid body (EB) as a 3D morphogenesis model to investigate the developmental toxicity of fluoxetine. Morphological and molecular changes in P19C5 EBs replicate the processes of axial elongation and patterning seen in early embryos, and these changes are specifically and sensitively altered by exposure to developmental toxicants. Treatment with fluoxetine, or its major metabolite, norfluoxetine, adversely affected EB morphogenesis at concentrations of 6 µM and above. Treatment with other serotonin reuptake inhibitors or serotonin itself did not impair EB morphogenesis, suggesting that the adverse effects of fluoxetine are independent of serotonin signaling. Gene expression analyses showed that various key developmental regulators were affected by fluoxetine, particularly those involved in mesodermal differentiation. Reporter assays demonstrated that fluoxetine inhibited canonical Wnt signaling, and that the pharmacologic activation of canonical Wnt signaling partially alleviated the morphogenetic effects of fluoxetine. Fluoxetine also exhibited cytostatic effects independently of inhibition of the serotonin transporter or canonical Wnt signaling. These results suggest that the SSRI-independent actions of fluoxetine, namely inhibition of canonical Wnt signaling and reduction of cellular proliferation, are largely responsible for the observed adverse morphogenetic impacts. This study provides mechanistic insight for further investigations on the teratogenicity of fluoxetine.

Embryoid body test with morphological and molecular endpoints implicates potential developmental toxicity of trans-resveratrol

Developmental toxicity of compounds, which women of reproductive age are exposed to, should be assessed to minimize the incidence of miscarriage and birth defects. The present study examined the potential developmental toxicity of resveratrol, a dietary supplement widely marketed with various health claims, using the P19C5 embryoid body (EB) morphogenesis assay, which evaluates adverse effects of chemical exposures on tissue growth and axial elongation. Resveratrol (trans isoform) impaired morphogenesis at 4 μM and higher, creating smaller and rounder EBs, whereas cis isoform, and glucuronated and sulfonated metabolites did not. Trans-resveratrol also altered expression levels of developmental regulator genes involved in embryonic patterning, such as Wnt3a, Tbx6, and Cyp26a1. To investigate the mechanisms of trans-resveratrol action, the roles of estrogen receptor, sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), and DNA replication in EB morphogenesis were examined. Neither activators of estrogen receptors (diethylstilbestrol [18 μM] and raloxifene [8 μM]) nor activator of SIRT1 (SRT1720 [2.4-3.2 μM]) caused morphological and molecular alterations that are comparable to trans-resveratrol (10 μM). By contrast, a reduction in the DNA replication rate with aphidicolin (0.4 μM) or hydroxyurea (40 μM) created smaller and rounder EBs and altered the expression levels of Wnt3a, Tbx6, and Cyp26a1 in a manner similar to trans-resveratrol. Consistently, trans-resveratrol significantly reduced the rate of EdU incorporation in P19C5 cells. These results suggest that a reduction in the DNA replication rate is one of the mechanisms by which trans-resveratrol impacts EB development. This study provides mechanistic insight for further investigations on the developmental toxicity of trans-resveratrol.

Exposure-Based Validation of an In Vitro Gastrulation Model for Developmental Toxicity Assays

Establishment of effective non-animal alternatives for developmental toxicity screening assays is desirable to ensure maternal and fetal health outcomes. Validation of such assays requires a comparison between the in vitro responses to chemical exposures and the in vivo impacts of the corresponding compounds at equivalent concentrations. Here, we investigated how the P19C5 gastrulation model responds to 24 compounds at specific concentrations, some of which are categorized as positive exposures based on previously observed detrimental effects on development in vivo, whereas others are categorized as negative exposures due to lack of effects in vivo. The P19C5 gastrulation model consists of in vitro morphogenesis of mouse stem cells aggregated into embryoid bodies (EBs), which recapitulates growth and axial elongation of early embryos during four days of three-dimensional culture. Adverse impacts of chemical exposures were defined as: death, impaired growth, and altered axial elongation of EBs. Ten out of 17 positive exposures caused adverse impacts on EBs. In contrast, only three out of 17 negative exposures adversely affected EBs, although two of the three diminished viability of somatic cell lines (NIH/3T3, HEK293, and JEG3), suggesting general cytotoxicity. Overall, the study showed that 24 out of 34 exposures impacted EB development in a manner concordant with the in vivo developmental effects. Validation of other alternative assays using the same set of chemical exposures will provide information on the strengths and weaknesses of each assay, and should help determine the most effective ensemble of assays to detect a wide range of developmentally toxic exposures.

Developmental toxicity assessment of common excipients using a stem cell-based in vitro morphogenesis model

Various chemical compounds can inflict developmental toxicity when sufficiently high concentrations are exposed to embryos at the critical stages of development. Excipients, such as coloring agents and preservatives, are pharmacologically inactive ingredients that are included in various medications, foods, and cosmetics. However, concentrations that may adversely affect embryo development are largely unknown for most excipients. Here, the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) to inflict developmental toxicity was assessed for three coloring agents (allura red, brilliant blue, and tartrazine) and three preservatives (butylated hydroxyanisole, metabisulfite, and methylparaben). Adverse impact of a compound exposure was determined using the stem cell-based in vitro morphogenesis model, in which three-dimensional cell aggregates, or embryoid bodies (EBs), recapitulate embryonic processes of body axis elongation and patterning. LOAEL to impair EB morphogenesis was 200 μM for methylparaben, 400 μM for butylated hydroxyanisole, 600 μM for allura red and brilliant blue, and 1000 μM for metabisulfite. Gene expression analyses of excipient-treated EBs revealed that butylated hydroxyanisole and methylparaben significantly altered profiles of developmental regulators involved in axial elongation and patterning of the body. The present study may provide a novel in vitro approach to investigate potential developmental toxicity of common excipients with mechanistic insights.

Adverse effect of valproic acid on an in vitro gastrulation model entails activation of retinoic acid signaling

Valproic acid (VPA), an antiepileptic drug, is a teratogen that causes neural tube and axial skeletal defects, although the mechanisms are not fully understood. We previously established a gastrulation model using mouse P19C5 stem cell embryoid bodies (EBs), which exhibits axial patterning and elongation morphogenesis in vitro. Here, we investigated the effects of VPA on the EB axial morphogenesis to gain insights into its teratogenic mechanisms. Axial elongation and patterning of EBs were inhibited by VPA at therapeutic concentrations. VPA elevated expression levels of various developmental regulators, including Cdx1 and Hoxa1, known transcriptional targets of retinoic acid (RA) signaling. Co-treatment of EBs with VPA and BMS493, an RA receptor antagonist, partially rescued axial elongation as well as gene expression profiles. These results suggest that VPA requires active RA signaling to interfere with EB morphogenesis.

An in vitro gastrulation model recapitulates the morphogenetic impact of pharmacological inhibitors of developmental signaling pathways

Certain chemical agents act as teratogens, causing birth defects and fetal deaths when pregnant women are exposed to them. The establishment of in vitro models that recapitulate crucial embryonic events is therefore vital to facilitate screening of potential teratogens. Previously, we created a three-dimensional culture method for mouse P19C5 embryonal carcinoma stem cells that, when cultured as embryoid bodies, display elongation morphogenesis resembling gastrulation, which is the critical event resulting in the germ layers and major body axes. Determination of how well this in vitro morphogenesis represents in vivo gastrulation is essential to assess its applicability as well as to identify limitations of the model for detecting teratogenic agents. Here, we investigated the morphological and molecular characteristics of P19C5 morphogenesis using pharmacological agents that are known to cause abnormal patterning in the embryo in vivo by inhibiting major developmental signaling--e.g., involving Wnt, Nodal, Bone morphogenic protein (Bmp), Fibroblast growth factor (Fgf), Retinoic acid, Notch, and Hedgehog pathways. Inhibitors of Wnt, Nodal, Bmp, Fgf, and Retinoic acid signaling caused distinct changes in P19C5 morphogenesis that were quantifiable using morphometric parameters. These five inhibitors, plus the Notch inhibitor, also altered temporal expression profiles of developmental regulator genes in a manner consistent with the in vivo roles of the corresponding signaling pathways. In contrast, the Hedgehog inhibitor did not have any impact on the process, suggesting an absence of active Hedgehog signaling in these embryoid bodies. These results indicate that the P19C5 in vitro gastrulation model is a promising tool to screen for teratogenic agents that interfere with many of the key developmental signals.