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Mertsch S, Neumann I, Rose C, Schargus M, Geerling G, Schrader S. The effect of Rho Kinase inhibition on corneal nerve regeneration in vitro and in vivo. Ocul Surf 2021; 22:213-223. [PMID: 34419637 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2021.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Impairment of corneal nerves can lead to neurotrophic keratopathy accompanied with severe ocular surface damage, which due to limited treatment options, can result in severe visual deterioration. This study evaluates a possible new treatment by enhancing the corneal nerve regeneration using a Rho Kinase inhibitor (Y27632). ROCK is known to play an important role in regulating cell morphology, adhesion and motility but little is known about its role in corneal nerve regeneration. METHODS Effects of ROCK inhibition on murine peripheral nerves was assessed in single cell- and wound healing assays as well as a 3D in vitro model. Furthermore, Sholl analysis evaluating neuronal branching and life-death assays evaluating toxicity of the inhibitor were performed. An in vivo mouse model was established, with monitoring weekly corneal nerve regrowth using confocal microscopy. Additionally, corneal nerve fiber length was evaluated by immunofluorescence staining. Underlying pathways were examined by qrtPCR. RESULTS ROCK inhibition leads to a significant enhancement of fiber growth in vitro. Sholl analysis revealed a higher degree of branching of treated fibers. Cytotoxicity assay showed no influence of Y27632 on cellular survival. In vivo measurement revealed significant enhanced regeneration after injury in the treated group. QrtPCR of trigeminal ganglia confirmed ROCK knock-down as well as altered pathways. CONCLUSION The inhibition of ROCK after corneal nerve injury resulted in an enhanced regrowth of fibers in vitro and in vivo. This might be a step towards a new therapeutic concept for the treatment of impaired corneal nerves in diseases such as neurotrophic keratopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Mertsch
- Laboratory of Experimental Ophthalmology, Department of Ophthalmology, Pius-Hospital, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Germany.
| | - Inga Neumann
- Laboratory of Experimental Ophthalmology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Duesseldorf, Heinrich-Heine-University, Germany
| | - Cosima Rose
- Laboratory of Experimental Ophthalmology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Duesseldorf, Heinrich-Heine-University, Germany
| | - Marc Schargus
- Laboratory of Experimental Ophthalmology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Duesseldorf, Heinrich-Heine-University, Germany; Department of Ophthalmology, Asklepios Hospital Nord-Heidberg, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Gerd Geerling
- Laboratory of Experimental Ophthalmology, Department of Ophthalmology, University Hospital Duesseldorf, Heinrich-Heine-University, Germany
| | - Stefan Schrader
- Laboratory of Experimental Ophthalmology, Department of Ophthalmology, Pius-Hospital, Carl von Ossietzky University Oldenburg, Germany
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Zigmond RE, Echevarria FD. Macrophage biology in the peripheral nervous system after injury. Prog Neurobiol 2018; 173:102-121. [PMID: 30579784 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2018.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2018] [Revised: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation has positive and negative effects. This review focuses on the roles of macrophage in the PNS. Transection of PNS axons leads to degeneration and clearance of the distal nerve and to changes in the region of the axotomized cell bodies. In both locations, resident and infiltrating macrophages are found. Macrophages enter these areas in response to expression of the chemokine CCL2 acting on the macrophage receptor CCR2. In the distal nerve, macrophages and other phagocytes are involved in clearance of axonal debris, which removes molecules that inhibit nerve regeneration. In the cell body region, macrophage trigger the conditioning lesion response, a process in which neurons increase their regeneration after a prior lesion. In mice in which the genes for CCL2 or CCR2 are deleted, neither macrophage infiltration nor the conditioning lesion response occurs in dorsal root ganglia (DRG). Macrophages exist in different phenotypes depending on their environment. These phenotypes have different effects on axonal clearance and neurite outgrowth. The mechanism by which macrophages affect neuronal cell bodies is still under study. Overexpression of CCL2 in DRG in uninjured animals leads to macrophage accumulation in the ganglia and to an increase in the growth potential of DRG neurons. This increased growth requires activation of neuronal STAT3. In contrast, in acute demyelinating neuropathies, macrophages are involved in stripping myelin from peripheral axons. The molecular mechanisms that trigger macrophage action after trauma and in autoimmune disease are receiving increased attention and should lead to avenues to promote regeneration and protect axonal integrity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard E Zigmond
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106-4975, USA.
| | - Franklin D Echevarria
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106-4975, USA
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3
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Senger JLB, Verge VMK, Chan KM, Webber CA. The nerve conditioning lesion: A strategy to enhance nerve regeneration. Ann Neurol 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ana.25209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Valerie M. K. Verge
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, and Cameco MS Neuroscience Research Center; University of Saskatchewan; Saskatoon Saskatchewan
| | - K. Ming Chan
- Department of Physical Rehabilitation; University of Alberta; Edmonton Alberta Canada
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DeFrancesco-Lisowitz A, Lindborg JA, Niemi JP, Zigmond RE. The neuroimmunology of degeneration and regeneration in the peripheral nervous system. Neuroscience 2015; 302:174-203. [PMID: 25242643 PMCID: PMC4366367 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2014] [Revised: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Peripheral nerves regenerate following injury due to the effective activation of the intrinsic growth capacity of the neurons and the formation of a permissive pathway for outgrowth due to Wallerian degeneration (WD). WD and subsequent regeneration are significantly influenced by various immune cells and the cytokines they secrete. Although macrophages have long been known to play a vital role in the degenerative process, recent work has pointed to their importance in influencing the regenerative capacity of peripheral neurons. In this review, we focus on the various immune cells, cytokines, and chemokines that make regeneration possible in the peripheral nervous system, with specific attention placed on the role macrophages play in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - J A Lindborg
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4975
| | - J P Niemi
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4975
| | - R E Zigmond
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland OH 44106-4975
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5
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Christie K, Zochodne D. Peripheral axon regrowth: New molecular approaches. Neuroscience 2013; 240:310-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2013.02.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2012] [Revised: 02/26/2013] [Accepted: 02/27/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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6
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Klimaschewski L, Hausott B, Angelov DN. The pros and cons of growth factors and cytokines in peripheral axon regeneration. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2013; 108:137-71. [PMID: 24083434 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-410499-0.00006-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Injury to a peripheral nerve induces a complex cellular and molecular response required for successful axon regeneration. Proliferating Schwann cells organize into chains of cells bridging the lesion site, which is invaded by macrophages. Approximately half of the injured neuron population sends out axons that enter the glial guidance channels in response to secreted neurotrophic factors and neuropoietic cytokines. These lesion-associated polypeptides create an environment that is highly supportive for axon regrowth, particularly after acute injury, and ensure that the vast majority of regenerating axons are directed toward the distal nerve stump. Unfortunately, most neurotrophic factors and neuropoietic cytokines are also strong stimulators of axonal sprouting. Although some of the axonal branches will withdraw at later stages, the sprouting effect contributes to the misdirection of reinnervation that results in the lack of functional recovery observed in many patients with peripheral nerve injuries. Here, we critically review the role of neuronal growth factors and cytokines during axon regeneration in the peripheral nervous system. Their differential effects on axon elongation and sprouting were elucidated in various studies on intraneuronal signaling mechanisms following nerve lesion. The present data define a goal for future therapeutic strategies, namely, to selectively stimulate a Ras/Raf/ERK-mediated axon elongation program over an intrinsic PI3K-dependent axonal sprouting program in lesioned motor and sensory neurons. Instead of modulating growth factor or cytokine levels at the lesion site, targeting specific intraneuronal molecules, such as the negative feedback inhibitors of ERK signaling, has been shown to promote long-distance regeneration while avoiding sprouting of regenerating axons until they have reached their target areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Klimaschewski
- Division of Neuroanatomy, Department of Anatomy and Histology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria
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Neurotransmitter segregation: functional and plastic implications. Prog Neurobiol 2012; 97:277-87. [PMID: 22531669 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2011] [Revised: 03/21/2012] [Accepted: 04/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Synaptic cotransmission is the ability of neurons to use more than one transmitter to convey synaptic signals. Cotransmission was originally described as the presence of a classic transmitter, which conveys main signal, along one or more cotransmitters that modulate transmission, later on, it was found cotransmission of classic transmitters. It has been generally accepted that neurons store and release the same set of transmitters in all their synaptic processes. However, some findings that show axon endings of individual neurons storing and releasing different sets of transmitters, are not in accordance with this assumption, and give support to the hypothesis that neurons can segregate transmitters to different synapses. Here, we review the studies showing segregation of transmitters in invertebrate and mammalian central nervous system neurons, and correlate them with our results obtained in sympathetic neurons. Our data show that these neurons segregate even classic transmitters to separated axons. Based on our data we suggest that segregation is a plastic phenomenon and responds to functional synaptic requirements, and to 'environmental' cues such as neurotrophins. We propose that neurons have the machinery to guide the different molecules required in synaptic transmission through axons and sort them to different axon endings. We believe that transmitter segregation improves neuron interactions during cotransmission and gives them selective and better control of synaptic plasticity.
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Hyatt Sachs H, Rohrer H, Zigmond RE. The conditioning lesion effect on sympathetic neurite outgrowth is dependent on gp130 cytokines. Exp Neurol 2010; 223:516-22. [PMID: 20144891 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2010.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2009] [Revised: 12/29/2009] [Accepted: 01/31/2010] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Sympathetic neurons, like sensory neurons, increase neurite outgrowth after a conditioning lesion. Studies in leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) knockout animals showed that the conditioning lesion effect in sensory neurons is dependent in part on this cytokine; however, similar studies on sympathetic neurons revealed no such effect. Comparable studies with sensory neurons taken from mice lacking the related cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) have yielded conflicting results. LIF and IL-6 belong to a family of cytokines known as the gp130 family because they act on receptors containing the subunit gp130. In sympathetic ganglia, axotomy leads to increases in mRNA for four of these cytokines (LIF, IL-6, IL-11, and oncostatin M). To test the role of this family of cytokines as a whole in the conditioning lesion response in sympathetic neurons, mice in which gp130 was selectively eliminated in noradrenergic neurons were studied. The postganglionic axons of the SCG were transected, and 7days later the ganglia were removed and neurite outgrowth was measured in explant and dissociated cell cultures. In both systems, neurons from wild type animals showed enhanced growth after a conditioning lesion. In contrast, no enhancement occurred in neurons from mutant animals. This lack of stimulation of outgrowth occurred despite an increase in expression of activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3) in the mutant mice. These studies demonstrate that stimulation of enhanced growth of sympathetic neurons after a conditioning lesion is dependent on gp130 cytokine signaling and is blocked in the absence of signaling by these cytokines in spite of an increase in ATF3.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Hyatt Sachs
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland OH, 44106-4975, USA
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Habecker BA, Sachs HH, Rohrer H, Zigmond RE. The dependence on gp130 cytokines of axotomy induced neuropeptide expression in adult sympathetic neurons. Dev Neurobiol 2009; 69:392-400. [PMID: 19280647 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.20706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Adult peripheral neurons exhibit dramatic changes in gene expression after axonal injury, including changes in neuropeptide phenotype. For example, sympathetic neurons in the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) begin to express vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), galanin, pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP), and cholecystokinin after axotomy. Before these changes, nonneuronal cells in the SCG begin to express leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). When the effects of axotomy were compared in LIF-/- and wild-type mice, the increases in VIP and galanin expression were less in the former, though significant increases still occurred. LIF belongs to a family of cytokines with overlapping physiological effects and multimeric receptors containing the subunit gp130. Real-time PCR revealed large increases in the SCG after axotomy in mRNA for three members of this cytokine family, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-11, and LIF, with modest increases in oncostatin M, no changes in ciliary neurotrophic factor, and decreases in cardiotrophin-1. To explore the role of these cytokines, animals with selective elimination of the gp130 receptor in noradrenergic neurons were studied. No significant changes in mRNA levels for VIP, galanin, and PACAP were seen in axotomized ganglia from these mutant mice, while the increase in cholecystokinin was as large as that seen in wild-type mice. The data indicate that the inductions of VIP, galanin, and PACAP after axotomy are completely dependent on gp130 cytokines and that a second cytokine, in addition to LIF, is involved. The increase in cholecystokinin after axotomy, however, does not require the action of these cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beth A Habecker
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Oregon Health Sciences University, Portland, Oregon 97239-3098, USA
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Makwana M, Serchov T, Hristova M, Bohatschek M, Gschwendtner A, Kalla R, Liu Z, Heumann R, Raivich G. Regulation and function of neuronal GTP-Ras in facial motor nerve regeneration. J Neurochem 2009; 108:1453-63. [PMID: 19284475 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2009.05890.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Activation of Ras into the GTP-binding, 'ON' state is a key switch in the neurotrophin-mediated neuronal survival and neurite outgrowth, in vitro as well as in vivo. In the current study we explored changes in GTP-Ras levels following facial nerve injury and the ensuing regeneration and the effects of perturbing these changes in vivo using synapsin-promoter mediated neuronal expression of constitutively active Val12H-Ras (synRas). Quantification of GTP-Ras and total Ras revealed a precipitous drop in the relative GTP-Ras levels in the axotomized facial motor nucleus, to 40% of normal levels at 2 days after cut, followed by a partial recovery to 50-65% at 4-28 days. On western blots, control and axotomized nuclei from synRas mutants showed a 2.2- and 2.5-fold elevation in GTP-Ras, respectively, compared with their wild type littermate controls (p < 5%, anova, TUKEY post-hoc), with the levels in the axotomized synRas nucleus slightly but not significantly above that in the uninjured littermate control (p = 9.9%). Similar increase was also observed in the pERK but not pAKT targets of the Ras cascade. This moderate elevation of GTP-Ras strongly curtailed post-traumatic neuronal cell death (-65%), the influx of T-cells (-48%) as well as other parameters of neuroinflammatory response. Although synRas did not affect the speed of axonal regeneration or functional recovery it caused a very pronounced increase in central axonal sprouting. These current data emphasize the role of reduced active Ras, and by extension, the reduced overall level of retrograde neurotrophin signalling after axotomy, in mediating post-traumatic cell death and inflammation and in restricting the sprouting response. Moreover, the neuroprotective and central sprouting-enhancing effects of neuronal Val12H-Ras could help promote recovery in CNS injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Makwana
- Perinatal Brain Repair Group, Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, EGA Institute of Women's Health, University College London, London, UK
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Walker RG, Foster A, Randolph CL, Isaacson LG. Changes in NGF and NT-3 protein species in the superior cervical ganglion following axotomy of postganglionic axons. Brain Res 2008; 1255:1-8. [PMID: 19100726 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.11.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2008] [Revised: 11/24/2008] [Accepted: 11/28/2008] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Mature sympathetic neurons in the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) are regulated by target-derived neurotrophins such as nerve growth factor (NGF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT-3). High molecular weight NGF species and mature NT-3 are the predominant NGF and NT-3 protein isoforms in the SCG, yet it is unknown whether the presence of these species is dependent on intact connection with the target tissues. In an attempt to determine the role of peripheral targets in regulating the neurotrophin species found in the SCG, we investigated the NGF and NT-3 protein species present in the SCG following axotomy (transection) or injury of the post-ganglionic axons. Following a 7 day axotomy, the 22-24 kDa NGF species and the mature 14 kDa NT-3 species in the SCG were significantly reduced by 99% and 66% respectively, suggesting that intact connection with the target is necessary for the expression of these protein species. As expected, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) protein in the SCG was significantly reduced by 80% at 7 days following axotomy. In order to distinguish between the effects of injury and loss of target connectivity, the SCG was examined following compression injury to the post-ganglionic nerves. Following injury, no reduction in the 22-24 kDa NGF or 14 kDa mature NT-3 species was observed in the SCG. TH protein was slightly, yet significantly, decreased in the SCG following injury. The findings of this study suggest that the presence of the 22-24 kDa NGF and mature 14 kDa NT-3 species in the SCG is dependent on connection with peripheral targets and may influence, at least in part, TH protein expression in adult sympathetic neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan G Walker
- Center for Neuroscience and Behavior, Department of Zoology, Miami University Oxford, OH 45056, USA
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Abstract
Sensory neurons show enhanced neurite outgrowth in vivo and in vitro following a conditioning lesion. Previous studies have shown that these effects are dependent on two members of the gp130 family of cytokines, leukemia inhibitory factor and interleukin-6. Here, we asked whether galanin, a neuropeptide induced by these cytokines, plays a role in the conditioning lesion response. Following a conditioning lesion, neurite outgrowth in culture was reduced in sensory neurons from galanin -/- mice compared with those from wild type controls. In neurons from wild type mice, the length of the longest neurite was increased 2.4-fold after a conditioning lesion, compared with 1.8-fold in neurons from knockout animals. The results indicate that the induction of galanin plays an important role in triggering the conditioning lesion response.
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Hyatt Sachs H, Schreiber RC, Shoemaker SE, Sabe A, Reed E, Zigmond RE. Activating transcription factor 3 induction in sympathetic neurons after axotomy: response to decreased neurotrophin availability. Neuroscience 2007; 150:887-97. [PMID: 18031939 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2007] [Revised: 10/09/2007] [Accepted: 10/16/2007] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Activating transcription factor 3 (ATF3) is induced in a high proportion of axotomized sensory and motor neurons after sciatic nerve transection. In the present study, we looked at the expression of this factor in the superior cervical ganglion (SCG) after axotomy and after other manipulations that induce certain aspects of the cell body response to axotomy. Sympathetic ganglia from intact rats and mice exhibit only a very occasional neuronal nucleus with activating transcription factor 3-like immunoreactivity (ATF3-IR); however, as early as 6 h and as late as 3 weeks postaxotomy, many of the neurons showed intense ATF3-IR. A second population of cells had smaller and generally less intensely stained nuclei, and at least some of these cells were satellite cells. Lesions distal to the SCG induced by administration of 6-hydroxydopamine or unilateral removal of the salivary glands produced increases in ATF3-IR similar to those seen after proximal axotomy, indicating that this response is not strictly dependent on the distance of the lesion from the cell body. Two proposed signals for triggering ATF3 expression were examined: reduction in nerve growth factor (NGF) availability and induction of the cytokine leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). While administration of an antiserum raised against NGF to intact animals induced ATF3-IR, induction of ATF3-IR after axotomy was not reduced in LIF null mutant mice. Since axotomy, 6-hydroxydopamine, and sialectomy are known to decrease the concentration of NGF in the SCG, our data suggest that these decreases in NGF lead to increases in ATF3-IR. Furthermore, since the number of neurons in the SCG expressing ATF3-IR was greater after axotomy than after antiserum against NGF treatment, this raises the possibility that decreased NGF is not the only process regulating ATF3 expression after axotomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Hyatt Sachs
- Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106-4975, USA
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