Maternal and Postnatal Supplementation of Fish Oil Improves Metabolic Health of Mouse Male Offspring

Enhanced Metabolic Effects of Fish Oil When Combined with Vitamin D in Diet-Induced Obese Male Mice

Vitamin D (vit D) and fish oil (FO) both offer unique health benefits, however, their combined effects have not been evaluated in obesity and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). Hence, we hypothesized that vit D and FO supplementation would have additive effects in reducing obesity-associated inflammation and NAFLD. Male C57BL6 mice were split into four groups and fed a high fat (HF) diet supplemented with a low (HF; +200 IU vit D) or high dose of vitamin D (HF + D; +1000 IU vit D); combination of vit D and FO (HF-FO; +1000 IU vit D); or only FO (HF-FO; +200 IU vit D) for 12 weeks. We measured body weight, food intake, glucose tolerance, and harvested epididymal fat pad and liver for gene expression analyses. Adiposity was reduced in groups supplemented with both FO and vit D. Glucose clearance was higher in FO-supplemented groups compared to mice fed HF. In adipose tissue, markers of fatty acid synthesis and oxidation were comparable in groups that received vit D and FO individually in comparison to HF. However, the vit D and FO group had significantly lower fatty acid synthesis and higher oxidation compared to the other groups. Vit D and FO also significantly improved fatty acid oxidation, despite similar fatty acid synthesis among the four groups in liver. Even though we did not find additive effects of vit D and FO, our data provide evidence that FO reduces markers of obesity in the presence of adequate levels of vit D.

Postnatal Consumption of Black Bean Powder Protects against Obesity and Dyslipidemia in Male Adult Rat Offspring from Obese Pregnancies

The adverse influence of maternal obesity on offspring metabolic health throughout the life-course is a significant public health challenge with few effective interventions. We examined if black bean powder (BBP) supplementation to a high-calorie maternal pregnancy diet or a postnatal offspring diet could offer protection against the metabolic programming of metabolic disease risk in adult offspring. Female Sprague Dawley rats were randomly assigned to one of three diets (n = 10/group) for a 3-week pre-pregnancy period and throughout gestation and lactation: (i) a low-caloric control diet (CON); (ii) a high-caloric obesity-inducing diet (HC); or (iii) the HC diet with 20% black bean powder (HC-BBP). At weaning [postnatal day (PND) 21], one male pup from each dam was weaned onto the CON diet throughout the postnatal period until adulthood (PND120). In addition, a second male from the HC group only was weaned onto the CON diet supplemented with BBP (CON-BBP). Thus, based on the maternal diet exposure and offspring postnatal diet, four experimental adult offspring groups were compared: CON/CON, HC/CON, HC-BPP/CON, and HC/CON-BBP. On PND120, blood was collected for biochemical analysis (e.g., lipids, glycemic control endpoints, etc.), and livers were excised for lipid analysis (triglycerides [TG] and cholesterol) and the mRNA/protein expression of lipid-regulatory targets. Compared with the CON/CON group, adult offspring from the HC/CON group exhibited a higher (p < 0.05) body weight (BW) (682.88 ± 10.67 vs. 628.02 ± 16.61 g) and hepatic TG (29.55 ± 1.31 vs. 22.86 ± 1.85 mmol/g). Although maternal BBP supplementation (HC-BBP/CON) had little influence on metabolic outcomes, the consumption of BBP in the postnatal period (HC/CON-BBP) lowered hepatic TG and cholesterol compared with the other treatment groups. Reduced hepatic TG in the HC/CON-BBP was likely associated with lower postnatal BW gain (vs. HC/CON), lower mRNA and protein expression of hepatic Fasn (vs. HC/CON), and lower serum leptin concentration (vs. CON/CON and HC groups). Our results suggest that the postnatal consumption of a black-bean-powder-supplemented diet may protect male rat offspring against the programming of obesity and dyslipidemia associated with maternal obesity. Future work should investigate the bioactive fraction of BBP responsible for the observed effect.

Fish Oil Improves Offspring Metabolic Health of Paternal Obese Mice by Targeting Adipose Tissue

Obesity is a fast-growing epidemic affecting more than 40% of the US population and leads to co-morbidities such as type 2 diabetes and cancer. More importantly, there is a rapid increase in childhood obesity associated with obesity in parents. Further, offspring are encoded with approximately half of their genetic information from the paternal side. Obesity in fathers at the preconceptional period likely influences the intergenerational development of obesity. This study focuses on the role of fish oil supplementation as a non-pharmacological intervention in fathers and its impact on childhood obesity using animal models. Male mice were fed a low-fat diet or high-fat diet with or without fish oil for 10 weeks and mated with female mice on a chow diet. Offspring were then continued on a chow diet until 8 or 16 weeks. In vivo insulin tolerance was tested to assess the metabolic health of offspring. Further, adipose tissue was harvested upon sacrifice, and genetic markers of inflammation and lipid metabolism in the tissue were analyzed. Offspring of males supplemented with fish oil showed lower body weight, improved insulin tolerance, and altered inflammatory markers. Markers of fatty acid oxidation were higher, while markers of fatty acid synthesis were lower in offspring of fathers fed fish oil. This supports fish oil as an accessible intervention to improve offspring metabolic health.

Effects of Fish Oil Supplementation on Reducing the Effects of Paternal Obesity and Preventing Fatty Liver in Offspring

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a serious public health concern, which calls for appropriate diet/nutrition intervention. Fish oil (FO) has several benefits in reducing obesity, but its intergenerational role in reducing the effects of paternal obesity has not been established. Hence, we hypothesized that FO supplementation to an obese father during the pre-conceptional period could improve the metabolic health of the offspring, specifically in the liver. Three groups of male mice were fed with a low-fat (LF), high-fat (HF), or high-fat diet supplemented with FO (HF-FO) for 10 weeks and were then allowed to mate with female mice fed a chow diet. Offspring were sacrificed at 16 weeks. The liver tissue was harvested for genomic and histological analyses. The offspring of HF and HF-FO fathers were heavier compared to that of the LF mice during 9-16 weeks. The glucose tolerance of the offspring of HF-FO fathers were significantly improved as compared to the offspring of HF fathers. Paternal FO supplementation significantly lowered inflammation and fatty acid synthesis biomarkers and increased fatty acid oxidation biomarkers in the offspring liver. In summary, FO supplementation in fathers shows the potential to reduce metabolic and cardiovascular diseases through genetic means in offspring.

Role of Fish Oil in Preventing Paternal Obesity and Improving Offspring Skeletal Muscle Health

This study investigates the effects of fish oil supplementation during the periconceptional period in male mice. Specifically, it examines the impact of fish oil on intergenerational health, as determined by skeletal muscle markers. To mimic paternal obesity, thirty mice were separated into three groups with distinct dietary regimes for 10 weeks: a high-fat diet (HF), a high-fat diet supplemented with fish oil (FO), and a low-fat diet (LF). Then, these mice mated with control female mice. Dams and offspring consumed a chow diet during gestation and lactation, and the offspring continued on a chow diet. To study short-term (8 weeks) and long-term (16 weeks) effects of FO, skeletal muscle was isolated at the time of sacrifice, and gene analyses were performed. Results suggest that offspring born to FO-supplemented sires exhibited a significant, short-term upregulation of genes associated with insulin signaling, fatty acid oxidation, and skeletal muscle growth with significant downregulation of genes involved in fatty acid synthesis at 8 weeks. Prominent differences in the above markers were observed at 8 weeks compared to 16 weeks. These findings suggest the potential benefits of FO supplementation for fathers during the periconceptional period in reducing the health risks of offspring due to paternal obesity.

Long-chain n-3 PUFA given before and throughout gestation and lactation in rats prevent high-fat diet-induced insulin resistance in male offspring in a tissue-specific manner

This study investigated whether long-chain n-3 PUFA (LC n-3 PUFA) given to pregnant rats fed a high-fat (HF) diet may prevent fetal programming in male offspring at adulthood. Six weeks before mating, and throughout gestation and lactation, female nulliparous Sprague-Dawley rats were given a chow (C) diet, HF (60·6 % fat from maize, rapeseed oils and lard) or HF in which one-third of fat was replaced by fish oil (HF n-3). At weaning, the three offspring groups were randomly separated in two groups fed C diet, or HF without LC n-3 PUFA, for 7 weeks until adulthood. Glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity were assessed by an oral glucose tolerance test both at weaning and at adulthood. Insulin signalling was determined in liver, muscle and adipose tissue by quantification of the phosphorylation of Akt on Ser 473 at adulthood. At weaning, as at adulthood, offspring from HF-fed dams were obese and displayed glucose intolerance (GI) and insulin resistance (IR), but not those from HFn-3 fed dams. Following the post-weaning C diet, phosphorylation of Akt was strongly reduced in all tissues of offspring from HF dams, but to a lesser extent in liver and muscle of offspring from HFn-3 dams. However, it was abolished in all tissues of all offspring groups fed the HF post-weaning diet. Thus, LC n-3 PUFA introduced in a HF in dams partially prevented the transmission of GI and IR in adult offspring even though they were fed without LC n-3 PUFA from weaning.

The Uterine Environment and Childhood Obesity Risk: Mechanisms and Predictions

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Childhood obesity is a growing health problem in many populations, hence the urgent need to unravel the underlying mechanisms. Some evidence suggests that exposure to suboptimal intrauterine environments can program foetal metabolic health, with adverse consequences in later life, including susceptibility to childhood obesity.

FINDINGS

Factors such as high and low foetal birth weight, excessive gestational-weight-gain, maternal stress and smoking are all associated with increased risk of childhood obesity in observational studies. Animal models, where both genetic background and the postnatal environment can be carefully controlled, suggest that several different mechanisms, including epigenetic changes, dysregulation of adipose tissue development and programming of appetite, may be key drivers of developmental programming of childhood obesity. However, the influence of genetics and the post-natal environment are much more difficult to disentangle as independent effects in human studies, which are also complicated by low follow-up rates. Suboptimal intrauterine environments interact with maternal and foetal genetics and with the postnatal environment to contribute to the risk of childhood obesity. Maternal metabolic challenges, for example obesity and insulin resistance, contribute to the risk of foetal overgrowth and subsequent adiposity in childhood. To protect the long-term health of populations, research focusing on effective means of identifying and intervening in the transgenerational cycle of childhood obesity is required.

Made in the Womb: Maternal Programming of Offspring Cardiovascular Function by an Obesogenic Womb

Obesity incidence has been increasing at an alarming rate, especially in women of reproductive age. It is estimated that 50% of pregnancies occur in overweight or obese women. It has been described that maternal obesity (MO) predisposes the offspring to an increased risk of developing many chronic diseases in an early stage of life, including obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease (CVD). CVD is the main cause of death worldwide among men and women, and it is manifested in a sex-divergent way. Maternal nutrition and MO during gestation could prompt CVD development in the offspring through adaptations of the offspring's cardiovascular system in the womb, including cardiac epigenetic and persistent metabolic programming of signaling pathways and modulation of mitochondrial metabolic function. Currently, despite diet supplementation, effective therapeutical solutions to prevent the deleterious cardiac offspring function programming by an obesogenic womb are lacking. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms by which an obesogenic intrauterine environment could program the offspring's cardiovascular metabolism in a sex-divergent way, with a special focus on cardiac mitochondrial function, and debate possible strategies to implement during MO pregnancy that could ameliorate, revert, or even prevent deleterious effects of MO on the offspring's cardiovascular system. The impact of maternal physical exercise during an obesogenic pregnancy, nutritional interventions, and supplementation on offspring's cardiac metabolism are discussed, highlighting changes that may be favorable to MO offspring's cardiovascular health, which might result in the attenuation or even prevention of the development of CVD in MO offspring. The objectives of this manuscript are to comprehensively examine the various aspects of MO during pregnancy and explore the underlying mechanisms that contribute to an increased CVD risk in the offspring. We review the current literature on MO and its impact on the offspring's cardiometabolic health. Furthermore, we discuss the potential long-term consequences for the offspring. Understanding the multifaceted effects of MO on the offspring's health is crucial for healthcare providers, researchers, and policymakers to develop effective strategies for prevention and intervention to improve care.

Parental obesity-induced changes in developmental programming

Many studies support the link between parental obesity and the predisposition to develop adult-onset metabolic syndromes that include obesity, high blood pressure, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and diabetes in the offspring. As the prevalence of obesity increases in persons of childbearing age, so does metabolic syndrome in their descendants. Understanding how parental obesity alters metabolic programs in the progeny, predisposing them to adult-onset metabolic syndrome, is key to breaking this cycle. This review explores the basis for altered metabolism of offspring exposed to overnutrition by focusing on critical developmental processes influenced by parental obesity. We draw from human and animal model studies, highlighting the adaptations in metabolism that occur during normal pregnancy that become maladaptive with obesity. We describe essential phases of development impacted by parental obesity that contribute to long-term alterations in metabolism in the offspring. These encompass gamete formation, placentation, adipogenesis, pancreas development, and development of brain appetite control circuits. Parental obesity alters the developmental programming of these organs in part by inducing epigenetic changes with long-term consequences on metabolism. While exposure to parental obesity during any of these phases is sufficient to alter long-term metabolism, offspring often experience multiple exposures throughout their development. These insults accumulate to increase further the susceptibility of the offspring to the obesogenic environments of modern society.

Long-term effects of adolescent exposure to olanzapine in C57BL/6 J mice and the impact of dietary fish oil supplementation

RATIONALE

Second-generation antipsychotic (SGA) medications can produce abnormal weight gain and metabolic dysfunction in children, but little is known about the post-treatment consequences of adolescent SGA exposure.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to determine the long-term, post-treatment effects of adolescent olanzapine exposure on weight and metabolic function and whether dietary fish oil (FO) modulated any observed effects of olanzapine.

METHODS

Male and female mice were fed a high-fat, high-sugar (HF-HS) diet or an HF-HS diet supplemented with fish oil (HF-HS-FO) and were treated with olanzapine or vehicle for 29 days beginning on postnatal day 37.

RESULTS

In male mice, adolescent olanzapine treatment suppressed weight gain during and after treatment and improved metabolic function in adulthood; dietary fish oil reduced weight gain, increased expression of fatty acid oxidation genes, and decreased expression of genes associated with fatty acid synthesis and inflammation. In contrast, few effects were observed in female mice.

CONCLUSIONS

The current results suggest that adolescent olanzapine exposure can produce long-term alterations in weight and metabolic function in male mice and that dietary fish oil can reduce adverse effects of lifelong consumption of an HF-HS diet. Because expected adverse effects of adolescent olanzapine treatment were not observed, the potential beneficial effects of dietary fish oil for SGA-induced weight gain and metabolic dysfunction could not be evaluated.

Switching to a Standard Chow Diet at Weaning Improves the Effects of Maternal and Postnatal High-Fat and High-Sucrose Diet on Cardiometabolic Health in Adult Male Mouse Offspring

Cardiac mitochondrial dysfunction contributes to obesity-associated heart disease. Maternal and postnatal diet plays an important role in cardiac function, yet the impacts of a mismatch between prenatal and postweaning diet on cardiometabolic function are not well understood. We tested the hypothesis that switching to a standard chow diet after weaning would attenuate systemic metabolic disorders and cardiac and mitochondrial dysfunction associated with maternal and postnatal high-fat/high-sucrose (HFHS) diet in mice. Six-month-old male CD1 offspring from dams fed a HFHS diet and weaned to the same HFHS diet (HH) or switched to a standard chow diet (HC) were compared to offspring from dams fed a low-fat/low-sucrose diet and maintained on the same diet (LL). HC did not decrease body weight (BW) but normalized glucose tolerance, plasma cholesterol, LDL, and insulin levels compared to the HH. Systolic function indicated by the percent fractional shortening was not altered by diet. In freshly isolated cardiac mitochondria, maximal oxidative phosphorylation-linked respiratory capacity and coupling efficiency were significantly higher in the HC in the presence of fatty acid substrate compared to LL and HH, with modification of genes associated with metabolism and mitochondrial function. Switching to a standard chow diet at weaning can attenuate the deleterious effects of long-term HFHS in adult male mouse offspring.

Diet Modification before or during Pregnancy on Maternal and Foetal Outcomes in Rodent Models of Maternal Obesity

The obesity epidemic has serious implications for women of reproductive age; its rising incidence is associated not just with health implications for the mother but also has transgenerational ramifications for the offspring. Increased incidence of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, obesity, and kidney disease are seen in both the mothers and the offspring. Animal models, such as rodent studies, are fundamental to studying maternal obesity and its impact on maternal and offspring health, as human studies lack rigorous controlled experimental design. Furthermore, the short and prolific reproductive potential of rodents enables examination across multiple generations and facilitates the exploration of interventional strategies to mitigate the impact of maternal obesity, both before and during pregnancy. Given that obesity is a major public health concern, it is important to obtain a greater understanding of its pathophysiology and interaction with reproductive health, placental physiology, and foetal development. This narrative review focuses on the known effects of maternal obesity on the mother and the offspring, and the benefits of interventional strategies, including dietary intervention, before or during pregnancy on maternal and foetal outcomes. It further examines the contribution of rodent models of maternal obesity to elucidating pathophysiological pathways of disease development, as well as methods to reduce the impact of obesity on the mothers and the developing foetus. The translation of these findings into the human experience will also be discussed.

How the placenta-brain lipid axis impacts the nutritional origin of child neurodevelopmental disorders: Focus on attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder

Dietary fish is a rich source of omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids, and as such, is believed to have played an important role in the evolution of the human brain and its advanced cognitive function. The long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, particularly the n-3 docosahexanoic acid (DHA), are critical for proper neurological development and function. Both low plasma DHA and obesity in pregnancy are associated with neurodevelopmental disorders such as attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in childhood, and n-3 supplementation has been shown to improve symptoms, as reviewed herein. The mechanisms underlying the connection between maternal obesity, n-3 fatty acid levels and offspring's neurological outcomes are poorly understood, but we review the evidence for a mediating role of the placenta in this relationship. Despite promising data that n-3 fatty acid supplementation mitigates the effect of maternal obesity on placental lipid metabolism, few clinical trials or animal studies have considered the neurological outcomes of offspring of mothers with obesity supplemented with n-3 FA in pregnancy.

Sex Differences in Early Programming by Maternal High Fat Diet Induced-Obesity and Fish Oil Supplementation in Mice

Pre-pregnancy obesity is a contributing factor for impairments in offspring metabolic health. Interventional strategies during pregnancy are a potential approach to alleviate and/or prevent obesity and obesity related metabolic alterations in the offspring. Fish oil (FO), rich in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) exerts metabolic health benefits. However, the role of FO in early life remains still unknown. Hence, this study objective was to determine the effect of FO supplementation in mice from pre-pregnancy through lactation, and to study the post-natal metabolic health effects in gonadal fat and liver of offspring fed high fat (HF) diet with or without FO. Female C57BL6J mice aged 4-5 weeks were fed a HF (45% fat) diet supplemented with or without FO (30 g/kg of diet) and low fat (LF; 10% fat) pre-pregnancy through lactation. After weaning, offspring (male and female) from HF or FO dams either continued the same diet (HF-HF and FO-FO) or switched to the other diet (HF-FO and FO-HF) for 13 weeks, creating four groups of treatment, and LF-LF was used as a control group. Serum, gonadal fat and liver tissue were collected at termination for metabolic analyses. Offspring of both sexes fed HF with or without fish oil gained (p < 0.05) more weight post weaning, compared to LF-LF-fed mice. All the female offspring groups supplemented with FO had reduced body weight compared to the respective male groups. Further, FO-FO supplementation in both sexes (p < 0.05) improved glucose clearance and insulin sensitivity compared to HF-HF. All FO-FO fed mice had significantly reduced adipocyte size compared to HF-HF group in both male and females. Inflammation, measured by mRNA levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (Mcp1), was reduced (p < 0.05) with FO supplementation in both sexes in gonadal fat and in the liver. Markers of fatty acid synthesis, fatty acid synthase (Fasn) showed no sex specific differences in gonadal fat and liver of mice supplemented with HF. Female mice had lower liver triglycerides than male counterparts. Supplementation of FO in mice improved metabolic health of offspring by lowering markers of lipid synthesis and inflammation.

Curcumin Reduces Adipose Tissue Inflammation and Alters Gut Microbiota in Diet-Induced Obese Male Mice

SCOPE

Obesity prevalence continues to increase and contribute to metabolic diseases, potentially by driving systemic inflammation. Curcumin is an anti-inflammatory spice with claimed health benefits. However, mechanisms by which curcumin may reduce obesity-associated inflammation are poorly understood; thus, it is hypothesized that benefits of curcumin consumption may occur through reduced white adipose tissue (WAT) inflammation and/or beneficial changes in gut bacteria.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Male B6 mice are fed high-fat diets (HFD, 45% kcal fat) or HFD supplemented with 0.4% (w/w) curcumin (HFC) for 14 weeks. Curcumin supplementation significantly reduces adiposity and total macrophage infiltration in WAT, compared to HFD group, consistent with reduced mRNA levels of M1 (Cd80, Cd38, Cd11c) and M2 (Arginase-1) macrophage markers. Moreover, curcumin supplementation reduces expression of other key pro-inflammatory genes, such as NF-κB p65 subunit (p65), Stat1, Tlr4, and Il6, in WAT (p < 0.05). Using microbial 16S RNA sequencing, it is demonstrated that the relative abundance of the Lactococcus, Parasutterella, and Turicibacter genera are increased in the HFC group versus HFD.

CONCLUSIONS

Curcumin exerts protective metabolic effects in dietary obesity, in part through downregulation of adipose tissue inflammation, which may be mediated by alterations in composition of gut microbiota, and metabolism of curcumin into curcumin-O-glucuronide.

Maternal Obesity: A Focus on Maternal Interventions to Improve Health of Offspring

Maternal obesity has many implications for offspring health that persist throughout their lifespan that include obesity and cardiovascular complications. Several different factors contribute to obesity and they encompass interplay between genetics and environment. In the prenatal period, untreated obesity establishes a foundation for a myriad of symptoms and negative delivery experiences, including gestational hypertensive disorders, gestational diabetes, macrosomia, and labor complications. However, data across human and animal studies show promise that nutritional interventions and physical activity may rescue much of the adverse effects of obesity on offspring metabolic health. Further, these maternal interventions improve the health of the offspring by reducing weight gain, cardiovascular disorders, and improving glucose tolerance. Mechanisms from animal studies have also been proposed to elucidate the signaling pathways that regulate inflammation, lipid metabolism, and oxidative capacity of the tissue, ultimately providing potential specific courses of treatment. This review aims to pinpoint the risks of maternal obesity and provide plausible intervention strategies. We delve into recent research involving both animal and human studies with maternal interventions. With the increasing concerning of obesity rates witnessed in the United States, it is imperative to acknowledge the long-term effects posed on future generations and specifically modify maternal nutrition and care to mitigate these adverse outcomes.

Effects of high fat diets and supplemental tart cherry and fish oil on obesity and type 2 diabetes in male and female C57BL/6J and TALLYHO/Jng mice

Obesogenic and diabetogenic high fat (HF) diets can influence genetic factors in disease development with sexual dimorphic responses. We investigated potential protective effects of tart cherry (TC), fish oil (FO) and TC+FO supplementation in TALLYHO/Jng (TH) and C57BL/6J (B6) mice fed HF diets. Male and female TH and B6 mice were weaned onto five different diets; low fat (LF), HF, and HF supplemented with TC, FO, or TC+FO and maintained. For both males and females on LF, TH mice were heavier and fatter than B6, which was accentuated by HF in males, but not in females. TH males, but not others, developed severe glucose intolerance and hyperglycemia on HF, with reduced mRNA levels of Adipoq and Esr1 in adipose tissue. Considering energy balance, locomotor activity was lower in TH mice than B6 for both sexes without diet effects, except B6 females where HF decreased it. Compared to LF, HF decreased energy expenditure, RER, and food intake (in grams) for both sexes without strain differences. In all mice, but B6 males, HF increased plasma IL6 levels compared to LF. No preventive effects of TC, FO or TC+FO were noted for HF-induced obesity or energy imbalance, but FO alleviated glucose intolerance in TH males. Further, TC and FO decreased plasma IL6 levels, especially in females, without additive or synergistic effects of these two. Collectively, obesogenic and diabetogenic impacts of HF diets differed depending on the genetic predisposition. Moreover, sexually dimorphic effects of dietary supplementation were observed for glucose metabolism and inflammatory markers.

n-3 PUFAs protect against adiposity and fatty liver by promoting browning in postnatally overfed male rats: a role for NRG4

Early-life nutrition plays an important role in regulating adult metabolism. This study evaluated the effects of early nutrition during the suckling and postweaning periods on expression of the adipocytokine Neuregulin 4 (Nrg4) and its relationship with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) in adulthood. In vivo, male rats were adjusted to litter sizes of three (small litter, SL) or ten (normal litter, NL) on postnatal day 3. Pups were fed control chow (NL and SL groups) or a high-fat diet (NL-HF and SL-HF groups), and SL pups specifically were fed a fish oil diet rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) (SL-FO group), from postnatal weeks 3 to 13. The results demonstrated that postnatal overnutrition increased weight, hepatic de novo lipogenesis (DNL) gene expression and NAFLD and decreased body temperature and Nrg4, Ucp1 and Pgc1a mRNA expression in adipose tissues in SL, SL-HF and NL-HF rats compared to NL rats in adulthood. The opposite trends were observed in SL-FO rats. Moreover, in vitro, recombinant NRG4 protein reduced lipid accumulation by inhibiting DNL gene expression in fatty HepG2 cells stimulated with sodium oleate. In HPAs, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) treatment elevated NRG4 production and caused adipocyte browning, and these effects were abrogated by PPARG antagonism. In conclusion, a postweaning n-3 PUFA diet enhanced Nrg4 expression in adipose tissues, associated with attenuation of NAFLD induced by SL rearing. Additionally, external NRG4 reduced lipogenesis in steatotic hepatocytes. Thus, white adipose tissue browning induced by n-3 PUFAs may promote NRG4 production through the PPARG pathway.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids and Adipose Tissue: Inflammation and Browning

White adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT) are involved in whole-body energy homeostasis and metabolic regulation. Changes to mass and function of these tissues impact glucose homeostasis and whole-body energy balance during development of obesity, weight loss, and subsequent weight regain. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAs), which have known hypotriglyceridemic and cardioprotective effects, can also impact WAT and BAT function. In rodent models, these fatty acids alleviate obesity-associated WAT inflammation, improve energy metabolism, and increase thermogenic markers in BAT. Emerging evidence suggests that ω-3 PUFAs can also modulate gut microbiota impacting WAT function and adiposity. This review discusses molecular mechanisms, implications of these findings, translation to humans, and future work, especially with reference to the potential of these fatty acids in weight loss maintenance.

Maternal and Early Postnatal Diet Supplemented with Conjugated Linoleic Acid Isomers Affect Lipid Profile in Hearts of Offspring Rats with Mammary Tumors

Linking the early life environment with later health status is known as "developmental programming". This study aimed to assess whether the introduction of conjugated linoleic acids (CLAs) into the maternal diet affects the content fatty acids (FAs), conjugated FAs (CFAs), cholesterol, oxysterols, malondialdehyde (MDA) and tocopherols in the hearts of their female offspring treated with 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene and if offspring supplementation enhanced the effect of maternal supplementation. FA, cholesterol and oxysterol contents were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, while contents of CFAs and MDA were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with photodiode detection. The supplementation of mothers with CLAs significantly decreased the amount of atherogenic saturated FAs and enhanced the level of eicosapentaenoic FA in the hearts of offspring. Continuous progeny supplementation decreased the content of arachidonic acid in hearts. Supplementation of the maternal diet with CLAs and its continuation during the postnatal period increased the ratio of hypo to hypercholesterolemic FAs. Significantly fewer oxysterols were detected in the hearts of progeny of dams fed with CLAs as compared to the offspring of mothers receiving safflower oil. Both fetal and postnatal CLA intake significantly reduced 7β-hydroxycholesterol accumulation. It can be concluded that CLA supplementation during the fetal and postnatal period may be an effective method of maintaining the cardiac health status of newborns.