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Zhang C, Deng K, Xu D, Wang H, Liu Y, Chen X, Ze L, Zong X, Wu B, Xu H. Fe-Based Theranostic Agents Respond to the Tumor Microenvironment for MRI-Guided Ferroptosis-/Apoptosis-Inducing Anticancer Therapy. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2022; 8:2610-2623. [PMID: 35652940 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c01626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Tumor microenvironment-specific magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents are conducive to accurate diagnoses by visualization of biochemical and pathological changes for suitable treatment. Herein, we reported a pH-responsive contrast agent DFeZd NP with MRI diagnosis and tumor treatment capabilities. DFeZd NPs can map the pH change by modulating the MR signal in different acid-base environments. Moreover, T1 signals are stronger in the tumor site, which proves efficient in distinguishing malignant tumors from normal tissues, as well as demarcating the tumor boundary. Subsequently, sustained supply of Fe through the Fe-based contrast agent leads to Fe redox cycling and lipid peroxides, inducing ferroptosis in tumor cells. Furthermore, under an acidic tumor microenvironment, in the presence of ascorbic acid, increased Fe2+ is generated, which serves as a stronger inducer of ferroptosis. Moreover, due to the different relaxivity of Fe3+ and Fe2+, redox cycling and ferroptosis in tumors can be monitored by MRI. Therefore, we propose DFeZd NPs as accessible and promising Fe-based dopamine-derived contrast agents for specific MRI imaging and ferroptosis induction for anticancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caiju Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Kai Deng
- Department of Radiology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Dan Xu
- Department of Radiology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Huan Wang
- Department of Radiology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Yue Liu
- Department of Radiology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Xiao Chen
- Department of Radiology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Li Ze
- Department of Radiology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Xinyan Zong
- Department of Radiology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Bo Wu
- Department of Radiology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
| | - Haibo Xu
- Department of Radiology, Zhongnan Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan 430071, P. R. China
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2
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Chen H, Zhou M, Zeng Y, Miao T, Luo H, Tong Y, Zhao M, Mu R, Gu J, Yang S, Han L. Biomimetic Lipopolysaccharide-Free Bacterial Outer Membrane-Functionalized Nanoparticles for Brain-Targeted Drug Delivery. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 9:e2105854. [PMID: 35355446 PMCID: PMC9165477 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202105854] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) severely blocks the intracranial accumulation of most systemic drugs. Inspired by the contribution of the bacterial outer membrane to Escherichia coli K1 (EC-K1) binding to and invasion of BBB endothelial cells in bacterial meningitis, utilization of the BBB invasion ability of the EC-K1 outer membrane for brain-targeted drug delivery and construction of a biomimetic self-assembled nanoparticle with a surface featuring a lipopolysaccharide-free EC-K1 outer membrane are proposed. BBB penetration of biomimetic nanoparticles is demonstrated to occur through the transcellular vesicle transport pathway, which is at least partially dependent on internalization, endosomal escape, and transcytosis mediated by the interactions between outer membrane protein A and gp96 on BBB endothelial cells. This biomimetic nanoengineering strategy endows the loaded drugs with prolonged circulation, intracranial interstitial distribution, and extremely high biocompatibility. Based on the critical roles of gp96 in cancer biology, this strategy reveals enormous potential for delivering therapeutics to treat gp96-overexpressing intracranial malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiyan Chen
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases Research, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouJiangsu215123P. R. China
| | - Mengyuan Zhou
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases Research, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouJiangsu215123P. R. China
| | - Yuteng Zeng
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases Research, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouJiangsu215123P. R. China
| | - Tongtong Miao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases Research, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouJiangsu215123P. R. China
| | - Haoyuan Luo
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases Research, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouJiangsu215123P. R. China
| | - Yang Tong
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases Research, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouJiangsu215123P. R. China
| | - Mei Zhao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases Research, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouJiangsu215123P. R. China
| | - Rui Mu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases Research, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouJiangsu215123P. R. China
| | - Jiang Gu
- National Engineering Research Centre of Immunological Products, Department of Microbiology and Biochemical Pharmacy, College of PharmacyThird Military Medical UniversityChongqing400038P. R. China
| | - Shudi Yang
- Suzhou Polytechnic Institute of AgricultureSuzhou215008P. R. China
| | - Liang Han
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases Research, College of Pharmaceutical SciencesSoochow UniversitySuzhouJiangsu215123P. R. China
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3
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Martin DT, Lee JS, Liu Q, Galiana G, Sprenkle PC, Humphrey PA, Petrylak DP, Weinreb JC, Schulam PG, Weiss RM, Fahmy TM. Targeting prostate cancer with Clostridium perfringens enterotoxin functionalized nanoparticles co-encapsulating imaging cargo enhances magnetic resonance imaging specificity. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2021; 40:102477. [PMID: 34740868 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2021.102477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Magnetic resonance is a key imaging tool for the detection of prostate cancer; however, better tools focusing on cancer specificity are required to distinguish benign from cancerous regions. We found higher expression of claudin-3 (CLDN-3) and -4 (CLDN-4) in higher grade than lower-grade human prostate cancer biopsies (n = 174), leading to the design of functionalized nanoparticles (NPs) with a non-toxic truncated version of the natural ligand clostridium perfringens enterotoxin (C-CPE) that has a strong binding affinity to Cldn-3 and Cldn-4 receptors. We developed a first-of-its-type, C-CPE-NP-based MRI detection tool in a prostate tumor-bearing mouse model. NPs with an average diameter of 152.9 ± 15.7 nm (RS1) had a 2-fold enhancement of tumor specificity compared to larger (421.2 ± 33.8 nm) NPs (RS4). There was a 1.8-fold (P < 0.01) and 1.6-fold (P < 0.01) upregulation of the tumor-to-liver signal intensities of C-RS1 and C-RS4 (functionalized NPs) to controls, respectively. Also, tumor specificity was 3.1-fold higher (P < 0.001) when comparing C-RS1 to C-RS4. This detection tool improved tumor localization of contrast-enhanced MRI, supporting potential clinical applicability.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jung Seok Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT
| | - Qiang Liu
- Department of Urology, Yale University, New Haven, CT
| | - Gigi Galiana
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT
| | | | | | - Daniel P Petrylak
- Department of Urology, Yale University, New Haven, CT; Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT
| | - Jeffery C Weinreb
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale University, New Haven, CT
| | | | | | - Tarek M Fahmy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT
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4
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Lee JS, Han P, Chaudhury R, Khan S, Bickerton S, McHugh MD, Park HB, Siefert AL, Rea G, Carballido JM, Horwitz DA, Criscione J, Perica K, Samstein R, Ragheb R, Kim D, Fahmy TM. Metabolic and immunomodulatory control of type 1 diabetes via orally delivered bile-acid-polymer nanocarriers of insulin or rapamycin. Nat Biomed Eng 2021; 5:983-997. [PMID: 34616050 DOI: 10.1038/s41551-021-00791-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2019] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Oral formulations of insulin are typically designed to improve its intestinal absorption and increase its blood bioavailability. Here we show that polymerized ursodeoxycholic acid, selected from a panel of bile-acid polymers and formulated into nanoparticles for the oral delivery of insulin, restored blood-glucose levels in mice and pigs with established type 1 diabetes. The nanoparticles functioned as a protective insulin carrier and as a high-avidity bile-acid-receptor agonist, increased the intestinal absorption of insulin, polarized intestinal macrophages towards the M2 phenotype, and preferentially accumulated in the pancreas of the mice, binding to the islet-cell bile-acid membrane receptor TGR5 with high avidity and activating the secretion of glucagon-like peptide and of endogenous insulin. In the mice, the nanoparticles also reversed inflammation, restored metabolic functions and extended animal survival. When encapsulating rapamycin, they delayed the onset of diabetes in mice with chemically induced pancreatic inflammation. The metabolic and immunomodulatory functions of ingestible bile-acid-polymer nanocarriers may offer translational opportunities for the prevention and treatment of type 1 diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung Seok Lee
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Patrick Han
- Chemical and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Rabib Chaudhury
- Chemical and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Shihan Khan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Sean Bickerton
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Michael D McHugh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Hyun Bong Park
- Department of Chemistry, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Alyssa L Siefert
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | | | | | - David A Horwitz
- Medicine and Molecular Immunology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Jason Criscione
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Karlo Perica
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Robert Samstein
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Ragy Ragheb
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Dongin Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK, USA
| | - Tarek M Fahmy
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA. .,Chemical and Environmental Engineering, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA. .,Department of Immunobiology, School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA.
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5
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Imran M, Affandi AM, Alam MM, Khan A, Khan AI. Advanced biomedical applications of iron oxide nanostructures based ferrofluids. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2021; 32. [PMID: 34252891 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac137a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Ferrofluids or magnetic nanofluids are highly stable colloidal suspensions of magnetic nanoparticles (NPs) dispersed into various base fluids. These stable ferrofluids possess high thermal conductivity, improved thermo-physical properties, higher colloidal stability, good magnetic properties, and biocompatibility, which are the primary driving forces behind their excellent performance, and thus enable them to be used for a wide range of practical applications. The most studied and advanced ferrofluids are based on iron oxide nanostructures especially NPs, because of their easy and large-scale synthesis at low costs. Although in the last decade, several review articles are available on ferrofluids but mainly focused on preparations, properties, and a specific application. Hence, a collective and comprehensive review article on the recent progress of iron oxide nanostructures based ferrofluids for advanced biomedical applications is undeniably required. In this review, the state of the art of biomedical applications is presented and critically analyzed with a special focus on hyperthermia, drug delivery/nanomedicine, magnetic resonance imaging, and magnetic separation of cells. This review article provides up-to-date information related to the technological advancements and emerging trends in iron oxide nanostructures based ferrofluids research focused on advanced biomedical applications. Finally, conclusions and outlook of iron oxide nanostructures based ferrofluids research for biomedical applications are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohd Imran
- Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, Jazan University, PO Box. 706, Jazan 45142, Saudi Arabia
| | - Adnan Mohammed Affandi
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box 80204, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Md Mottahir Alam
- Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Abdulaziz University, PO Box 80204, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
| | - Afzal Khan
- State Key Laboratory of Silicon Materials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou-310027, People's Republic of China
| | - Asif Irshad Khan
- Computer Science Department, Faculty of Computing and Information Technology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia
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6
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Development and optimization of a new hybrid chitosan-grafted graphene oxide/magnetic nanoparticle system for theranostic applications. J Mol Liq 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2020.114515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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7
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Banik B, Surnar B, Askins BW, Banerjee M, Dhar S. Dual-Targeted Synthetic Nanoparticles for Cardiovascular Diseases. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:6852-6862. [PMID: 31886643 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b19036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerosis is one of the world's most aggressive diseases, claiming over 17.5 million lives per year. This disease is usually caused by high amounts of lipoproteins circulating in the blood stream, which leads to plaque formation. Ultimately, these plaques can undergo thrombosis and lead to major heart damage. A major contributor to these vulnerable plaques is macrophage apoptosis. Development of nanovehicles that carry contrast and therapeutic agents to the mitochondria within these macrophages is attractive for the diagnosis and treatment of atherosclerosis. Here, we report the design and synthesis of a dual-targeted synthetic nanoparticle (NP) to perform the double duty of diagnosis and therapy in atherosclerosis treatment regime. A library of dual-targeted NPs with an encapsulated iron oxide NP, mito-magneto (MM), with a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast enhancement capability was elucidated. Relaxivity measurements revealed that there is a substantial enhancement in transverse relaxivities upon the encapsulation of MM inside the dual-targeted NPs, highlighting the MRI contrast-enhancing ability of these NPs. Successful in vivo imaging documenting the distribution of MM-encapsulated dual-targeted NPs in the heart and aorta in mice ensured the diagnostic potential. The presence of mannose receptor targeting ligands and the optimization of the NP composition facilitated its ability to perform therapeutic duty by targeting the macrophages at the plaque. These dual-targeted NPs with the encapsulated MM were able to show therapeutic potential and did not trigger any toxic immunogenic response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhabatosh Banik
- NanoTherapeutics Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology , University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami , Florida 33136 , United States
| | - Bapurao Surnar
- NanoTherapeutics Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology , University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami , Florida 33136 , United States
| | - Brett W Askins
- Department of Chemistry , University of Georgia , Athens Georgia 30602 , United States
| | - Mainak Banerjee
- NanoTherapeutics Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology , University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami , Florida 33136 , United States
| | - Shanta Dhar
- NanoTherapeutics Research Laboratory, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology , University of Miami Miller School of Medicine , Miami , Florida 33136 , United States
- Sylvester Comprehensive Cancer Center, Miller School of Medicine , University of Miami , Miami , Florida 33136 , United States
- Department of Chemistry , University of Georgia , Athens Georgia 30602 , United States
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8
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Kang C, Kim D. Nanoconfinement-mediated cancer theranostics. Arch Pharm Res 2020; 43:110-117. [PMID: 31989481 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-020-01217-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Despite various therapeutic or diagnostic developments, cancer is still one of the most lethal diseases due to insufficiently adequate treatments and the delay of the early stage of disease detection. An image-guided drug delivery system (IGDDS), as a real-time noninvasive imaging assessment of therapeutic response, has the strong potential to improve the diagnosis and treatment of cancer because its imaging property offers the quantification of nanomedicine at the intended disease sites, the possible assurance of adequate treatment and elimination of undesirable delay of early-stage diagnosis due to low resolution. One of potential modality that overcomes these challenges could be the nanoconfinement of gold (Au) nanoparticles within other nanoparticles called "Particle-in-Particle (PIP)", which is a strong candidate of cancer treatment because of its "theranostic (therapy + diagnostics)" advantages including imaging (e.g., CT) and therapeutic hyperthermia application. In this review, we will elaborate on the current application of theranostic by nanoconfinement. Then, we will narrow down the gold nanoparticle-mediated theranostic application and its nanoconfinement advantages. Finally, the future direction for maximum nanoconfinement mediated cancer therapy will be included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changsun Kang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Rangel College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M University, College Station, USA
| | - Dongin Kim
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Rangel College of Pharmacy, Texas A&M University, College Station, USA.
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9
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Multifunctional magnetic-polymeric nanoparticles based ferrofluids for multi-modal in vitro cancer treatment using thermotherapy and chemotherapy. J Mol Liq 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2019.111549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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10
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Hobson NJ, Weng X, Ashford M, Thanh NT, Schätzlein AG, Uchegbu IF. Facile aqueous, room temperature preparation of high transverse relaxivity clustered iron oxide nanoparticles. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2019.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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11
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One-step synthesis of hydrophilic functionalized and cytocompatible superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) based aqueous ferrofluids for biomedical applications. J Mol Liq 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2018.10.161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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12
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Herman K, Lang ME, Pich A. Tunable clustering of magnetic nanoparticles in microgels: enhanced magnetic relaxivity by modulation of network architecture. NANOSCALE 2018; 10:3884-3892. [PMID: 29419839 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr07539a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
In the present work we used microgels as colloidal containers for the loading of hydrophobic magnetic nanoparticles using the solvent exchange method. We varied systematically two parameters: (i) the crosslinking degree of microgels (1-4.5 mol% crosslinker) and (ii) loading of hydrophobic magnetite nanoparticles (d = 7 nm) in microgels (2-10 wt%). The experimental data show that the interplay between these two parameters provides efficient control over the clustering of magnetic nanoparticles in the microgel structure. Transverse magnetization relaxation measurements indicate that the formation of nanoparticle clusters in microgels induces non-linear enhancement of the relaxivity with the increase of nanoparticle loading in microgels. The results suggest that the modulation of the microgel network architecture can be efficiently applied to trigger self-assembly processes inside microgels and design hybrid colloids with unusual morphologies and properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Herman
- DWI Leibniz Institute for Interactive Materials e.V., Forckenbeckstr. 50, Aachen, 52074, Germany
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13
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Nguyen TDT, Pitchaimani A, Ferrel C, Thakkar R, Aryal S. Nano-confinement-driven enhanced magnetic relaxivity of SPIONs for targeted tumor bioimaging. NANOSCALE 2017; 10:284-294. [PMID: 29210434 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr07035g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) are highly biocompatible and have a versatile synthetic technique based on coprecipitation, reduction-precipitation, and hydrothermal methods, where Fe3+ and Fe2+ react in aqueous solutions; both these ions are present in our body and have clear metabolic pathways; therefore, they have attracted extensive research interest and development in the field of diagnostic imaging and therapy. However, most SPION-based clinical diagnostic contrast agents are discontinued due to severe pain, low transverse magnetic relaxivity range of 80-180 mM-1 s-1, shorter circulation half-life, and lack of disease specificity. Therefore, in this study, we engineered a bone cancer-targeted hybrid nanoconstruct (HNC) with a high transverse magnetic relaxivity of 625 mM-1 s-1, which was significantly higher than that of clinical contrast agents. The engineered HNC is peripherally decorated with a bone-seeking agent, alendronic acid-conjugated phospholipid, exhibiting a hydrodynamic size of 80 nm with a negative surface potential, -35 mV. The interior skeleton of the HNC is composed of biodegradable and biocompatible poly(l-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), in which 5 nm SPIONs are confined. We have successfully tuned the distance between the confined SPIONs from 0.5 to 4 nm, as revealed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images and magnetic resonance image (MRI) phantoms. This cluster confinement dramatically enhances magnetic relaxivity possibly due to the increase in net local magnetization due to proximal field inhomogeneity. In an in vitro examination, 80% of HNC is found to bind with hydroxyapatite (HAp), which when characterized by TEM shows a painting of SPIONs over a HAp crystal. HNC is found to accumulate in mouse osteosarcoma tumor (K7M2 tumor model); both MRI and histological examination of the tumor show the potential of HNC as targeting agents for diagnosis of tumor in the bone.
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14
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Gaudin A, Song E, King AR, Saucier-Sawyer JK, Bindra R, Desmaële D, Couvreur P, Saltzman WM. PEGylated squalenoyl-gemcitabine nanoparticles for the treatment of glioblastoma. Biomaterials 2016; 105:136-144. [PMID: 27521616 DOI: 10.1016/j.biomaterials.2016.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Revised: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 07/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
New treatments for glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) are desperately needed, as GBM prognosis remains poor, mainly due to treatment resistance, poor distribution of therapeutics in the tumor tissue, and fast metabolism of chemotherapeutic drugs in the brain extracellular space. Convection-enhanced delivery (CED) of nanoparticles (NPs) has been shown to improve the delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs to the tumor bed, providing sustained release, and enhancing survival of animals with intracranial tumors. Here we administered gemcitabine, a nucleoside analog used as a first line treatment for a wide variety of extracranial solid tumors, within squalene-based NPs using CED, to overcome the above-mentioned challenges of GBM treatment. Small percentages of poly(ethylene) glycol (PEG) dramatically enhanced the distribution of squalene-gemcitabine nanoparticles (SQ-Gem NPs) in healthy animals and tumor-bearing animals after administration by CED. When tested in an orthotopic model of GBM, SQ-Gem-PEG NPs demonstrated significantly improved therapeutic efficacy compared to free gemcitabine, both as a chemotherapeutic drug and as a radiosensitizer. Furthermore, MR contrast agents were incorporated into the SQ-Gem-PEG NP formulation, providing a way to non-invasively track the NPs during infusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Gaudin
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Eric Song
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Amanda R King
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | | | - Ranjit Bindra
- Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
| | - Didier Desmaële
- Institut Galien Paris-Sud, UMR CNRS 8612, University Paris-Sud XI, Châtenay-Malabry, 92290, France
| | - Patrick Couvreur
- Institut Galien Paris-Sud, UMR CNRS 8612, University Paris-Sud XI, Châtenay-Malabry, 92290, France
| | - W Mark Saltzman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA.
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15
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Singh R, Norret M, House MJ, Galabura Y, Bradshaw M, Ho D, Woodward RC, St Pierre TG, Luzinov I, Smith NM, Lim LY, Iyer KS. Dose-Dependent Therapeutic Distinction between Active and Passive Targeting Revealed Using Transferrin-Coated PGMA Nanoparticles. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2016; 12:351-359. [PMID: 26619362 DOI: 10.1002/smll.201502730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2015] [Revised: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The paradigm of using nanoparticle-based formulations for drug delivery relies on their enhanced passive accumulation in the tumor interstitium. Nanoparticles with active targeting capabilities attempt to further enhance specific delivery of drugs to the tumors via interaction with overexpressed cellular receptors. Consequently, it is widely accepted that drug delivery using actively targeted nanoparticles maximizes the therapeutic benefit and minimizes the off-target effects. However, the process of nanoparticle mediated active targeting initially relies on their passive accumulation in tumors. In this article, it is demonstrated that these two tumor-targeted drug delivery mechanisms are interrelated and dosage dependent. It is reported that at lower doses, actively targeted nanoparticles have distinctly higher efficacy in tumor inhibition than their passively targeted counterparts. However, the enhanced permeability and retention effect of the tumor tissue becomes the dominant factor influencing the efficacy of both passively and actively targeted nanoparticles when they are administered at higher doses. Importantly, it is demonstrated that dosage is a pivotal parameter that needs to be taken into account in the assessment of nanoparticle mediated targeted drug delivery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruhani Singh
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, W. A., 6009, Australia
| | - Marck Norret
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, W. A., 6009, Australia
| | - Michael J House
- School of Physics, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, W. A., 6009, Australia
| | - Yuriy Galabura
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Michael Bradshaw
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, W. A., 6009, Australia
| | - Diwei Ho
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, W. A., 6009, Australia
| | - Robert C Woodward
- School of Physics, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, W. A., 6009, Australia
| | - Timothy G St Pierre
- School of Physics, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, W. A., 6009, Australia
| | - Igor Luzinov
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Nicole M Smith
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, W. A., 6009, Australia
- School of Animal Biology, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, W. A., 6009, Australia
| | - Lee Yong Lim
- School of Medicine and Pharmacology, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, W. A., 6009, Australia
| | - Killugudi Swaminathan Iyer
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, W. A., 6009, Australia
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Stendahl JC, Sinusas AJ. Nanoparticles for Cardiovascular Imaging and Therapeutic Delivery, Part 1: Compositions and Features. J Nucl Med 2015; 56:1469-75. [PMID: 26272808 DOI: 10.2967/jnumed.115.160994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/23/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Imaging agents made from nanoparticles are functionally versatile and have unique properties that may translate to clinical utility in several key cardiovascular imaging niches. Nanoparticles exhibit size-based circulation, biodistribution, and elimination properties different from those of small molecules and microparticles. In addition, nanoparticles provide versatile platforms that can be engineered to create both multimodal and multifunctional imaging agents with tunable properties. With these features, nanoparticulate imaging agents can facilitate fusion of high-sensitivity and high-resolution imaging modalities and selectively bind tissues for targeted molecular imaging and therapeutic delivery. Despite their intriguing attributes, nanoparticulate imaging agents have thus far achieved only limited clinical use. The reasons for this restricted advancement include an evolving scope of applications, the simplicity and effectiveness of existing small-molecule agents, pharmacokinetic limitations, safety concerns, and a complex regulatory environment. This review describes general features of nanoparticulate imaging agents and therapeutics and discusses challenges associated with clinical translation. A second, related review to appear in a subsequent issue of JNM highlights nuclear-based nanoparticulate probes in preclinical cardiovascular imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C Stendahl
- Section of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut Yale Translational Research Imaging Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut; and
| | - Albert J Sinusas
- Section of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut Yale Translational Research Imaging Center, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut; and Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
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Pellowe AS, Gonzalez AL. Extracellular matrix biomimicry for the creation of investigational and therapeutic devices. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2015; 8:5-22. [PMID: 26053111 DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2014] [Revised: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 03/27/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a web of fibrous proteins that serves as a scaffold for tissues and organs, and is important for maintaining homeostasis and facilitating cellular adhesion. Integrin transmembrane receptors are the primary adhesion molecules that anchor cells to the ECM, thus integrating cells with their microenvironments. Integrins play a critical role in facilitating cell-matrix interactions and promoting signal transduction, both from the cell to the ECM and vice versa, ultimately mediating cell behavior. For this reason, many advanced biomaterials employ biomimicry by replicating the form and function of fibrous ECM proteins. The ECM also acts as a reservoir for small molecules and growth factors, wherein fibrous proteins directly bind and present these bioactive moieties that facilitate cell activity. Therefore biomimicry can be enhanced by incorporating small molecules into ECM-like substrates. Biomimetic ECM materials have served as invaluable research tools for studying interactions between cells and the surrounding ECM, revealing that cell-matrix signaling is driven by mechanical forces, integrin engagement, and small molecules. Mimicking pathological ECMs has also elucidated disease specific cell behaviors. For example, biomimetic tumor microenvironments have been used to induce metastatic cell behaviors, and have thereby shown promise for in vitro cancer drug testing and targeting. Further, ECM-like substrates have been successfully employed for autologous cell recolonization for tissue engineering and wound healing. As we continue to learn more about the mechanical and biochemical characteristics of the ECM, these properties can be harnessed to develop new biomaterials, biomedical devices, and therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda S Pellowe
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, USA
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Zhou D, Sun Y, Zheng Y, Ran H, Li P, Wang Z, Wang Z. Superparamagnetic PLGA–iron oxide microspheres as contrast agents for dual-imaging and the enhancement of the effects of high-intensity focused ultrasound ablation on liver tissue. RSC Adv 2015. [DOI: 10.1039/c5ra00880h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Efforts have been made to develop a multifunctional platform that could provide both diagnostic information and a therapeutic effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Zhou
- Institute of Ultrasound Imaging
- Department of Ultrasound
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging
- Chongqing
| | - Yang Sun
- Institute of Ultrasound Imaging
- Department of Ultrasound
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging
- Chongqing
| | - Yuanyi Zheng
- Institute of Ultrasound Imaging
- Department of Ultrasound
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging
- Chongqing
| | - Haitao Ran
- Institute of Ultrasound Imaging
- Department of Ultrasound
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging
- Chongqing
| | - Pan Li
- Institute of Ultrasound Imaging
- Department of Ultrasound
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging
- Chongqing
| | - Zhibiao Wang
- College of Biomedical Engineering
- Chongqing Medical University
- Chongqing
- P. R. China
| | - Zhigang Wang
- Institute of Ultrasound Imaging
- Department of Ultrasound
- The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chongqing Medical University
- Chongqing Key Laboratory of Ultrasound Molecular Imaging
- Chongqing
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Patel SK, Janjic JM. Macrophage targeted theranostics as personalized nanomedicine strategies for inflammatory diseases. Am J Cancer Res 2015; 5:150-72. [PMID: 25553105 PMCID: PMC4279001 DOI: 10.7150/thno.9476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Accepted: 06/28/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory disease management poses challenges due to the complexity of inflammation and inherent patient variability, thereby necessitating patient-specific therapeutic interventions. Theranostics, which integrate therapeutic and imaging functionalities, can be used for simultaneous imaging and treatment of inflammatory diseases. Theranostics could facilitate assessment of safety, toxicity and real-time therapeutic efficacy leading to personalized treatment strategies. Macrophages are an important cellular component of inflammatory diseases, participating in varied roles of disease exacerbation and resolution. The inherent phagocytic nature, abundance and disease homing properties of macrophages can be targeted for imaging and therapeutic purposes. This review discusses the utility of theranostics in macrophage ablation, phenotype modulation and inhibition of their inflammatory activity leading to resolution of inflammation in several diseases.
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Strohbehn G, Coman D, Han L, Ragheb RRT, Fahmy TM, Huttner AJ, Hyder F, Piepmeier JM, Saltzman WM, Zhou J. Imaging the delivery of brain-penetrating PLGA nanoparticles in the brain using magnetic resonance. J Neurooncol 2014; 121:441-9. [PMID: 25403507 DOI: 10.1007/s11060-014-1658-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Current therapy for glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is largely ineffective, with nearly universal tumor recurrence. The failure of current therapy is primarily due to the lack of approaches for the efficient delivery of therapeutics to diffuse tumors in the brain. In our prior study, we developed brain-penetrating nanoparticles that are capable of penetrating brain tissue and distribute over clinically relevant volumes when administered via convection-enhanced delivery (CED). We demonstrated that these particles are capable of efficient delivery of chemotherapeutics to diffuse tumors in the brain, indicating that they may serve as a groundbreaking approach for the treatment of GBM. In the original study, nanoparticles in the brain were imaged using positron emission tomography (PET). However, clinical translation of this delivery platform can be enabled by engineering a non-invasive detection modality using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). For this purpose, we developed chemistry to incorporate superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) into the brain-penetrating nanoparticles. We demonstrated that SPIO-loaded nanoparticles, which retain the same morphology as nanoparticles without SPIO, have an excellent transverse (T(2)) relaxivity. After CED, the distribution of nanoparticles in the brain (i.e., in the vicinity of injection site) can be detected using MRI and the long-lasting signal attenuation of SPIO-loaded brain-penetrating nanoparticles lasted over a one-month timecourse. Development of these nanoparticles is significant as, in future clinical applications, co-administration of SPIO-loaded nanoparticles will allow for intraoperative monitoring of particle distribution in the brain to ensure drug-loaded nanoparticles reach tumors as well as for monitoring the therapeutic benefit with time and to evaluate tumor relapse patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garth Strohbehn
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, New Haven, CT, 06511, USA
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Moura CC, Segundo MA, Neves JD, Reis S, Sarmento B. Co-association of methotrexate and SPIONs into anti-CD64 antibody-conjugated PLGA nanoparticles for theranostic application. Int J Nanomedicine 2014; 9:4911-22. [PMID: 25364249 PMCID: PMC4211909 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s68440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease with severe consequences for the quality of life of sufferers. Regrettably, the inflammatory process involved remains unclear, and finding successful therapies as well as new means for its early diagnosis have proved to be daunting tasks. As macrophages are strongly associated with RA inflammation, effective diagnosis and therapy may encompass the ability to target these cells. In this work, a new approach for targeted therapy and imaging of RA was developed based on the use of multifunctional polymeric nanoparticles. Methods Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles were prepared using a single emulsion-evaporation method and comprisaed the co-association of superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs) and methotrexate. The nanoparticles were further functionalized with an antibody against the macrophage-specific receptor, CD64, which is overexpressed at sites of RA. The devised nanoparticles were characterized for mean particle size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, and morphology, as well as the association of SPIONs, methotrexate, and the anti-CD64 antibody. Lastly, the cytotoxicity of the developed nanoparticles was assessed in RAW 264.7 cells using standard MTT and LDH assays. Results The nanoparticles had a mean diameter in the range of 130–200 nm and zeta potential values ranging from −32 mV to −16 mV. Association with either methotrexate or SPIONs did not significantly affect the properties of the nanoparticles. Conjugation with the anti-CD64 antibody, in turn, caused a slight increase in size and surface charge. Transmission electron microscopy confirmed the association of SPIONs within the poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) matrix. Both anti-CD64 and methotrexate association were confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and quantified yielding values as high as 36% and 79%, respectively. In vitro toxicity studies confirmed the methotrexate-loaded nanosystem to be more effective than the free drug. Conclusion Multifunctional anti-CD64-conjugated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles for the combined delivery of methotrexate and SPIONs were successfully prepared and characterized. This nanosystem has the potential to provide a new theranostic approach for the management of RA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Costa Moura
- REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal ; Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Marcela A Segundo
- REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - José das Neves
- CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Instituto de Ciências da Saúde-Norte, Gandra PRD, Portugal ; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Salette Reis
- REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Bruno Sarmento
- CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Instituto de Ciências da Saúde-Norte, Gandra PRD, Portugal ; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
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Fadel TR, Sharp FA, Vudattu N, Ragheb R, Garyu J, Kim D, Hong E, Li N, Haller GL, Pfefferle LD, Justesen S, Herold KC, Fahmy TM. A carbon nanotube-polymer composite for T-cell therapy. NATURE NANOTECHNOLOGY 2014; 9:639-47. [PMID: 25086604 DOI: 10.1038/nnano.2014.154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2012] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Clinical translation of cell therapies requires strategies that can manufacture cells efficiently and economically. One promising way to reproducibly expand T cells for cancer therapy is by attaching the stimuli for T cells onto artificial substrates with high surface area. Here, we show that a carbon nanotube-polymer composite can act as an artificial antigen-presenting cell to efficiently expand the number of T cells isolated from mice. We attach antigens onto bundled carbon nanotubes and combined this complex with polymer nanoparticles containing magnetite and the T-cell growth factor interleukin-2 (IL-2). The number of T cells obtained was comparable to clinical standards using a thousand-fold less soluble IL-2. T cells obtained from this expansion were able to delay tumour growth in a murine model for melanoma. Our results show that this composite is a useful platform for generating large numbers of cytotoxic T cells for cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarek R Fadel
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Fiona A Sharp
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Nalini Vudattu
- 1] Department of Immunobiology and Internal Medicine, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA [2]
| | - Ragy Ragheb
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Justin Garyu
- 1] Department of Immunobiology and Internal Medicine, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA [2]
| | - Dongin Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Enping Hong
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Nan Li
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Gary L Haller
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Lisa D Pfefferle
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA
| | - Sune Justesen
- Department of Immunobiology and Microbiology, Blegdamsvej 3b DK2200, Copenhagen N Denmark
| | | | - Tarek M Fahmy
- 1] Department of Chemical Engineering, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA [2] Department of Biomedical Engineering, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06511, USA [3] Department of Immunobiology and Internal Medicine, Yale University, PO Box 208284, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
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