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Kowthavarapu VK, Charbe NB, Gupta C, Iakovleva T, Stillhart C, Parrott NJ, Schmidt S, Cristofoletti R. Mechanistic Modeling of In Vitro Biopharmaceutic Data for a Weak Acid Drug: A Pathway Towards Deriving Fundamental Parameters for Physiologically Based Biopharmaceutic Modeling. AAPS J 2024; 26:44. [PMID: 38575716 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-024-00912-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Mechanistic modeling of in vitro experiments using metabolic enzyme systems enables the extrapolation of metabolic clearance for in vitro-in vivo predictions. This is particularly important for successful clearance predictions using physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling. The concept of mechanistic modeling can also be extended to biopharmaceutics, where in vitro data is used to predict the in vivo pharmacokinetic profile of the drug. This approach further allows for the identification of parameters that are critical for oral drug absorption in vivo. However, the routine use of this analysis approach has been hindered by the lack of an integrated analysis workflow. The objective of this tutorial is to (1) review processes and parameters contributing to oral drug absorption in increasing levels of complexity, (2) outline a general physiologically based biopharmaceutic modeling workflow for weak acids, and (3) illustrate the outlined concepts via an ibuprofen (i.e., a weak, poorly soluble acid) case example in order to provide practical guidance on how to integrate biopharmaceutic and physiological data to better understand oral drug absorption. In the future, we plan to explore the usefulness of this tutorial/roadmap to inform the development of PBPK models for BCS 2 weak bases, by expanding the stepwise modeling approach to accommodate more intricate scenarios, including the presence of diprotic basic compounds and acidifying agents within the formulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Venkata Krishna Kowthavarapu
- Center for Pharmacometrics and Systems Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutics Lake Nona (Orlando), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, 6550 Sanger Road, Office 467, Orlando, Florida, 32827, USA
| | - Nitin Bharat Charbe
- Center for Pharmacometrics and Systems Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutics Lake Nona (Orlando), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, 6550 Sanger Road, Office 467, Orlando, Florida, 32827, USA
| | - Churni Gupta
- Center for Pharmacometrics and Systems Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutics Lake Nona (Orlando), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, 6550 Sanger Road, Office 467, Orlando, Florida, 32827, USA
| | - Tatiana Iakovleva
- Center for Pharmacometrics and Systems Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutics Lake Nona (Orlando), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, 6550 Sanger Road, Office 467, Orlando, Florida, 32827, USA
| | - Cordula Stillhart
- Pharmaceutical Research & Development, Formulation & Process Development, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., 4070, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Neil John Parrott
- Pharmaceutical Research & Early Development, Roche Innovation Center Basel, F. Hoffmann-La Roche Ltd., 4070, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Schmidt
- Center for Pharmacometrics and Systems Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutics Lake Nona (Orlando), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, 6550 Sanger Road, Office 467, Orlando, Florida, 32827, USA
| | - Rodrigo Cristofoletti
- Center for Pharmacometrics and Systems Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutics Lake Nona (Orlando), College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, 6550 Sanger Road, Office 467, Orlando, Florida, 32827, USA.
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Tsakalozou E, Mohamed MEF, Polak S, Heimbach T. Applications of Modeling and Simulation Approaches in Support of Drug Product Development of Oral Dosage Forms and Locally Acting Drug Products: a Symposium Summary. AAPS J 2023; 25:96. [PMID: 37783902 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-023-00862-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The number of modeling and simulation applications, including physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models, physiologically based biopharmaceutics modeling (PBBM), and empirical models, has been constantly increasing along with the regulatory acceptance of these methodologies. While aiming at minimizing unnecessary human testing, these methodologies are used today to support the development and approval of novel drug products and generics. Modeling approaches are leveraged today for assessing drug-drug interaction, informing dose adjustments in renally or hepatically impaired patients, perform dose selection in pediatrics and pregnant women and diseased populations, and conduct biopharmaceutics-related assessments such as establish clinically relevant specifications for drug products and achieve quality assurance throughout the product life cycle. In the generics space, PBPK analyses are utilized toward virtual bioequivalence assessments within the scope of alternative bioequivalence approaches, product-specific guidance development, and food effect assessments among others. Case studies highlighting the evolving and expanding role of modeling and simulation approaches within the biopharmaceutics space were presented at the symposium titled "Model Informed Drug Development (MIDD): Role in Dose Selection, Vulnerable Populations, and Biowaivers - Chemical Entities" and Prologue "PBPK/PBBM to inform the Bioequivalence Safe Space, Food Effects, and pH-mediated DDIs" at the American Association of Pharmaceutical Scientists (AAPS) PharmSci 360 Annual Meeting in Boston, MA, on October 16-19, 2022, and are summarized here.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleftheria Tsakalozou
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards (ORS), Office of Generic Drugs (OGD), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA.
| | | | - Sebastian Polak
- Certara UK, Simcyp Division, Sheffield, UK
- Jagiellonian University Medical College, Krakow, Poland
| | - Tycho Heimbach
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc, Rahway, New Jersey, 07065, USA
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3
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Babiskin A, Wu F, Mousa Y, Tan ML, Tsakalozou E, Walenga RL, Yoon M, Raney SG, Polli JE, Schwendeman A, Krishnan V, Fang L, Zhao L. Regulatory utility of mechanistic modeling to support alternative bioequivalence approaches: A workshop overview. CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol 2023; 12:619-623. [PMID: 36631942 DOI: 10.1002/psp4.12920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2022] [Revised: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
On September 30 and October 1, 2021, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the Center for Research on Complex Generics cosponsored a live virtual workshop titled "Regulatory Utility of Mechanistic Modeling to Support Alternative Bioequivalence Approaches." The overall aims of the workshop included (i) engaging the generic drug industry and other involved stakeholders regarding how mechanistic modeling and simulation can support their product development and regulatory submissions; (ii) sharing the current state of mechanistic modeling for bioequivalence (BE) assessment through case studies; (iii) establishing a consensus on best practices for using mechanistic modeling approaches, such as physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling and computational fluid dynamics modeling, for BE assessment; and (iv) introducing the concept of a Model Master File to improve model sharing between model developers, industry, and the FDA. More than 1500 people registered for the workshop. Based on a postworkshop survey, the majority of participants reported that their fundamental scientific understanding of mechanistic models was enhanced, there was greater consensus on model validation and verification, and regulatory expectations for mechanistic modeling submitted in abbreviated new drug applications were clarified by the workshop.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Babiskin
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Fang Wu
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Youssef Mousa
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Ming-Liang Tan
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Eleftheria Tsakalozou
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Ross L Walenga
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Miyoung Yoon
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Sam G Raney
- Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - James E Polli
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Anna Schwendeman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Vishalakshi Krishnan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - Lanyan Fang
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Liang Zhao
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
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4
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In-Depth Analysis of Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic (PBPK) Modeling Utilization in Different Application Fields Using Text Mining Tools. Pharmaceutics 2022; 15:pharmaceutics15010107. [PMID: 36678737 PMCID: PMC9860979 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15010107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past decade, only a small number of papers have elaborated on the application of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling across different areas. In this review, an in-depth analysis of the distribution of PBPK modeling in relation to its application in various research topics and model validation was conducted by text mining tools. Orange 3.32.0, an open-source data mining program was used for text mining. PubMed was used for data retrieval, and the collected articles were analyzed by several widgets. A total of 2699 articles related to PBPK modeling met the predefined criteria. The number of publications per year has been rising steadily. Regarding the application areas, the results revealed that 26% of the publications described the use of PBPK modeling in early drug development, risk assessment and toxicity assessment, followed by absorption/formulation modeling (25%), prediction of drug-disease interactions (20%), drug-drug interactions (DDIs) (17%) and pediatric drug development (12%). Furthermore, the analysis showed that only 12% of the publications mentioned model validation, of which 51% referred to literature-based validation and 26% to experimentally validated models. The obtained results present a valuable review of the state-of-the-art regarding PBPK modeling applications in drug discovery and development and related fields.
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5
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Patel N, Clarke JF, Salem F, Abdulla T, Martins F, Arora S, Tsakalozou E, Hodgkinson A, Arjmandi-Tash O, Cristea S, Ghosh P, Alam K, Raney SG, Jamei M, Polak S. Multi-phase multi-layer mechanistic dermal absorption (MPML MechDermA) model to predict local and systemic exposure of drug products applied on skin. CPT Pharmacometrics Syst Pharmacol 2022; 11:1060-1084. [PMID: 35670226 PMCID: PMC9381913 DOI: 10.1002/psp4.12814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic models combine knowledge about physiology, drug product properties, such as physicochemical parameters, absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion characteristics, formulation attributes, and trial design or dosing regimen to mechanistically simulate drug pharmacokinetics (PK). The current work describes the development of a multiphase, multilayer mechanistic dermal absorption (MPML MechDermA) model within the Simcyp Simulator capable of simulating uptake and permeation of drugs through human skin following application of drug products to the skin. The model was designed to account for formulation characteristics as well as body site- and sex- population variability to predict local and systemic bioavailability. The present report outlines the structure and assumptions of the MPML MechDermA model and includes results from simulations comparing absorption at multiple body sites for two compounds, caffeine and benzoic acid, formulated as solutions. Finally, a model of the Feldene (piroxicam) topical gel, 0.5% was developed and assessed for its ability to predict both plasma and local skin concentrations when compared to in vivo PK data.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Eleftheria Tsakalozou
- Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | | | - Priyanka Ghosh
- Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Khondoker Alam
- Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Sam G Raney
- Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | | | - Sebastian Polak
- Simcyp Division, Certara UK, Sheffield, UK.,Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Krakow, Poland
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6
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Lin L, Wright MR, Hop CECA, Wong H. Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic Models Can be used to Predict the Unique Nonlinear Absorption Profiles of Vismodegib. Drug Metab Dispos 2022; 50:1170-1181. [PMID: 35779865 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.122.000885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Predicting human pharmacokinetics (PK) during the drug discovery phase is valuable to assess doses required to reach therapeutic exposures. For orally administered compounds, however, this can be especially difficult since the absorption process is complex. Vismodegib is a compound with unique nonlinear oral PK characteristics in humans. Oral physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models were built using preclinical in vitro and in vivo data and successfully predicted the oral PK profiles in rats, dogs, and monkeys. Simulated drug exposures (AUC0-inf and Cmax), following oral administration were within 2-fold of observed values for the dog and monkey, and close to 2-fold for the rat, providing validation to the model structure. Adaptation of this oral PBPK model to humans, using human physiological parameters coupled with predicted human PK, resulted in underpredictions of vismodegib exposure following both single and multiple doses. When observed human PK was used to drive the oral PBPK model, oral PK profiles in humans were well predicted with fold errors in predicted vs observed drug exposures being close to 1. Importantly, the oral PBPK model captured the unique nonlinear, non-dose dependent PK of vismodegib at steady-state. The mechanism responsible for nonlinearity was consistent with oral absorption being influenced by nonsink permeation conditions. We introduce a new parameter, the permeation gradient factor, to characterize the effect of nonsink conditions on permeation. Using vismodegib as an example, we demonstrate the value of using oral PBPK models in drug discovery to predict the oral PK of compounds with nonlinear absorption characteristics in human. Significance Statement A physiologically-based pharmacokinetic model was built to demonstrate the value of these models early in the drug discovery stage for the prediction of human PK for compounds with unusual oral pharmacokinetics. In this study, our model could successfully capture the unique steady-state oral pharmacokinetics of our model compound, vismodegib. The mechanism for nonlinearity can be attributed to nonsink permeation conditions in vivo. We introduce the permeation gradient factor as a parameter to assess this effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis Lin
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of British Columbia, Canada
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7
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Subhani S, Kim C, Muniz P, Rodriguez M, van Os S, Suarez E, Cristofoletti R, Schmidt S, Vozmediano V. Application of Physiologically Based Absorption and Pharmacokinetic Modeling in the development process of oral modified release generic products. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2022; 176:87-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2022.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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8
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Kiyota T, Kambayashi A, Takagi T, Yamashita S. Importance of Gastric Secretion and the Rapid Gastric Emptying of Ingested Water along the Lesser Curvature ("Magenstraße") in Predicting the In Vivo Performance of Liquid Oral Dosage Forms in the Fed State Using a Modeling and Simulation. Mol Pharm 2022; 19:642-653. [PMID: 35075899 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.1c00778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
The objective of the present study was to develop an in silico model of the stomach for predicting oral drug absorption in fed humans. We focused on a model capable of simulating dynamic fluid volume changes and included a simulated Magenstraße "stomach road," a route along the lesser curvature that often carries fluids rapidly to assess the gastric emptying of drugs. Two types of model liquid drug formulations, liquid-filled soft gelatin capsules (enzalutamide, cyclosporine, and nifedipine) and oral solutions (levofloxacin and fenfluramine), were used. An in silico model was assembled, and simulations were performed using Stella Professional software. The secretion rate of the gastric juice induced by food ingestion was assessed along with the gastric emptying of the ingested water via the Magenstraße in the fed state. The model for the fed state successfully described the in vivo performance of the model drug formulations. These results clearly indicate the importance of including gastric secretion and the kinetics of Magenstraße when predicting the in vivo performance of dosage forms using an in silico modeling and simulation of fed humans. This simulation model should be further optimized to allow for the different physiological mechanisms following the ingestion of different types of meals, as well as modifications for interindividual and intraindividual variabilities in gastrointestinal physiology in the fed state in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsuyoshi Kiyota
- Pharmaceutical Research and Technology Labs, Astellas Pharma Inc., 180 Ozumi, Yaizu, Shizuoka 425-0072, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kambayashi
- Pharmaceutical Research and Technology Labs, Astellas Pharma Inc., 180 Ozumi, Yaizu, Shizuoka 425-0072, Japan.,School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Shizuoka, 52-1 Yada, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka 422-8526, Japan
| | - Toshihide Takagi
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0101, Japan
| | - Shinji Yamashita
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Setsunan University, 45-1 Nagaotoge-cho, Hirakata, Osaka 573-0101, Japan
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9
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Abstract
Oral drug absorption modeling has developed at a rapid pace in the 40 years or so since the first ideas for mathematical approaches to oral absorption were introduced. The success of compartmental approaches accelerated the uptake of absorption modeling, and over the last 20 years, work on absorption modeling has shifted almost exclusively to the compartmental framework. This report describes a new noncompartmental absorption modeling framework, the Lilly Absorption Modeling Platform (LAMP). LAMP connects a well-mixed stomach to a continuous tube model of the small intestine with plug flow. Within the continuous tube framework, the model includes intestinal mixing and a novel highly tunable precipitation model that can describe a combination of rapid nucleation and slow growth. The framework is designed to balance speed, consistency, and ease of use with a minimum of model complexity to capture the essential features of gastrointestinal (GI) physiology and critical elements of the oral absorption process. The model was validated based on predictions of the fraction absorbed and the maximum absorbable dose for a set of Eli Lilly and Company clinical compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen D Stamatis
- Lilly Research Labs, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, United States
| | - John P Rose
- Lilly Research Labs, Eli Lilly and Company, Indianapolis, Indiana 46285, United States
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Wilson CG, Aarons L, Augustijns P, Brouwers J, Darwich AS, De Waal T, Garbacz G, Hansmann S, Hoc D, Ivanova A, Koziolek M, Reppas C, Schick P, Vertzoni M, García-Horsman JA. Integration of advanced methods and models to study drug absorption and related processes: An UNGAP perspective. Eur J Pharm Sci 2021; 172:106100. [PMID: 34936937 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2021.106100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/16/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
This collection of contributions from the European Network on Understanding Gastrointestinal Absorption-related Processes (UNGAP) community assembly aims to provide information on some of the current and newer methods employed to study the behaviour of medicines. It is the product of interactions in the immediate pre-Covid period when UNGAP members were able to meet and set up workshops and to discuss progress across the disciplines. UNGAP activities are divided into work packages that cover special treatment populations, absorption processes in different regions of the gut, the development of advanced formulations and the integration of food and pharmaceutical scientists in the food-drug interface. This involves both new and established technical approaches in which we have attempted to define best practice and highlight areas where further research is needed. Over the last months we have been able to reflect on some of the key innovative approaches which we were tasked with mapping, including theoretical, in silico, in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo, preclinical and clinical approaches. This is the product of some of us in a snapshot of where UNGAP has travelled and what aspects of innovative technologies are important. It is not a comprehensive review of all methods used in research to study drug dissolution and absorption, but provides an ample panorama of current and advanced methods generally and potentially useful in this area. This collection starts from a consideration of advances in a priori approaches: an understanding of the molecular properties of the compound to predict biological characteristics relevant to absorption. The next four sections discuss a major activity in the UNGAP initiative, the pursuit of more representative conditions to study lumenal dissolution of drug formulations developed independently by academic teams. They are important because they illustrate examples of in vitro simulation systems that have begun to provide a useful understanding of formulation behaviour in the upper GI tract for industry. The Leuven team highlights the importance of the physiology of the digestive tract, as they describe the relevance of gastric and intestinal fluids on the behaviour of drugs along the tract. This provides the introduction to microdosing as an early tool to study drug disposition. Microdosing in oncology is starting to use gamma-emitting tracers, which provides a link through SPECT to the next section on nuclear medicine. The last two papers link the modelling approaches used by the pharmaceutical industry, in silico to Pop-PK linking to Darwich and Aarons, who provide discussion on pharmacometric modelling, completing the loop of molecule to man.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clive G Wilson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, Glasgow, U.K.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Mirko Koziolek
- NCE Formulation Sciences, Abbvie Deutschland GmbH & Co. KG, Germany
| | | | - Philipp Schick
- Department of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmaceutical Technology, Center of Drug Absorption and Transport, University of Greifswald, Germany
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Quantification of Fluid Volume and Distribution in the Paediatric Colon via Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13101729. [PMID: 34684022 PMCID: PMC8540766 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13101729] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 10/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have used magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to quantify the fluid in the stomach and small intestine of children, and the stomach, small intestine and colon of adults. This is the first study to quantify fluid volumes and distribution using MRI in the paediatric colon. MRI datasets from 28 fasted (aged 0-15 years) and 18 fluid-fed (aged 10-16 years) paediatric participants were acquired during routine clinical care. A series of 2D- and 3D-based software protocols were used to measure colonic fluid volume and localisation. The paediatric colon contained a mean volume of 22.5 mL ± 41.3 mL fluid, (range 0-167.5 mL, median volume 0.80 mL) in 15.5 ± 17.5 discreet fluid pockets (median 12). The proportion of the fluid pockets larger than 1 mL was 9.6%, which contributed to 94.5% of the total fluid volume observed. No correlation was detected between all-ages and colonic fluid volume, nor was a difference in colonic fluid volumes observed based on sex, fed state or age group based on ICH-classifications. This study quantified fluid volumes within the paediatric colon, and these data will aid and accelerate the development of biorelevant tools to progress paediatric drug development for colon-targeting formulations.
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12
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Tsakalozou E, Alam K, Babiskin A, Zhao L. Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling to Support Determination of Bioequivalence for Dermatological Drug Products: Scientific and Regulatory Considerations. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2021; 111:1036-1049. [PMID: 34231211 DOI: 10.1002/cpt.2356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling and simulation provides mechanism-based predictions of the pharmacokinetics of an active ingredient following its administration in humans. Dermal PBPK models describe the skin permeation and disposition of the active ingredient following the application of a dermatological product on the skin of virtual healthy and diseased human subjects. These models take into account information on product quality attributes, physicochemical properties of the active ingredient and skin (patho)physiology, and their interplay with each other. Regulatory and product development decision makers can leverage these quantitative tools to identify factors impacting local and systemic exposure. In the realm of generic drug products, the number of US Food and Drug Administratioin (FDA) interactions that use dermal PBPK modeling to support alternative bioequivalence (BE) approaches is increasing. In this report, we share scientific considerations on the development, verification and validation (V&V), and application of PBPK models within the context of a virtual BE assessment for dermatological drug products. We discuss the challenges associated with model V&V for these drug products stemming from the fact that target-site active ingredient concentrations are typically not measurable. Additionally, there are no established relationships between local and systemic PK profiles, when the latter are quantifiable. To that end, we detail a multilevel model V&V approach involving validation for the model of the drug product of interest coupled with the overall assessment of the modeling platform in use while leveraging in vitro and in vivo data related to local and systemic bioavailability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleftheria Tsakalozou
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling (DQMM), Office of Research and Standards (ORS), Office of Generic Drugs (OGD), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Khondoker Alam
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling (DQMM), Office of Research and Standards (ORS), Office of Generic Drugs (OGD), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew Babiskin
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling (DQMM), Office of Research and Standards (ORS), Office of Generic Drugs (OGD), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Liang Zhao
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling (DQMM), Office of Research and Standards (ORS), Office of Generic Drugs (OGD), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
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13
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Jaiswal S, Ahmed T, Kollipara S, Bhargava M, Chachad S. Development, validation and application of physiologically based biopharmaceutics model to justify the change in dissolution specifications for DRL ABC extended release tablets. Drug Dev Ind Pharm 2021; 47:778-789. [PMID: 34082622 DOI: 10.1080/03639045.2021.1934870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The generic drug product DRL ABC is an Extended Release (ER) Tablet manufactured by Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Limited and have multi point dissolution as part of release specification. A proposal is being made to revise the dissolution specification and the aim of present work was to evaluate if this would still provide bioequivalent product. METHODS PBBM was developed for DRL ABC using literature reported pharmacokinetic (PK) data. The intravenous PK data and in vitro metabolic rate constants were utilized for developing PBPK model first, followed by that in conjugation with mechanistic ACATTM model, a PBBM is developed for per-oral immediate release formulations. The validated model was applied to predict clinical bioequivalence (BE) study data for the Reference (Innovator ER Tablet) and Test product. For Reference and Test product, in vivo dissolution profiles were mechanistically deconvoluted from plasma concentration (Cp)-time profiles. Further, mechanistic in vitro-in vivo relationship (IVIVR) applied to in vitro release profiles of two hypothetical Test product batches (one with single point low dissolution profile (SPLP) and other with overall low dissolution profile (LP)) in order to calculate their in vivo releases and population simulation was performed with 40 virtual subjects. RESULTS Results from the cross-over virtual trials showed BE between the Reference and various Test product batches (SPLP and LP), with maximum Cp (Cmax) and area under the Cp-time curve (AUC0-inf) well within 80-125% range. CONCLUSION PBBM in conjugation with IVIVR and virtual BE was successfully applied for justifying changes in dissolution specification of DRL ABC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swati Jaiswal
- Biopharmaceutics Group, Global Clinical Management, Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd, Integrated Product Development Organization (IPDO), Bachupally, India
| | - Tausif Ahmed
- Biopharmaceutics Group, Global Clinical Management, Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd, Integrated Product Development Organization (IPDO), Bachupally, India
| | - Sivacharan Kollipara
- Biopharmaceutics Group, Global Clinical Management, Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd, Integrated Product Development Organization (IPDO), Bachupally, India
| | - Mohit Bhargava
- Manufacturing Science And Technology (MSAT) Group, Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd., Formulations Tech Operations (FTO)- Unit III, Bachupally, India
| | - Siddharth Chachad
- Biopharmaceutics Group, Global Clinical Management, Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Ltd, Integrated Product Development Organization (IPDO), Bachupally, India
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14
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Ince I, Dallmann A, Frechen S, Coboeken K, Niederalt C, Wendl T, Block M, Meyer M, Eissing T, Burghaus R, Lippert J, Willmann S, Schlender J. Predictive Performance of Physiology-Based Pharmacokinetic Dose Estimates for Pediatric Trials: Evaluation With 10 Bayer Small-Molecule Compounds in Children. J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 61 Suppl 1:S70-S82. [PMID: 34185905 PMCID: PMC8361729 DOI: 10.1002/jcph.1869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Development and guidance of dosing schemes in children have been supported by physiology-based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling for many years. PBPK models are built on a generic basis, where compound- and system-specific parameters are separated and can be exchanged, allowing the translation of these models from adults to children by accounting for physiological differences. Owing to these features, PBPK modeling is a valuable approach to support clinical decision making for dosing in children. In this analysis, we evaluate pediatric PBPK models for 10 small-molecule compounds that were applied to support clinical decision processes at Bayer for their predictive power in different age groups. Ratios of PBPK-predicted to observed PK parameters for the evaluated drugs in different pediatric age groups were estimated. Predictive performance was analyzed on the basis of a 2-fold error range and the bioequivalence range (ie, 0.8 ≤ predicted/observed ≤ 1.25). For all 10 compounds, all predicted-to-observed PK ratios were within a 2-fold error range (n = 27), with two-thirds of the ratios within the bioequivalence range (n = 18). The findings demonstrate that the pharmacokinetics of these compounds was successfully and adequately predicted in different pediatric age groups. This illustrates the applicability of PBPK for guiding dosing schemes in the pediatric population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ibrahim Ince
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
| | - André Dallmann
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
| | - Sebastian Frechen
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
| | - Katrin Coboeken
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
| | - Christoph Niederalt
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
| | - Thomas Wendl
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
| | - Michael Block
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
| | - Michaela Meyer
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
| | - Thomas Eissing
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
| | - Rolf Burghaus
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
| | - Jörg Lippert
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
| | - Stefan Willmann
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
| | - Jan‐Frederik Schlender
- Pharmacometrics/Modeling and Simulation, Research and DevelopmentPharmaceuticalsBayerAGGermany
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15
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Vinarov Z, Abrahamsson B, Artursson P, Batchelor H, Berben P, Bernkop-Schnürch A, Butler J, Ceulemans J, Davies N, Dupont D, Flaten GE, Fotaki N, Griffin BT, Jannin V, Keemink J, Kesisoglou F, Koziolek M, Kuentz M, Mackie A, Meléndez-Martínez AJ, McAllister M, Müllertz A, O'Driscoll CM, Parrott N, Paszkowska J, Pavek P, Porter CJH, Reppas C, Stillhart C, Sugano K, Toader E, Valentová K, Vertzoni M, De Wildt SN, Wilson CG, Augustijns P. Current challenges and future perspectives in oral absorption research: An opinion of the UNGAP network. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2021; 171:289-331. [PMID: 33610694 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2021.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Although oral drug delivery is the preferred administration route and has been used for centuries, modern drug discovery and development pipelines challenge conventional formulation approaches and highlight the insufficient mechanistic understanding of processes critical to oral drug absorption. This review presents the opinion of UNGAP scientists on four key themes across the oral absorption landscape: (1) specific patient populations, (2) regional differences in the gastrointestinal tract, (3) advanced formulations and (4) food-drug interactions. The differences of oral absorption in pediatric and geriatric populations, the specific issues in colonic absorption, the formulation approaches for poorly water-soluble (small molecules) and poorly permeable (peptides, RNA etc.) drugs, as well as the vast realm of food effects, are some of the topics discussed in detail. The identified controversies and gaps in the current understanding of gastrointestinal absorption-related processes are used to create a roadmap for the future of oral drug absorption research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahari Vinarov
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium; Department of Chemical and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Sofia University, Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Bertil Abrahamsson
- Oral Product Development, Pharmaceutical Technology & Development, Operations, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Per Artursson
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Hannah Batchelor
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Philippe Berben
- Pharmaceutical Development, UCB Pharma SA, Braine- l'Alleud, Belgium
| | - Andreas Bernkop-Schnürch
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Institute of Pharmacy, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - James Butler
- GlaxoSmithKline Research and Development, Ware, United Kingdom
| | | | - Nigel Davies
- Advanced Drug Delivery, Pharmaceutical Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | | | - Gøril Eide Flaten
- Department of Pharmacy, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Nikoletta Fotaki
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmacology, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Martin Kuentz
- Institute for Pharma Technology, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Alan Mackie
- School of Food Science & Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Anette Müllertz
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | | | | | - Petr Pavek
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Charles University, Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
| | | | - Christos Reppas
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Kiyohiko Sugano
- College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ritsumeikan University, Shiga, Japan
| | - Elena Toader
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy of Iasi, Romania
| | - Kateřina Valentová
- Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Maria Vertzoni
- Department of Pharmacy, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Saskia N De Wildt
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Clive G Wilson
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick Augustijns
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium.
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16
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Tsakalozou E, Babiskin A, Zhao L. Physiologically-based pharmacokinetic modeling to support bioequivalence and approval of generic products: A case for diclofenac sodium topical gel, 1. CPT-PHARMACOMETRICS & SYSTEMS PHARMACOLOGY 2021; 10:399-411. [PMID: 33547863 PMCID: PMC8129718 DOI: 10.1002/psp4.12600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2020] [Revised: 12/08/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Establishing bioequivalence (BE) for dermatological drug products by conducting comparative clinical end point studies can be costly and the studies may not be sufficiently sensitive to detect certain formulation differences. Quantitative methods and modeling, such as physiologically‐based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling, can support alternative BE approaches with reduced or no human testing. To enable PBPK modeling for regulatory decision making, models should be sufficiently verified and validated (V&V) for the intended purpose. This report illustrates the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of a generic diclofenac sodium topical gel that was based on a totality of evidence, including qualitative and quantitative sameness and physical and structural similarity to the reference product, an in vivo BE study with PK end points, and, more importantly, for the purposes of this report, a virtual BE assessment leveraging dermal PBPK modeling and simulation instead of a comparative clinical end point study in patients. The modeling approach characterized the relationship between systemic (plasma) and local (skin and synovial fluid) diclofenac exposure and demonstrated BE between the generic and reference products at the presumed site of action. Based on the fit‐for‐purpose modeling principle, the V&V process involved assessing observed data of diclofenac concentrations in skin tissues and plasma, and the overall performance of the modeling platform for relevant products. Using this case as an example, this report provides current scientific considerations on good practices for model V&V and the establishment of BE for dermatological drug products when leveraging PBPK modeling and simulation for regulatory decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleftheria Tsakalozou
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling (DQMM), Office of Research and Standards (ORS), Office of Generic Drugs (OGD), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Andrew Babiskin
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling (DQMM), Office of Research and Standards (ORS), Office of Generic Drugs (OGD), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Liang Zhao
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling (DQMM), Office of Research and Standards (ORS), Office of Generic Drugs (OGD), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
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17
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Loisios-Konstantinidis I, Dressman J. Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Modeling to Support Waivers of In Vivo Clinical Studies: Current Status, Challenges, and Opportunities. Mol Pharm 2020; 18:1-17. [PMID: 33320002 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.0c00903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Physiologically based pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PBPK/PD) modeling has been extensively applied to quantitatively translate in vitro data, predict the in vivo performance, and ultimately support waivers of in vivo clinical studies. In the area of biopharmaceutics and within the context of model-informed drug discovery and development (MID3), there is a rapidly growing interest in applying verified and validated mechanistic PBPK models to waive in vivo clinical studies. However, the regulatory acceptance of PBPK analyses for biopharmaceutics and oral drug absorption applications, which is also referred to variously as "PBPK absorption modeling" [Zhang et al. CPT: Pharmacometrics Syst. Pharmacol. 2017, 6, 492], "physiologically based absorption modeling", or "physiologically based biopharmaceutics modeling" (PBBM), remains rather low [Kesisoglou et al. J. Pharm. Sci. 2016, 105, 2723] [Heimbach et al. AAPS J. 2019, 21, 29]. Despite considerable progress in the understanding of gastrointestinal (GI) physiology, in vitro biopharmaceutic and in silico tools, PBPK models for oral absorption often suffer from an incomplete understanding of the physiology, overparameterization, and insufficient model validation and/or platform verification, all of which can represent limitations to their translatability and predictive performance. The complex interactions of drug substances and (bioenabling) formulations with the highly dynamic and heterogeneous environment of the GI tract in different age, ethnic, and genetic groups as well as disease states have not been yet fully elucidated, and they deserve further research. Along with advancements in the understanding of GI physiology and refinement of current or development of fully mechanistic in silico tools, we strongly believe that harmonization, interdisciplinary interaction, and enhancement of the translational link between in vitro, in silico, and in vivo will determine the future of PBBM. This Perspective provides an overview of the current status of PBBM, reflects on challenges and knowledge gaps, and discusses future opportunities around PBPK/PD models for oral absorption of small and large molecules to waive in vivo clinical studies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jennifer Dressman
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Technology, Goethe University, Frankfurt am Main 60438, Germany.,Fraunhofer Institute of Translational Pharmacology and Medicine (ITMP), Carl-von-Noorden Platz 9, Frankfurt am Main 60438, Germany
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18
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Lee J, Gong Y, Bhoopathy S, DiLiberti CE, Hooker AC, Rostami-Hodjegan A, Schmidt S, Suarez-Sharp S, Lukacova V, Fang L, Zhao L. Public Workshop Summary Report on Fiscal Year 2021 Generic Drug Regulatory Science Initiatives: Data Analysis and Model-Based Bioequivalence. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2020; 110:1190-1195. [PMID: 33236362 DOI: 10.1002/cpt.2120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
On May 4, 2020, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) hosted an online public workshop titled "FY 2020 Generic Drug Regulatory Science Initiatives Public Workshop" to provide an overview of the status of the science and research priorities and to solicit input on the development of Generic Drug User Fee Amendments fiscal year 2021 priorities. This report summarizes the podium presentations and the outcome of discussions along with innovative ways to overcome challenges and significant opportunities related to model-based approaches in bioequivalence assessment for breakout session 4 titled, "Data analysis and model-based bioequivalence (BE)." This session focused on the application of model-based approaches in the generic drug development, with a vision of accelerating regulatory decision making for abbreviated new drug application assessments. The session included both podium presentations and panel discussions with three topics of interest: (i) in vitro study evaluation methods and their clinical relevance, (ii) challenges in model-based BE, (iii) emerging expertise and tools in implementing new BE approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieon Lee
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Yuqing Gong
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | | | | | | | - Amin Rostami-Hodjegan
- Centre for Applied Pharmacokinetic Research, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.,Certara, Princeton, New Jersey, USA
| | - Stephan Schmidt
- Center for Pharmacometrics & Systems Pharmacology, Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, Orlando, Florida, USA
| | | | | | - Lanyan Fang
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - Liang Zhao
- Division of Quantitative Methods and Modeling, Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
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19
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Zhao L, Seo P, Lionberger R. Current Scientific Considerations to Verify Physiologically-Based Pharmacokinetic Models and Their Implications for Locally Acting Products. CPT-PHARMACOMETRICS & SYSTEMS PHARMACOLOGY 2020; 8:347-351. [PMID: 31355547 PMCID: PMC6662325 DOI: 10.1002/psp4.12421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Liang Zhao
- Division of Quantitative Methods and ModelingOffice of Research and StandardsOffice of Generic DrugsCenter for Drug Evaluation and ResearchUS Food and Drug AdministrationSilver SpringMarylandUSA
| | - Paul Seo
- Division of BiopharmaceuticsOffice of New Drug ProductsOffice of Pharmaceutical QualityCenter for Drug Evaluation and ResearchUS Food and Drug AdministrationSilver SpringMarylandUSA
| | - Robert Lionberger
- Office of Research and StandardsOffice of Generic DrugsCenter for Drug Evaluation and ResearchUS Food and Drug AdministrationSilver SpringMarylandUSA
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20
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Selen A, Müllertz A, Kesisoglou F, Ho RJY, Cook JA, Dickinson PA, Flanagan T. Integrated Multi-stakeholder Systems Thinking Strategy: Decision-making with Biopharmaceutics Risk Assessment Roadmap (BioRAM) to Optimize Clinical Performance of Drug Products. AAPS JOURNAL 2020; 22:97. [PMID: 32719954 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-020-00470-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Decision-making in drug development benefits from an integrated systems approach, where the stakeholders identify and address the critical questions for the system through carefully designed and performed studies. Biopharmaceutics Risk Assessment Roadmap (BioRAM) is such a systems approach for application of systems thinking to patient focused and timely decision-making, suitable for all stages of drug discovery and development. We described the BioRAM therapy-driven drug delivery framework, strategic roadmap, and integrated risk assessment instrument (BioRAM Scoring Grid) in previous publications (J Pharm Sci 103:3377-97, 2014; J Pharm Sci 105:3243-55, 2016). Integration of systems thinking with pharmaceutical development, manufacturing, and clinical sciences and health care is unique to BioRAM where the developed strategy identifies the system and enables risk characterization and balancing for the entire system. Successful decision-making process in BioRAM starts with the Blueprint (BP) meetings. Through shared understanding of the system, the program strategy is developed and captured in the program BP. Here, we provide three semi-hypothetical examples for illustrating risk-based decision-making in high and moderate risk settings. In the high-risk setting, which is a rare disease area, two completely alternate development approaches are considered (gene therapy and small molecule). The two moderate-risk examples represent varied knowledge levels and drivers for the programs. In one moderate-risk example, knowledge leveraging opportunities are drawn from the manufacturing knowledge and clinical performance of a similar drug substance. In the other example, knowledge on acute tolerance patterns for a similar mechanistic pathway is utilized for identifying markers to inform the drug release profile from the dosage form with the necessary "flexibility" for dosing. All examples illustrate implementation of the BioRAM strategy for leveraging knowledge and decision-making to optimize the clinical performance of drug products for patient benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arzu Selen
- US Food and Drug Administration, Center for Drug Evaluation and Research, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, Office of Testing and Research, 10903 New Hampshire Ave., Silver Spring, Maryland, 20993, USA.
| | - Anette Müllertz
- Bioneer: FARMA, Department of Pharmacy, University of Copenhagen, 2100, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Filippos Kesisoglou
- Biopharmaceutics, Pharmaceutical Sciences and Clinical Supply, Merck & Co, Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania, 19486, USA
| | - Rodney J Y Ho
- University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 98195, USA
| | - Jack A Cook
- Clinical Pharmacology Department, Global Product Development, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut, 06340, USA
| | - Paul A Dickinson
- Seda Pharmaceutical Development Services, Alderley Park, Alderley Edge, Cheshire, SK10 4TG, UK
| | - Talia Flanagan
- UCB Pharma S.A., Avenue de l'Industrie, 1420, Braine - l'Alleud, Belgium
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21
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Bransford P, Cook J, Gupta M, Haertter S, He H, Ju R, Kanodia J, Lennernäs H, Lindley D, Polli JE, Wenning L, Wu Y. ICH M9 Guideline in Development on Biopharmaceutics Classification System-Based Biowaivers: An Industrial Perspective from the IQ Consortium. Mol Pharm 2020; 17:361-372. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.9b01062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Philip Bransford
- Vertex Pharmaceuticals Incorporated, 50 Northern Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts 02210, United States
| | - Jack Cook
- Clinical Pharmacology Department, Global Product Development, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, Connecticut 06320, United States
| | - Manish Gupta
- Biopharmaceutics, Product Development and Supply, GlaxoSmithKline, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426, United States
| | - Sebastian Haertter
- Boehringer Ingelheim Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Ridgefield, Connecticut 06877, United States
| | - Handan He
- Department of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, East Hanover, New Jersey 07936, United States
| | - Rob Ju
- Drug Product Development, Abbvie, North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - Jitendra Kanodia
- Theravance Biopharma US, Inc., South San Francisco, California 94080, United States
| | - Hans Lennernäs
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, Box 580, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - David Lindley
- AbbVie Inc., North Chicago, Illinois 60064, United States
| | - James E. Polli
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland 21201, United States
| | - Larissa Wenning
- Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics and Drug Metabolism, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, United States
| | - Yunhui Wu
- Pharmaceutical Sciences, MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, United States
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22
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In Vitro Dissolution and in Silico Modeling Shortcuts in Bioequivalence Testing. Pharmaceutics 2020; 12:pharmaceutics12010045. [PMID: 31947944 PMCID: PMC7022479 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics12010045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To review in vitro testing and simulation platforms that are in current use to predict in vivo performances of generic products as well as other situations to provide evidence for biowaiver and support drug formulations development. Methods: Pubmed and Google Scholar databases were used to review published literature over the past 10 years. The terms used were “simulation AND bioequivalence” and “modeling AND bioequivalence” in the title field of databases, followed by screening, and then reviewing. Results: A total of 22 research papers were reviewed. Computer simulation using software such as GastroPlus™, PK-Sim® and SimCyp® find applications in drug modeling. Considering the wide use of optimization for in silico predictions to fit observed data, a careful review of publications is required to validate the reliability of these platforms. For immediate release (IR) drug products belonging to the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) classes I and III, difference factor (ƒ1) and similarity factor (ƒ2) are calculated from the in vitro dissolution data of drug formulations to support biowaiver; however, this method can be more discriminatory and may not be useful for all dissolution profiles. Conclusions: Computer simulation platforms need to improve their mechanistic physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling, and if prospectively validated within a small percentage of error from the observed clinical data, they can be valuable tools in bioequivalence (BE) testing and formulation development.
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23
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Hofsäss MA, Dressman JB. The Discriminatory Power of the BCS-Based Biowaiver: A Retrospective With Focus on Essential Medicines. J Pharm Sci 2019; 108:2824-2837. [DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2019.04.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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24
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Li X, Yang Y, Zhang Y, Wu C, Jiang Q, Wang W, Li H, Li J, Luo C, Wu W, Wang Y, Zhang T. Justification of Biowaiver and Dissolution Rate Specifications for Piroxicam Immediate Release Products Based on Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetic Modeling: An In-Depth Analysis. Mol Pharm 2019; 16:3780-3790. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.9b00350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoting Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Yuanhang Yang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Chunnuan Wu
- Department of Pharmacy, Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital, National Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy, Tianjin’s Clinical Research Center for Cancer, Tianjin 300060, PR China
| | - Qikun Jiang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Weiping Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Huixin Li
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Jing Li
- Liaoning Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution and Microecology, School of Basic Medical Science, Shenyang Medical College, No. 146 Huanghe North Street, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Cong Luo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Wenying Wu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Yingli Wang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
| | - Tianhong Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, No. 103, Wenhua Road, Shenyang 110016, PR China
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Charalabidis A, Sfouni M, Bergström C, Macheras P. The Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) and the Biopharmaceutics Drug Disposition Classification System (BDDCS): Beyond guidelines. Int J Pharm 2019; 566:264-281. [PMID: 31108154 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2019.05.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The recent impact of the Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) and the Biopharmaceutics Drug Disposition Classification System (BDDCS) on relevant scientific advancements is discussed. The major advances associated with the BCS concern the extensive work on dissolution of poorly absorbed BCS class II drugs in nutritional liquids (e.g. milk, peanut oil) and biorelevant media for the accurate prediction of the rate and the extent of oral absorption. The use of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling as predictive tool for bioavailability is also presented. Since recent dissolution studies demonstrate that the two mechanisms (diffusion- and reaction-limited dissolution) take place simultaneously, the neglected reaction-limited dissolution models are discussed, regarding the biopharmaceutical classification of drugs. Solubility- and dissolution-enhancing formulation strategies based on the supersaturation principle to enhance the extent of drug absorption, along with the applications of the BDDCS to the understanding of disposition phenomena are reviewed. Finally, recent classification systems relevant either to the BCS or the BDDCS are presented. These include: i) a model independent approach based on %metabolism and the fulfilment (or not) of the current regulatory dissolution criteria, ii) the so called ΑΒΓ system, a continuous version of the BCS, and iii) the so-called Extended Clearance Classification System (ECCS). ECCS uses clearance concepts (physicochemical properties and membrane permeability) to classify compounds and differentiates from BDDCS by bypassing the measure of solubility (based on the assumption that since it inter-correlates with lipophilicity, it is not directly relevant to clearance mechanisms or elimination).
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Affiliation(s)
- Aggelos Charalabidis
- Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Sfouni
- Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece
| | - Christel Bergström
- Department of Pharmacy, Uppsala University, BMC P.O. Box 580, SE-751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Panos Macheras
- Laboratory of Biopharmaceutics and Pharmacokinetics, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece; PharmaInformatics Unit, Research Center ATHENA, Athens, Greece; Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, State University of New York (SUNY), Buffalo, USA.
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26
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Stillhart C, Pepin X, Tistaert C, Good D, Van Den Bergh A, Parrott N, Kesisoglou F. PBPK Absorption Modeling: Establishing the In Vitro–In Vivo Link—Industry Perspective. AAPS JOURNAL 2019; 21:19. [DOI: 10.1208/s12248-019-0292-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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27
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Zhao L, Kim M, Zhang L, Lionberger R. Generating Model Integrated Evidence for Generic Drug Development and Assessment. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2019; 105:338-349. [DOI: 10.1002/cpt.1282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Accepted: 10/25/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Liang Zhao
- Division of Quantitative Methods and ModelingOffice of Research and StandardsOffice of Generic DrugsCenter for Drug Evaluation and ResearchUS Food and Drug Administration Silver Spring Maryland USA
| | - Myong‐Jin Kim
- Division of Quantitative Methods and ModelingOffice of Research and StandardsOffice of Generic DrugsCenter for Drug Evaluation and ResearchUS Food and Drug Administration Silver Spring Maryland USA
| | - Lei Zhang
- Office of Research and StandardsOffice of Generic DrugsCenter for Drug Evaluation and ResearchUS Food and Drug Administration Silver Spring Maryland USA
| | - Robert Lionberger
- Office of Research and StandardsOffice of Generic DrugsCenter for Drug Evaluation and ResearchUS Food and Drug Administration Silver Spring Maryland USA
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28
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Physiologically based absorption modeling to predict bioequivalence of controlled release and immediate release oral products. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2019; 134:117-125. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2018.11.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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29
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Mitra A. Maximizing the Role of Physiologically Based Oral Absorption Modeling in Generic Drug Development. Clin Pharmacol Ther 2018; 105:307-309. [DOI: 10.1002/cpt.1242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2018] [Accepted: 09/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amitava Mitra
- 1Clinical DevelopmentSandoz Inc.A Novartis Division Princeton New Jersey USA
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Gray VA. Power of the Dissolution Test in Distinguishing a Change in Dosage Form Critical Quality Attributes. AAPS PharmSciTech 2018; 19:3328-3332. [PMID: 30350251 PMCID: PMC6848239 DOI: 10.1208/s12249-018-1197-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/26/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
For a dissolution method to be considered relevant to in vivo performance, the dissolution data profiles should show discrimination or meaningful change when there is a change in critical material attributes (CMAs) and critical product properties (CPPs). The dissolution test has been shown repeatedly to have the power to distinguish between significant changes in active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), formulation, and process that relate to the release mechanism of the in vivo performance. Examples will be discussed in the literature where the effects of formulation, drug substance, and manufacturing variables have been measured by dissolution testing. There will be a suggested plan on how to develop and challenge a discriminating method that may be utilized for regulatory purposes. A brief review of other challenges and considerations regarding discriminatory dissolution testing is presented.
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Hens B, Talattof A, Paixão P, Bermejo M, Tsume Y, Löbenberg R, Amidon GL. Measuring the Impact of Gastrointestinal Variables on the Systemic Outcome of Two Suspensions of Posaconazole by a PBPK Model. AAPS JOURNAL 2018; 20:57. [DOI: 10.1208/s12248-018-0217-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2018] [Accepted: 03/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Investigation of the Discriminatory Ability of Pharmacokinetic Metrics for the Bioequivalence Assessment of PEGylated Liposomal Doxorubicin. Pharm Res 2018; 35:106. [PMID: 29564719 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-018-2387-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 03/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The purpose of the study was to construct a population pharmacokinetic model for pegylated liposomal doxorubicin and use the final model to investigate the discrimination performance of pharmacokinetic metrics (e.g., Cmax, AUC and partial AUC) of various analytes (e.g., liposome encapsulated doxorubicin, free doxorubicin and total doxorubicin) for the identification of formulation differences by means of Monte Carlo simulations. METHODS A model was simultaneously built to characterize the concentration time profiles of liposome-encapsulated doxorubicin and free doxorubicin using NONMEM. The different scenarios associated with changes in release rate (Rel) were simulated based on the final parameters. 500 simulated virtual bioequivalence (BE) studies were performed for each scenario, and power curves for the probability of declaring BE were also computed. RESULTS The concentration time profiles of liposome-encapsulated doxorubicin and free doxorubicin were well described by a one- and two-compartment model, respectively. pAUC0-24 h and pAUC0-48 h of free doxorubicin was most responsive to changes in the Rel when the Rel (test)/Rel (reference) ratios decreased. In contrast, when the Rel (test) increased, AUC0-t of liposome-encapsulated doxorubicin was the most responsive metric. CONCLUSIONS In addition to the traditional metrics, partial AUC should be included for the BE assessment of pegylated liposomal doxorubicin.
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Zhang X, Duan J, Kesisoglou F, Novakovic J, Amidon GL, Jamei M, Lukacova V, Eissing T, Tsakalozou E, Zhao L, Lionberger R. Mechanistic Oral Absorption Modeling and Simulation for Formulation Development and Bioequivalence Evaluation: Report of an FDA Public Workshop. CPT-PHARMACOMETRICS & SYSTEMS PHARMACOLOGY 2017; 6:492-495. [PMID: 28571121 PMCID: PMC5572334 DOI: 10.1002/psp4.12204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Revised: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
On May 19, 2016, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) hosted a public workshop, entitled “Mechanistic Oral Absorption Modeling and Simulation for Formulation Development and Bioequivalence Evaluation.”1 The topic of mechanistic oral absorption modeling, which is one of the major applications of physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) modeling and simulation, focuses on predicting oral absorption by mechanistically integrating gastrointestinal transit, dissolution, and permeation processes, incorporating systems, active pharmaceutical ingredient (API), and the drug product information, into a systemic mathematical whole‐body framework.2
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Affiliation(s)
- X Zhang
- Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - J Duan
- Division of Biopharmaceutics, Office of New Drug Products, Office of Pharmaceutical Quality, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - F Kesisoglou
- Biopharmaceutics and Specialty Dosage Forms, Pharmaceutical Sciences and Clinical Supply, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - G L Amidon
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - M Jamei
- Simcyp Limited (A Certara Company), Blades Enterprise Centre, Sheffield, UK
| | - V Lukacova
- Simulations Plus, Inc., Lancaster, California, USA
| | - T Eissing
- Bayer AG, Systems Pharmacology, Leverkusen, Germany
| | - E Tsakalozou
- Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - L Zhao
- Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
| | - R Lionberger
- Office of Research and Standards, Office of Generic Drugs, US Food and Drug Administration, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
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