Child level correlates of teacher-student relationships: An examination of demographic characteristics, academic orientations, and behavioral orientations

Shaping Student Relationships: The Role of Personality in Early Childhood Pre-Service Teachers

The purpose of this explanatory sequential mixed-methods study is to explain teacher-student relationships in preschool classrooms in terms of the child's temperament and the pre-service preschool teachers' personalities. The study was conducted using a sequential exploratory mixed-methods design. Since both quantitative and qualitative data were obtained, sampling was carried out in two stages: quantitative random stratified sampling, and qualitative purposive sampling. Quantitative data were obtained from 126 pre-service teachers. The qualitative study group consisted of 18 pre-service teachers. Quantitative data were collected using the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale-Short Form, the Short Temperament Scale for Children (STSC), and the Five Factor Personality Inventory (FPI). Qualitative data were obtained from interviews with 18 teachers. The findings revealed that the student-teacher relationship can be explained by adult and child characteristics. In addition, pre-service teachers' perceptions of the student-teacher relationship are explained by adult characteristics much more than pre-service teachers' perceptions.

Anxiety and Teacher-Student Relationships in Secondary School: A Systematic Literature Review

Anxiety disorders are the most prevalent mental disorders experienced by adolescents. As students spend a significant amount of time within a school environment, it is not surprising that factors in the school environment have been linked to student mental health. Positive teacher-student relationships (TSRs) in children have been found to improve student mental health outcomes, with supportive TSRs associated with reduced student anxiety, and in turn, student anxiety has also been associated with reduced poorer TSR quality. The findings in adolescents are less clear. This review aimed to systematically evaluate the impact of TSRs on anxiety in secondary school students, and vice-versa using PRISMA guidelines. Searches were conducted in five databases and studies screened against inclusion and exclusion criteria, and rated for study quality by two independent researchers. Twenty-six studies across 12 countries were included. Most studies reported higher quality TSRs (e.g., those that are perceived as more supportive, caring, and warm) was associated with decreased anxiety. Conversely, TSRs that were characterised by dependence, motivational support, conflict, or harassment, were associated with increased anxiety. Most studies used a cross-sectional design and as such conclusions regarding causality as well as the direction of the effects cannot be made. However, early evidence from a limited number of longitudinal studies indicated that positive TSRs reduced anxiety over time. Future research is warranted to investigate whether anxiety affects TSRs, as well as exploring specific strategies and approaches teachers can use to establish positive relationships with their students.

A Parallel Process Growth Curve Analysis of Teacher-Student Relationships and Academic Achievement

Teacher-student relationships (TSR) have been a key focus of study for developmental and educational psychology researchers interested in improving proximal and distal academic outcomes for children and youth. Although prior empirical work suggests some degree of association between TSR and achievement, the co-development of TSR and achievement during elementary grades remains unclear with most findings limited to reading and mathematics achievement. The current study used parallel process growth curve models (PPGCMs) to examine the longitudinal growth trajectories of teacher-student closeness and conflict, and science, reading, and mathematics achievement simultaneously for children followed from kindergarten to third grade in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 2010-2011 (N = 13,490). Findings from the final PPGCM showed teacher-student closeness in kindergarten was positively associated with science, reading and mathematics achievement in kindergarten (r = 0.234 to 0.277) and the linear growth of achievement through third grade (r = 0.068 to 0.156). Teacher-student conflict in kindergarten was negatively associated with science, reading, and mathematics achievement in kindergarten (r = -0.099 to -0.203) and the linear growth of achievement through third grade (r = -0.081 to -0.135). Child biological sex, family socioeconomic status, and child racial and ethnic identity predicted TSR and achievement developmental trends. Implications of the findings and future directions for research are discussed.

White privilege and teacher perceptions of teacher-child relationship quality

In this study, we investigated differences in teachers' perceptions of the teacher-child relationship from kindergarten through second grade as a function of child race and gender from the perspective of critical race theory and the cultural synchrony hypothesis. Given the extensive evidence of White privilege and anti-Black racism in the US education system, we expected that teachers, particularly White teachers, would perceive their relationships with White children more positively than with Black children. Controlling for family SES and child gender, results supported this hypothesis. Black boys had the highest risk of being perceived by teachers as having poor relationships with teachers in kindergarten (highest conflict and lowest closeness) and White girls had the lowest risk. In addition, teachers perceived relationships with Black boys as increasing in conflict across first and second grades at higher rates than with White and female children. These findings remained after examining teacher-child racial match as a moderator. Our results indicate that racism and sexism work together to explain the perceptions teachers have of children in the early elementary grades. Implications for training teachers and school psychologists on anti-racism and cultural competency are discussed.

Invisible Disabilities and Inequality

In this address, I consider the realized and potential contributions of sociological social psychology to research on inequality based on invisible disabilities and the challenges that invisible disabilities pose to current social psychological theories. Drawing from the social structure and personality framework, I advance the general notion of invisible disability as a dimension of inequality, consider how four basic social psychological processes (social categorization, identity, status, and stigmatization) have and can help us understand how invisible disabilities shape outcomes over the life course, and suggest new lines of research social psychologists could pursue. I close with brief comments about the benefits of such an agenda for sociological social psychology as well as how these lines of research can inform theories of stratification.

Reciprocal Relations Between Conflicted Student-teacher Relationship and Children's Behavior Problems: Within-person Analyses from Norway and the USA

Current evidence suggests that conflicted student-teacher relationships may increase behavior problems in children and vice-versa, but this may be due to confounding. We therefore analyzed their relation applying a within-person approach that adjusts for all time-invariant confounding effects, involving samples from Norway (n = 964, 50.9% females) and the USA (n = 1,150, 48.3% females) followed from age 4-12 years with similar measures. Increased parent-reported behavior problems forecasted increased student-teacher conflict to a similar extent in both countries (β = 0.07, p = .010), whereas teacher-reported behavior problems predicted increased student-teacher conflict more strongly in Norway (β = 0.14, p = .001) than in the US (β = 0.08, p = .050). Increased teacher-child conflict also predicted increased parent-reported (β = 0.07, p = .010), but not teacher-reported, behavior problems in both countries. Findings underscore the reciprocal relation between behavior problems and a conflictual student-teacher relationship.

Preschool Children's Observed Interactions with Teachers: Implications for Understanding Teacher-Child Relationships

Theory and research point to the daily interactions between individual children and teachers as formative to teacher-child relationships, yet observed dyadic teacher-child interactions in preschool classrooms have largely been overlooked. This study provides a descriptive examination of the quality of individual children's interactions with their teacher as a basis for understanding one source of information theorized to inform children's and teachers' perceptions of their relationships with each other. Children's dyadic interactions with teachers, including their positive engagement, communication, and conflict, were observed across a large and racially/ethnically diverse sample of 767 preschool children (M = 4.39 years) at three time points in the year. On average, most children displayed low-to-moderate levels of positive engagement (78%), while nearly all children showed rare communication (81%) and conflict (99%) with the teacher. Boys demonstrated lower positive engagement and higher conflict with the teacher than girls. Black children were observed to demonstrate higher positive engagement with the teacher compared to White children. No differences in interaction quality were observed for Black children with a White teacher compared to White child-White teacher or Black child-Black teacher pairs. Results advance our understanding of dyadic teacher-child interactions in preschool classrooms and raise new questions to expand our knowledge of how teacher-child relationships are established, maintained, and modified, to ultimately support teachers in building strong relationships with each and every preschooler.

Personality Traits and Family Environment: Antecedents of Child Aggression

Previous research reported significant relationship between Big Five personality traits and aggression in both adolescent’s and adult population. However, it is unclear about whether similar connection exist in early age. This study investigated how personality traits and family environment influence the development of aggression in school aged Saudi children. A sample of 315 school going children were recruited voluntarily to complete a set of measures examining Big Five personality factors, family environment and aggression. Correlation analysis were employed to evaluate association between Big Five personality traits, family environment and aggression. The results showed a significant relationship of Big Five personality factors and family environment factors to aggression. The findings of the study revealed that amongst the Big Five personality traits conscientiousness, agreeableness, and neuroticism were strongest antecedents of childhood aggression. Family environment characterized by family cohesion, expressiveness and conflict were appeared to be significant antecedents of aggressive behavior in children. This study expands our knowledge about the intervention strategies of aggression from Big Five traits and family environment perspectives.

Moderating Effects of Teacher-Child Relationship on the Association Between Unsociability and Play Behaviors

The present study aimed to examine the moderating role of the quality of the relationship between children and their teachers (i.e., closeness and conflict), in children's unsociability and play behaviors (i.e., reticent behavior, social play). Participants were 211 three- to six-year-old children (M = 64.08 months, SD = 10.92, 94 girls, 117 boys). Mothers reported their unsociability; teachers reported teacher-child relationships and children's play behaviors. Results showed that close teacher-child relationships moderated the association between unsociability and social play in children (buffering effect). Teacher-child conflict exacerbated the relations between unsociability and reticent behavior. Findings show that teacher-child closeness is effective in revealing social play behaviors of unsociable children. Teachers can improve their relationship with unsociable children to provide nurturing social play behavior.

Prejudice and Ethnic Bullying Among Children: The Role of Moral Disengagement and Student-Teacher Relationship

The identification of factors associated with ethnic bullying within multiethnic schools is a timely social issue. Up to now, ethnic prejudice has been found to facilitate aggression triggered by schoolmates’ cultural background. Yet, there is still a dearth of research about the mechanisms underlying this relation among children. In order to fill this gap, by adopting a social-cognitive developmental perspective on prejudice and morality, this paper investigated the mediating role of moral disengagement in the association between ethnic prejudice and ethnic bullying, as well as the moderating role of closeness with the teacher. A mediation model and a moderated mediation model were applied to data collected from 552 primary school children aged 8–10years. Ethnic prejudice, ethnic bullying, and moral disengagement were assessed through self-reported questionnaires, whereas a questionnaire was administered to teachers to assess the level of closeness with their pupils. Results indicated that ethnic prejudice was directly and positively related to ethnic bullying and that moral disengagement partially mediated this association. This indirect link was particularly strong for children with low levels of closeness with their teachers, whereas it resulted not significant for pupils with high levels of closeness, suggesting that closeness with the teacher might restrain morally disengaged children from enacting ethnic bullying. Implications for research and practice aimed at reducing prejudice and moral disengagement, as well as at promoting positive relationships among children and between pupils and teachers, are discussed.

Measuring Preservice Teachers’ Anticipated Teacher–Student Relationship Quality

The current study aimed to develop a measure of anticipated teacher–student relationship quality to be used with preservice teacher populations that is operationally similar to a measure commonly used with inservice teachers (i.e., short-form of the Student–Teacher Relationship Scale). To date, teacher–student relationship quality has been a construct studied solely with inservice teacher populations. Two hundred and thirteen preservice teachers participated in the current study. Results suggest that the developed measure of anticipated teacher–student relationship with preservice teachers demonstrated response trends similar to the measure used with inservice teachers except that preservice teachers anticipate more conflict with future students than inservice teachers report with current students. Additionally, results show the developed measure fits the two factor structure of the original scale and exhibits concurrent validity via associations with teacher self-efficacy beliefs. Implications for measuring anticipated teacher–student relationship quality within teacher education programs and future directions for research are discussed.

Catching sight of children with internalizing symptoms in upper elementary classrooms

Teachers play a crucial role in the assessment of children's internalizing symptoms but may not always succeed in accurately identifying such symptoms in class. Using a multilevel structural equation modeling (MSEM) approach, this study aimed to explore teacher and child characteristics that may explain measurement bias in teachers' ratings of internalizing symptoms at the between- and within-teacher level. Upper elementary school teachers (N = 92, 74.9% female) filled out the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, Student-Teacher Relationship Scale, and Student-Specific Teacher Self-Efficacy Scale for randomly selected children (N = 690, 50.5% girls, Grades 3-6) from their classrooms. Participating teachers and children also responded to several background questions. Multilevel SEMs suggested that teachers' self-efficacy beliefs toward, relationship experiences with, and externalizing symptom ratings of individual children affected their ratings of these children's internalizing symptoms at the within-teacher level. Specifically, given equal levels of internalizing behavior, teachers were likely to systematically under-identify symptoms of anxiety and over-identify bullying for children with more externalizing behavior and conflictual relationships, or in circumstances where teachers had lower self-efficacy. Children with high levels of closeness received systematically higher ratings on somatic complaints and lower ratings on solitary behavior and peer problems. At the between-teacher level, less experienced teachers were more likely to over-identify symptoms of worries than were more experienced teachers, given equal levels of internalizing symptoms. As such, these findings extend the limited body of evidence on children's internalizing symptoms in upper elementary school.

Profiles of Dysregulation Moderate the Impact of Preschool Teacher-Student Relationships on Elementary School Functioning

Children's readiness to handle the expectations of elementary school depends heavily on their self-regulation skills. Self-regulation includes both cognitive and behavioral elements; however, past studies have typically looked at cognitive and behavioral self-regulation in isolation or as a composite score rather than examining self-regulation profiles. Conceptually, a profile characterized by pervasive cognitive and behavioral self-regulation difficulties may have different developmental roots than a profile limited to behavioral regulation difficulties and children displaying these different profiles likely require different intervention supports. In the current study, latent profile analysis (LPA) with cognitive and behavioral self-regulation indicators revealed four unique self-regulation profiles for preschool children (N=566): Pervasive Dysregulation (cognitively and behaviorally dysregulated), Behavioral Dysregulation (behaviorally dysregulated only), Average Self-Regulation, and High Self-Regulation. Latent moderational analyses testing the interaction between latent profile membership and preschool teacher-student relationship indicated that while both the Pervasive and Behavioral Dysregulation group were at increased risk for less desirable kindergarten and 2^nd grade outcomes, this risk was offset to a greater extant for children from the Behavioral Dysregulation profile when they experienced a close, non-conflictual teacher-student relationship in preschool.

Transactional Links between Teacher-Adolescent Support, Relatedness, and Aggression at School: A Three-Wave Longitudinal Study

This study examines the reciprocal effects between two school-based relationships within the classroom-namely, perceived teacher support and relatedness with classmates-and school aggression (overt and relational) across two courses of secondary education. Participants were 654 adolescents (48% boys), who were assessed in three waves: first, at the beginning of the academic year (T0), second, at the end of the same academic year (T1), and third, at the beginning of the next academic year (T2) (Mage wave 1 = 13.98 years). Autoregressive cross-lagged modeling was applied. Results show a protective effect of relatedness against relational aggression in both genders. Moreover, we observed a protective effect of perceived teacher support at the beginning of the course for later school aggression as well as a risk effect if this perceived teacher support is maintained throughout the course. These effects were observed in relation with gender-atypical forms of aggression (overt in girls and relational in boys). Finally, aggression had negative consequences for relatedness in girls and for teacher support through the mediation of relatedness in boys. Gender differences and practical implications of these findings are discussed.

The role of teachers' self-efficacy beliefs in the development of teacher-student relationships

Prior literature has suggested that teachers who are confident in their abilities to teach, assess, and manage classroom behavior may be more likely to engage in practices that lead to supportive and secure relationships with students. The current study investigated the trajectories of teacher-student relationships, examining the extent that teacher self-efficacy beliefs predicted ratings of conflict and closeness for 885 students from second to sixth grade. The trends of teacher-student closeness and conflict were modeled using a parallel curve of factors approach, controlling for student demographics and teacher-student racial and gender alignment prior to examining the extent that teacher self-efficacy beliefs influenced closeness and conflict across grades. Results from the parallel trajectories suggested that teacher-student conflict was stable from second to sixth grade, whereas teacher-student closeness demonstrated a declining curvilinear trend. The relationship between teacher-student conflict and closeness suggests that students with relatively high levels of conflict in second grade were likely to exhibit sharper declines in closeness over time. Across grades, teachers rated closer and less conflictual relationships with females but after controlling for gender and race (β = 0.083-0.328 for closeness; β = -0.118 to -0.238 for conflict), teacher-student racial and gender alignment associations with teacher-student relationship quality were less consistent. Teachers who reported higher self-efficacy beliefs were more likely to report higher ratings of closeness and lower ratings of conflict with students across all grades (β = 0.195-0.280 for closeness; β = -0.053 to -0.097 for conflict). These findings contribute to the literature regarding the role of teacher self-efficacy in teacher-student relationships. We discuss how teacher self-efficacy beliefs can be developed and leveraged to improve relationship quality in the classroom from a social cognitive perspective.

Developmental trajectories of teacher-student relationships and longitudinal associations with children's conduct problems from Grades 1 to 12

This study examined the development and continuity of teacher-student relationship quality across the formal schooling years (Grades 1 to 12) and investigated how variations (i.e., differential trajectories) in teacher-student relationship quality were longitudinally associated with children's conduct problems across childhood and adolescence. Participants consisted of 784 students (M_age = 6.57 in Grade 1; 47% girls, 37.4% Latino or Hispanic, 34.1% European American, and 23.2% African American) who were identified as being academically at risk (i.e., had low literacy scores at school entry). Distinct subgroups of children were identified based on variations in their teacher-student warmth and conflict trajectories, and patterns of continuity and change were also assessed across the transition to middle school. The findings provided insights into how the duration, magnitude, and timing of teacher-student relationship quality were associated with children's conduct problems. More specifically, relationships characterized by early-onset deficits, chronic and persistent relationship difficulties, or adolescent-onset conflict were associated with distinct patterns of conduct problems throughout childhood and adolescence.

Investigating Bidirectional Links Between the Quality of Teacher-Child Relationships and Children's Interest and Pre-Academic Skills in Literacy and Math

This study investigated bidirectional links between the quality of teacher-child relationships and children's interest and pre-academic skills in literacy and math. Furthermore, differences in the patterns of bidirectionality between boys and girls were explored. Participants were 461 Finnish kindergarteners (6-year-olds) and their teachers (n = 48). Teachers reported their closeness and conflict with each child twice throughout the kindergarten year. Children rated their interest in literacy and math, and were tested on their pre-academic skills. Cross-lagged path models indicated that teacher-perceived conflict predicted lower interest and pre-academic skills in both literacy and math. Results were similar for boys and girls. Implications for reducing conflictual patterns of relationships, together with promoting other factors, are discussed.

Subtypes of Girls Who Engage in Serious Delinquency and Their Young Adult Outcomes

Girls are increasingly becoming involved with the juvenile justice system; however, what brings girls to engage in delinquency or what obstacles these girls face later in life resulting from adolescent criminal behavior is understudied. In the present study, we used latent class analysis to identify subtypes of risks among adolescent girls ( N = 1,174) who have engaged in delinquent behaviors and mixture modeling to determine what distal psychological, social, educational, and economic outcomes in young adulthood are associated with each subtype. Four adolescent subtypes were identified, which were distinguished primarily based on the severity of their self-reported victimization experiences and mental health concerns. Classes with higher levels of victimization experiences tended to report more engagement with delinquent behavior in adolescence and had a larger proportion of Black and Hispanic girls than lower-victimization classes. Identified classes differed from each other on distal (i.e., young adulthood) measures of economic instability, educational attainment, drug use, depression, and adult arrests. Generally, latent classes which were characterized by higher rates of victimization and mental health concerns and lower educational performance in adolescence fared worse in young adulthood. Implications for those who care for girls who engage in delinquency, including suggestions for using trauma and culture informed screening, prevention, and intervention services, and directions for future research are discussed. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ’s website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/0361684320918243 .

The role of cognitive and non-cognitive factors in mathematics achievement: The importance of the quality of the student-teacher relationship in middle school

There is increasing evidence that several factors, including both cognitive and non-cognitive ones, play an important role in mathematics achievement. Relatively little is known about how socio-emotional features and the quality of the student-teacher relationship correlate with mathematics achievement among adolescents in transition to middle school. The aim of the present study is to examine the role of cognitive factors (general cognitive abilities), non-cognitive factors (math anxiety and self-esteem), and the quality of the student-teacher relationship on mathematics achievement. A large sample of Italian sixth graders was evaluated upon entering middle school. The results showed that general cognitive ability was the best predictor of mathematics achievement. As regards non-cognitive factors, the level of math anxiety was effective in predicting mathematics achievement, after controlling for other measures including self-esteem and the quality of the student-teacher relationship. In particular, we found that the quality of the student-teacher relationship had an indirect influence on mathematics achievement through the mediation of math anxiety. Our findings seem to indicate that the quality of the student-teacher relationship may be related to mathematics achievement, through its effects on math anxiety. This may have important implications for practitioners and educators, as we can suggest that interventions devoted to improving the quality of the student-teacher relationship may play a positive role in both preventing math anxiety and promoting mathematics learning.

Child-teacher dependency: The state of the research

The purpose of this commentary is to situate the findings from the studies in this special issue within the broader child-teacher relationship literature, with particular focus on the complex nature of child-teacher dependency. First, I briefly describe and review each of the compelling papers in this special issue. Second, I weave the studies to each other by linking their methods and results, and by identifying similar findings from the extant literature. Third, I provide some thoughts about future directions and implications for the study of child-teacher dependency from my perspective as a researcher in this field.

Early Maternal Sensitivity and Teacher-Student Relationship Quality Across Grade School: Enduring or Transient Associations?

Although teacher-student relationships are assumed to in part reflect early caregiving quality, their social provisions also undergo notable normative change over the course of primary school, shifting from a secure base for social exploration to an instrumental relationship centered on achieving academic goals. This report leveraged prospective, longitudinal data from the Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (N = 1,306, 52% male, 77% White/non-Hispanic) to investigate whether the association between early caregiving and subsequent teacher-student relationship quality remains stable or diminishes in magnitude over time. Associations between early maternal sensitivity and teacher-student closeness faded from Kindergarten to Grade 6. In contrast, associations between early caregiving and teacher-student conflict endured and were partially accounted for by child externalizing problems.

Teacher–Student Working Alliance Among Students With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders

Children with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD; N = 182) and their teachers ( N = 76) completed an instrument designed to assess the quality of their classroom working alliance. Confirmatory factor analyses conducted on student and teacher data, based on prior research conducted with normative samples, confirmed a two-factor model of classroom working alliance among students with EBD and their teachers. Follow-up analyses of student and teacher scores on items and constructs indicated that students reported greater bonding and greater task/goal alliance than did their teachers. This finding suggests that students with EBD had more positive views of their relationship than did teachers. The implications of these findings for future research are discussed.

The Effect of Teacher-Child Race/Ethnicity Matching and Classroom Diversity on Children's Socioemotional and Academic Skills

Mounting evidence suggests teacher-child race/ethnicity matching and classroom diversity benefit Black and Latinx children's academic and socioemotional development. However, less is known about whether the effects of teacher-child matching differ across levels of classroom diversity. This study examined effects of matching on teacher-reported child outcomes in a racially/ethnically diverse sample of teachers and children, and classroom diversity moderation using multilevel models. Data were drawn from a professional learning study involving 224 teachers (M_age  = 41.5) and 5,200 children (M_age  = 7.7) in 36 New York City elementary schools. Teacher-child race/ethnicity matching was associated with higher child engagement in learning, motivation, social skills, and fewer absences. Classroom diversity moderated matching such that teacher-child mismatch was related to lower engagement, motivation, social skills, math and reading scores in low-diversity classrooms, but not in high-diversity classrooms. Implications for practice and policy are discussed.

Students' Psychological Adjustment in Normative School Transitions From Kindergarten to High School: Investigating the Role of Teacher-Student Relationship Quality

School transitions require students to adapt to new challenges and situations and can increase the risk of externalizing and internalizing psychological symptoms. The teacher-student relationship seems to be a protective factor for the risk of developing psychological symptoms during school transitions. The aim of the present study is to investigate whether the quality of the teacher-student relationship predicts the decrease of internalizing and externalizing symptoms during three school transitions, namely: from kindergarten to primary school (T1), from primary to middle school (T2), and from middle to high school (T3). We recruited 127 kindergarten students (mean age = 5.40, SD = 0.49), 113 fifth grade primary school students (mean age = 10.64, SD = 0.54), and 240 eighth grade students (mean age = 13.88, SD = 0.37) and their teachers (response rate = 95%). Data were collected from 2016 to 2018. Teachers filled out an anonymous survey, acting as informants for the students, reporting demographic details (age, gender), psychological symptoms, and quality of the teacher-student relationship. The data show that a positive teacher-student relationship quality tends to be associated with a reduction of psychological symptoms. A stable, low-conflict teacher-student relationship was confirmed as a protective factor from increased internalizing and externalizing symptoms during all normative school transitions. Furthermore, we see that an increase in teacher-student conflict during the transitions from primary to middle school, and from middle to high school is linked to an exacerbation in students’ externalizing symptoms during the first year of attendance of the new school. Our study confirms the importance of the teacher-student relationship in reducing psychological symptoms associated with school transitions, in every type of transition, favoring an improved psychological adjustment to the new environment. A positive teacher-student relationship represents a protective factor for the development of students. Study limitations are discussed.

The interpersonal character of teacher expectations: The perceived teacher-student relationship as an antecedent of teachers' track recommendations

Teacher expectations of students have long been recognized as a form of interpersonal expectations. In this study, we aimed to investigate the interpersonal character of teacher expectations by assessing 1) whether teacher expectations and the teacher-student relationship shared similar antecedents in terms of demographic characteristics of students, and 2) whether the dimensions closeness, conflict, and dependency of the teacher-student relationship were predictive of teacher expectations. Analyses were based on a large sample of 9881 students in 614 classes in the final grade of primary education. The results indicated that teacher expectations - as measured by track recommendations - and the teacher-student relationship were not consistent in antecedents. Student performance, parental education, and closeness were positive predictors of track recommendations, whereas they were negatively associated with conflict and dependency. Ethnicity was positively associated with track recommendations, but negatively with closeness. Furthermore, perceived closeness and conflict were not statistically significantly associated with track recommendations. A negative association was found for perceived dependency with teachers' track recommendations, although the latter association appeared stronger for high performing students. Finally, the results showed that teachers differed in how they weigh the conflict and dependency dimensions when formulating track recommendations, indicating that those teacher perceptions played a stronger role in some of the classes.

Profiles of Foundational Learning Components among First Graders

School readiness includes a constellation of skills and behaviors, such as social and emotional development, language and literacy, and self-regulation that provide a basis critical for classroom participation and learning. Whereas it has been well-established that students who enter kindergarten with weaknesses in language and literacy are more likely to struggle academically, less research has focused on the variability and educational impact of other foundational learning components, including internalizing and externalizing behaviors, particularly in first grade. This study used latent profile analysis to identify the following four subgroups (profiles) of students, using foundational learning components, in a sample of first graders (n = 324): Emergent Hyperactive, Externalizing, Generally Good Students, and Internalizing. Latent class growth analysis illustrated significant differences in the average rate of growth in literacy skills from the beginning to the end of first grade across the four profiles, after controlling for gender and socioeconomic status. Findings indicated the greatest growth in literacy skills for students in the Externalizing profile and the least amount of vocabulary growth for students in the Emergent Hyperactive profile followed by the Internalizing profile. Educational implications of how researchers and educators might consider students' individual differences across profiles of foundational learning components to inform ways to support development and learning in the classroom are discussed.

Chinese adolescents' power distance value and prosocial behavior toward powerful people: A longitudinal study

We were interested in how specific cultural value and adolescent social behavior would influence each other over time. Thus the present study explored the longitudinal and bidirectional relations between adolescents’ power distance value and prosocial behavior toward powerful people over a year. A sample of 434 Chinese adolescents participated in the investigation (initial mean age = 11.27; 54.15% females). The results based on cross-lagged models showed that, earlier prosocial behavior toward powerful people was positively correlated to subsequent power distance value, but not vice versa. The findings point toward an understanding of the important role of adolescent social behavior on his/her cultural value development, and also shed light on future research in terms of the interplay between cultural values and individual’s social behaviors in other cultures.

Is the Child Really What’s Being Rated? Sources of Variance in Teacher Ratings of Socioemotional Skills

This study examined three potential sources of variance in teacher ratings of the socioemotional skills of children: occasion, child, and teacher. The ratings were prepared using the Devereux Student Strengths Assessment. In total, 344 children were assessed in both the fall and spring of kindergarten and first grade, providing a total of 1,067 ratings across 106 teachers. We employed cross-classified random effects models to account for multiple occasions of measurement that were nested within both children and teachers, which allowed us to determine the amounts of variance attributable to occasion, children, and teachers. Overall, occasion accounted for the greatest proportion of variance (43%-50%) across a variety of socioemotional subscales, followed by child (36%-46%), and teacher (11%-16%). Findings suggest that caution is warranted when using these scales for high-stake decisions.

Longitudinal trends and year-to-year fluctuations in student-teacher conflict and closeness: Associations with aggressive behavior problems

Longitudinal research suggests that student-teacher relationships characterized by elevated (or increasing) conflict and low (or decreasing) closeness promote heightened aggression in elementary school. However, prior research has not explored fluctuations in the quality of student-teacher relationships across school years, which may also impact students. This study applied a new methodology to determine whether year-to-year fluctuations in student-teacher conflict or closeness also predicted increased student aggression. 154 children were followed from Head Start preschools through elementary school. Early elementary teachers (kindergarten through third grade) rated the quality of conflict and closeness with students. Fifth grade teachers rated student aggression. Regression analyses revealed that year-to-year fluctuations in student-teacher conflict, along with mean levels of student-teacher conflict, each made unique contributions to fifth grade aggression, controlling for baseline aggression. In addition, for students with low aggression at kindergarten entry, year-to-year fluctuations in student-teacher closeness predicted increased aggression. Possible mechanisms accounting for the detrimental effects of fluctuations in student-teacher relationship quality are discussed, along with implications for practice.

Processes of Natural Mentoring that Promote Underrepresented Students' Educational Attainment: A Theoretical Model

Longitudinal studies suggest that naturally occurring mentoring relationships are associated with positive, long-term educational outcomes, but little is known about the mechanisms underlying these potential effects. Predominant theories and research methods portray natural mentoring as a static, one-to-one phenomenon and are removed from specific sociocultural and developmental contexts. Thus, the current paper critically reviews existing literature and proposes a dynamic, network-based process model of mentoring. Building on Rhodes' (2005, Handbook of youth mentoring, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 30) theoretical model, the proposed model integrates sociological, educational, and psychological research to examine developmental pathways through which natural mentoring relationships might promote underrepresented (e.g., low-income, ethnic/racial minorities) students' educational persistence and success. In particular, mentoring relationships might enhance students' positive help-seeking beliefs and trust in nonparent adults. These mentors may possess key cultural capital and knowledge that help underrepresented students navigate White, upper- or middle-class cultural norms. Mentors may also cultivate students' school-relevant selves and bicultural identities, facilitating integration into mainstream academia while affirming cultures of origin. Through these processes, previous mentoring experiences may promote the formation of new mentoring relationships, enabling youth to build dynamic support networks. Unfortunately, on a larger scale, advantage and disadvantage persist due to inequitable access to mentoring in educational settings.

Teacher-child relationships and classroom-learning behaviours of children with developmental language disorders

BACKGROUND

Children with developmental language disorders (DLDs) often struggle with classroom behaviour. No study has examined whether positive teacher-child relationships may act as a protective factor for children with DLDs in that these serve to enhance children's important classroom-learning behaviours.

AIMS

To examine the association between the quality of teacher-child relationships and teacher-rated classroom-learning behaviours of children with DLDs in both preschool and kindergarten.

METHODS & PROCEDURES

Longitudinal data were collected on 191 preschoolers (mean = 42.4 months of age, SD = 11.6 months) with DLDs in special education classrooms during preschool and in kindergarten. Teacher-child relationship quality was assessed in preschool, and children's classroom-learning behaviours were measured in preschool and kindergarten. Regression models were used to examine the relationship between teacher-child relationship quality and children's concurrent and future classroom-learning behaviours.

OUTCOMES & RESULTS

Positive teacher-child relationship quality in preschool was associated with better classroom-learning behaviours in preschool and kindergarten for children with DLDs. Preschool teacher-child relationship quality characterized by low levels of conflict and high levels of closeness was associated with positive classroom-learning behaviours during preschool. Teacher-child conflict but not closeness was predictive of children's classroom-learning behaviours in kindergarten.

CONCLUSIONS & IMPLICATIONS

These results suggest that the quality of the teacher-child relationship for children with DLDs during preschool is associated within their learning-related behaviours in the classroom both concurrently and in the subsequent year. Findings suggest that teacher-child relationships should be explored as a mechanism for improving the learning-related behaviours of children with DLDs.

Children's sleep problems are associated with poorer student-teacher relationship quality

OBJECTIVE

Children's sleep problems are associated with poorer student functioning in the school environment, including impairment in peer relationships; yet, no studies have examined sleep functioning in relation to the student-teacher relationship. The objective of this study was to examine whether child-rated total sleep problems or specific sleep problem domains (bedtime problems, nighttime problems, or daytime sleepiness) were associated with teacher-rated student-teacher closeness and conflict after controlling for student mental health symptoms known to be associated with both greater sleep problems and poorer student-teacher relationship quality. The study also examined whether age moderated the relation between sleep problems and student-teacher relationship quality.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants were 175 children (81 boys and 94 girls) in the first to sixth grades (age = 6-13 years) and their teachers.

METHODS

Children completed the Sleep Self-Report. Teachers completed a measure of student mental health symptoms (ie, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and anxiety/depression) and a measure of their relational closeness and conflict with each student.

RESULTS

Total sleep problems were associated with greater student-teacher conflict, after controlling for child mental health symptoms and demographic factors. This association was moderated by age such that sleep problems were associated with conflict for younger children but not older children. Notably, daytime sleepiness specifically was associated with less student-teacher closeness.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to demonstrate a relation between student sleep functioning and the student-teacher relationship. Results of the study suggest that sleep may be an important component of school-based screening and evaluation efforts, as sleep is an important malleable factor related to school success.