Effect of Withania somnifera root extract on reserpine-induced orofacial dyskinesia and cognitive dysfunction

Enhancement of hippocampal-dependent spatial memory by Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) characterized by activation of NMDA receptors against monosodium glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in rats

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Monosodium glutamate (MSG) is used in food-additives, and the Food and Drug Administration has placed it under intense scrutiny following several reports that it causes glutamate neurotoxicity. Ashwagandha (ASH) roots are traditionally used for memory enhancement. This study aimed to evaluate the nootropic activity of ASH as well as its therapeutic anti-amnesic activity against MSG-induced hippocampal-dependent spatial memory impairment and hippocampal-NMDAR modulation.

METHOD

A total of 36 rats were divided equally into six groups (n = 6 in each group); the rats in the normal and negative groups were administered daily doses of normal saline and MSG (300 mg/kg), respectively, for 21 days. Two nootropic groups were administered ASH at 300 and 500 mg/kg o.p., respectively, for 21 days. Two other treatment groups were administered daily doses of MSG 300 mg/kg o.p. as well as 300 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg o.p. of ASH for 21 days. The rats' spatial memory was assessed for five days using the MWM. Additionally, NMDAR were measured quantitatively by immunohistochemistry.

RESULTS

We found that the rats in the nootropic groups showed significantly enhanced nootropic activity characterized by improved hippocampal-dependent spatial memory, as well as increases in the level of NMDAR in the Cornu Ammonis 1 region of their hippocampus. Moreover, we elucidated the therapeutic potential of ASH to protect against the depression of spatial memory caused by MSG-induced neurotoxicity.

CONCLUSION

Further, we elucidated a strong correlation between NMDAR-positive cells in the hippocampus and enhancement of spatial learning induced by long-term administration of ASH as well as a strong correlation between NMDAR positive cells in the hippocampus and depression of spatial learning induced by long-term administration of ASH and MSG.

Hepatoprotective Effect of Ethanolic Extract of Garlic Against Reserpine Induced Toxicity in Wistar Rats

Reserpine, a bioactive compound isolated from the roots of Rauwolfia serpentine, is known to deplete dopamine, a neurotransmitter. The clinical application of reserpine has been associated to manage hypertension, insanity, insomnia and schizophrenia. However, the usage of reserpine as a drug is restricted because of its ability of inducing excess free radicals production and oxidative stress resulting into damage to liver and other organs. Here, we have explored the antioxidative potential of extract of garlic prepared using ethanol (EEG) against reserpine-induced hepatic damage in the albino Wister rats.The animals were divided into four different groups containing 6 animals in each: (1) control + placebo, (2) control + EEG, (3) reserpine and (4) reserpine with EEG. The reserpine treatment resulted into sharp increase in the level of MDA and significant reduction in the activitiesof key antioxidative enzymes (SOD, GST, and CAT) in the rat liver. It also caused sharp perturbations in the levels of certain hepatic transaminases (ALT, AST) and glycolytic LDH. The histopathological results revealed hepatic necrosis, which could have occurred due to reserpine induced lipid peroxidation as well as reduction in the levels of antioxidant species.The administration of EEG, however, significantly ameliorated reserpine induced hepatotoxicity. These results reflected the ameliorative property of EEG, which was probably mediated via its antioxidant function as it contains several bioactive molecules with free radical quenching potential.This study suggestedthe prospective application of EEG as a supplement to combat the side effects of reserpine.

Nootropic Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees as Potential Cognitive Enhancers

Plant-based nootropics are a diverse group of natural drugs that can improve cognitive abilities through various physiological mechanisms, especially in cases where these functions are weakened or impaired. In many cases, the nootropics enhance erythrocyte plasticity and inhibit aggregation, which improves the blood's rheological properties and increases its flow to the brain. Many of these formulations possess antioxidant activity that protects brain tissue from neurotoxicity and improves the brain's oxygen supply. They can induce the synthesis of neuronal proteins, nucleic acids, and phospholipids for constructing and repairing neurohormonal membranes. These natural compounds can potentially be present in a great variety of herbs, shrubs, and even some trees and vines. The plant species reviewed here were selected based on the availability of verifiable experimental data and clinical trials investigating potential nootropic effects. Original research articles, relevant animal studies, meta-analyses, systematic reviews, and clinical trials were included in this review. Selected representatives of this heterogeneous group included Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettst., Centella asiatica (L.) Urban, Eleutherococcus senticosus (Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim., Ginkgo biloba L., Lepidium meyenii Walp., Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, Paullinia cupana Kunth, Rhodiola rosea L., Schisandra chinensis (Turcz.) Baill., and Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. The species are depicted and described, together with their active components and nootropic effects, and evidence of their efficacy is presented. The study provides brief descriptions of the representative species, their occurrence, history, and the chemical composition of the principle medicinal compounds, with uses, indications, experimental treatments, dosages, possible side effects, and contraindications. Most plant nootropics must be taken at optimal doses for extended periods before measurable improvement occurs, but they are generally very well tolerated. Their psychoactive properties are not produced by a single molecule but by a synergistic combination of several compounds. The available data suggest that including extracts from these plants in medicinal products to treat cognitive disorders can have substantial potential therapeutic benefits.

Effects of Acute Ashwagandha Ingestion on Cognitive Function

BACKGROUND

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) has been reported to decrease perceptions of stress, enhance mood, and improve cognitive function. However, it is currently unknown whether acute ashwagandha supplementation affects memory and cognitive function. This study evaluated the effects of acute ashwagandha extract ingestion on executive function.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

13 healthy volunteers were administered the Berg-Wisconsin Card Sorting (BCST), Go/No-Go (GNG), Sternberg Task (STT), and Psychomotor Vigilance Task (PVTT) tests. Participants then ingested in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, and crossover manner 400 mg of a placebo (PLA) or ashwagandha (ASH) extract (NooGandha^®, Specnova Inc., Boca Raton, FL, USA). Participants then performed cognitive function tests every hour for 6 h. After a 4-day washout period, volunteers repeated the experiment while receiving the remaining supplement. Data were analyzed by repeated measures General Linear Model multivariate and univariate statistics with body weight as a covariate.

RESULTS

Acute ASH supplementation increased STT-determined working memory as demonstrated by an improvement in 6 letter length, Present Reaction Time at 3 and 6 h. PVTT analysis revealed that ASH sustained attention by helping maintain reaction times, preventing mental fatigue, and remaining vigilant. Conversely, reaction times (at task 20, hour 6; overall, hour 3) increased with PLA. In the BCST, there was evidence that ASH increased the ability to recognize and 'shift' to a new rule compared with baseline. However, this was not seen when evaluating changes from baseline, suggesting that differences in baseline values influence results. In the GNG test, ASH ingestion promoted faster response times to respond correctly than PLA, indicating less metal fatigue. However, ASH did not affect accuracy compared to PLA, as both treatments decreased the percentage of correct answers.

CONCLUSIONS

Acute supplementation with 400 mg of ashwagandha improved selected measures of executive function, helped sustain attention, and increased short-term/working memory.

Potential clinical applications of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) in medicine and neuropsychiatry

INTRODUCTION

Ashwagandha (ASW) is the extract of the plant Withania somnifera. It is widely used in complementary, alternative, and integrative medicine (CAIM) but is little discussed in mainstream modern medical literature.

AREAS COVERED

We performed a review of potential pharmacotherapeutic properties of ASW. Studies were sourced from relevant online and offline databases. In animal models, ASW displays antioxidant activity. It has GABAergic and other neurotransmitter modulatory effects. It reduces apoptosis and promotes synaptic plasticity. It improves cognition and reverses induced cognitive deficits. It attenuates indices of stress. In human subjects, ASW enhances adaptogenesis in healthy adults. It modestly benefits generalized anxiety disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder, and symptom severity in schizophrenia, substance use disorders, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. It improves sleep quality.

EXPERT OPINION

ASW may confer modest benefit in certain neuropsychiatric conditions. Its benefits may arise from induction of neuroplasticity, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and modulation of GABA and glutamate, as well as other neurotransmitters. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory actions may also benefit neurodegenerative states. Reports of clinical benefit with ASW must be interpreted with caution, given the paucity of randomized clinical trials (RCTs). Greater methodological rigor is necessary before clinical recommendations on ASW can be confidently made.

Nootropics as Cognitive Enhancers: Types, Dosage and Side Effects of Smart Drugs

Nootropics, also known as “smart drugs” are a diverse group of medicinal substances whose action improves human thinking, learning, and memory, especially in cases where these functions are impaired. This review provides an up-to-date overview of the potential effectiveness and importance of nootropics. Based on their nature and their effects, this heterogeneous group of drugs has been divided into four subgroups: classical nootropic compounds, substances increasing brain metabolism, cholinergic, and plants and their extracts with nootropic effects. Each subgroup of nootropics contains several main representatives, and for each one, its uses, indications, experimental treatments, dosage, and possible side effects and contraindications are discussed. For the nootropic plant extracts, there is also a brief description of each plant representative, its occurrence, history, and chemical composition of the medicinal part. Lastly, specific recommendations regarding the use of nootropics by both ill and healthy individuals are summarized.

Computational studies evidenced the potential of steroidal lactone to disrupt surface interaction of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and hACE2

The critical event in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pathogenesis is recognition of host cells by the virus, which is facilitated by protein-protein interaction (PPI) of viral Spike-Receptor Binding Domain (S-RBD) and Human Angiotensin Converting Enzyme 2-Receptor (hACE2-R). Thus, disrupting the interaction between S-RBD and hACE2-R is widely accepted as a primary strategy for managing COVID-19. The purpose of this study is to assess the ability of three steroidal lactones (SL) (4-Dehydrowithaferin A, Withaferin A, and Withalongolide A) derived from plants to disrupt the PPI of S-RBD and hACE2-R under two conditions (CON-I and CON-II) using in-silico methods. Under CON-I, 4-Dehydrowithaferin A destabilizing the interactions between S-RBD and hACE2-R, as indicated by an increase in binding energy (BE) from -1028.5 kJ/mol (control) to -896.12 kJ/mol 4-Dehydrowithaferin A exhibited a strong interaction with S-RBD GLY496 with a hydrogen bond occupancy (HBO) of 37.33%. Under CON-II, Withalongolide A was capable of disrupting all types of PPI, as evidenced by an increased BE from -913 kJ/mol (control) to -133.69 kJ/mol and an increased distance (>3.55 nm) between selected AAR combinations of S-RBD and hACE2-R. Withalongolide A formed a hydrogen bond with TYR453 (97%, HBO) of S-RBD, which is required for interaction with hACE2-R's HIS34. Our studies demonstrated that SL molecules have the potential to disrupt the S-RBD and hACE2-R interaction, thereby preventing SARS-CoV-2 from recognizing host cells. The SL molecules can be considered for additional in-vitro and in-vivo studies with this research evidence.

PPARγ receptors are involved in the effects of cannabidiol on orofacial dyskinesia and cognitive dysfunction induced by typical antipsychotic in mice

Tardive dyskinesia (TD) is a movement disorder that appears after chronic use of drugs that block dopaminergic receptors such as antipsychotics. Besides the motor symptoms, patients with TD also present cognitive deficits. Neuroinflammatory mechanisms could be involved in the development of these symptoms. A previous study showed that cannabidiol (CBD), the major non-psychotomimetic compound of Cannabis sativa plant, prevents orofacial dyskinesia induced by typical antipsychotics by activating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors gamma (PPARγ). Here, we investigated if CBD would also reverse haloperidol-induced orofacial dyskinesia and associated cognitive deficits. We also verified if these effects depend on PPARγ receptor activation. Daily treatment with haloperidol (3 mg/kg, 21 days) increased the frequency of vacuous chewing movements (VCM) and decreased the discrimination index in the novel object recognition test in male Swiss mice. CBD (60 mg/kg/daily) administered in the last 7 days of haloperidol treatment attenuated both behavioral effects. Furthermore, haloperidol increased IL-1β and TNF-α levels in the striatum and hippocampus while CBD reverted these effects. The striatal and hippocampal levels of proinflammatory cytokines correlated with VCM frequency and discrimination index, respectively. Pretreatment with the PPARγ antagonist GW9662 (2 mg/kg/daily) blocked the behavioral effects of CBD. In conclusion, these results indicated that CBD could attenuate haloperidol-induced orofacial dyskinesia and improve non-motor symptoms associated with TD by activating PPARγ receptors.

Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera) root extract attenuates hepatic and cognitive deficits in thioacetamide-induced rat model of hepatic encephalopathy via induction of Nrf2/HO-1 and mitigation of NF-κB/MAPK signaling pathways

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ashwagandha (ASH) is one of the medicinal plants used in traditional Indian, Ayurvedic, and Unani medicines for their broad range of pharmacological activities including, tonic, aphrodisiac, energy stimulant, and counteracting chronic fatigue. Besides, it is used in the treatment of nervous exhaustion, memory-related conditions, insomnia, as well as improving learning ability and memory capacity. ASH is preclinically proven to be efficient in hepatoprotection and improving cognitive impairment, however, its beneficial effects against hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is still unclear. Therefore, this study aimed at investigating the protective effects of ASH root extract against thioacetamide (TAA)-induced HE and delineate the underlying behavioral and pharmacological mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ASH metabolites were identified using UPLC-HRMS. Rats were pretreated with ASH (200 and 400 mg/kg) for 29 days and administrated TAA (i.p, 350 mg/kg) in a single dose. Then, behavioral (open field test, Y-maze, modified elevated plus maze and novel object recognition test), and biochemical (ammonia and hepatic toxicity indices) assessments, as well as oxidative stress markers (MDA and GSH) were evaluated. The hepatic and brain levels of glutamine synthetase (GS), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), heme-oxygenase (HO)-1, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The mRNA expressions of p38/ERK½ were determined using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Moreover, histopathological investigations and immunohistochemical (NF-κB and TNF-α immunohistochemical expressions) examinations were performed.

RESULTS

Metabolite profiling of ASH revealed more than 45 identified metabolites including phenolic acids, flavonoids and steroidal lactone triterpenoids. Compared to the TAA-intoxicated group, ASH improved the locomotor and cognitive deficits, serum hepatotoxicity indices and ammonia levels, as well as brain and hepatic histopathological alterations. ASH reduced hepatic and brain levels of MDA, GS, and iNOS, and increased their GSH, Nrf2, and HO-1 levels. Also, ASH downregulated p38 and ERK½ mRNA expressions, and NF-κB and TNF-α immunohistochemical expressions in brain and hepatic tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results provided insights into the promising hepato- and neuroprotective effects of ASH, with superiority to 400 mg/kg ASH, to ameliorate HE with its sequential hyperammonemia and liver/brain injuries. This could be attributed to the recorded increase in the spontaneous alternation % and recognition index, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, as well as upregulation of Nrf2 and downregualtion of MAPK signaling pathways.

Withania somnifera L.: Insights into the phytochemical profile, therapeutic potential, clinical trials, and future prospective

Withania somnifera L. is a multipurpose medicinal plant of family Solanaceae occurring abundantly in sub-tropical regions of the world. The folk healers used the plant to treat several diseases such as fever, cancer, asthma, diabetes, ulcer, hepatitis, eyesores, arthritis, heart problems, and hemorrhoids. The plant is famous for the anti-cancerous activity, low back pain treatment, and muscle strengthening, which may be attributed to the withanolide alkaloids. W. somnifera is also rich in numerous valued secondary metabolites such as steroids, alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolics, saponins, and glycosides. A wide range of preclinical trials such as cardioprotective, anticancer, antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, anti-depressant, and hypoglycemic have been attributed to various parts of the plant. Different parts of the plant have also been evaluated for the clinical trials such as male infertility, obsessive-compulsive disorder, antianxiety, bone and muscle strengthening potential, hypolipidemic, and antidiabetic. This review focuses on folk medicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological, and nutrapharmaceutical potential of the versatile plant.

In Silico Elucidation of the Plausible Inhibitory Potential of Withaferin A of Withania Somnifera Medicinal Herb Against Breast Cancer Targeting Estrogen Receptor

BACKGROUND

Estrogen Receptors (ER) are members of the nuclear intracellular receptors family. ER once activated by estrogen, it binds to DNA via translocating into the nucleus and regulates the activity of various genes. Withaferin A (WA) - an active compound of a medicinal plant Withania somnifera was reported to be a very effective anti-cancer agent and some of the recent studies has demonstrated that WA is capable of arresting the development of breast cancer via targeting estrogen receptor.

OBJECTIVE

The present study is aimed at understanding the molecular level interactions of ER and Tamoxifen in comparison to Withaferin A using In-silico approaches with emphasis on Withaferin A binding capability with ER in presence of point mutations which are causing de novo drug resistance to existing drugs like Tamoxifen.

METHODS

Molecular modeling and docking studies were performed for the Tamoxifen and Withaferin A with the Estrogen receptor. Molecular docking simulations of estrogen receptor in complex with Tamoxifen and Withaferin A were also performed.

RESULTS

Amino acid residues, Glu353, Arg394 and Leu387 was observed as crucial for binding and stabilizing the protein-ligand complex in case of Tamoxifen and Withaferin-A. The potential of Withaferin A to overcome the drug resistance caused by the mutations in estrogen receptor to the existing drugs such as Tamoxifen was demonstrated.

CONCLUSION

In-silico analysis has elucidated the binding mode and molecular level interactions which are expected to be of great help in further optimizing Withaferin A or design / discovery of future breast cancer inhibitors targeting estrogen receptor.

Dysfunction of the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Neurodegenerative Disease: The Promise of Therapeutic Modulation With Prebiotics, Medicinal Herbs, Probiotics, and Synbiotics

Recent data suggest gut microbiota dysbiosis as a contributing factor in neurodegenerative diseases, such as Parkinson's Disease (PD) and Alzheimer's Disease (AD), and these pathologies may manifest via the microbiota-gut-brain-axis, which comprises bidirectional communication through neuroimmune, neuroendocrine, and direct neural pathways such as the vagus nerve. Preclinical and human clinical trial data reveal exciting potential for novel treatment targets and therapeutic modulation with prebiotics, medicinal herbs, probiotics, and synbiotics in health, aging, and neurodegeneration and are reviewed here. While greater insights and characterization of the microbiota-gut-brain axis have been revealed over the past decade, salient questions related to the pathology, pathogenesis and clinical treatment of the axis in the context of both health and neurodegenerative disease remain and are discussed in this review. Future directions such as additional well-controlled, large scale, longitudinal human clinical trials are urgently needed to further elucidate both mechanism and therapeutic opportunity in health, neurological disease, and disease subpopulations to ensure that the next decade ushers the dawn of targeted therapeutic modulation of the microbiota-gut-brain axis.

Nootropic and Anti-Alzheimer's Actions of Medicinal Plants: Molecular Insight into Therapeutic Potential to Alleviate Alzheimer's Neuropathology

Medicinal plants are the backbone of modern medicine. In recent times, there is a great urge to discover nootropic medicinal plants to reverse cognitive dysfunction owing to their less adverse effects. Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an age-related neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the inevitable loss of cognitive function, memory and language impairment, and behavioral disturbances, which turn into gradually more severe. Alzheimer's has no current cure, but symptomatic treatments are available and research continues. The number of patients suffering from AD continues to rise and today, there is a worldwide effort under study to find better ways to alleviate Alzheimer's pathogenesis. In this review, the nootropic and anti-Alzheimer's potentials of 6 medicinal plants (i.e., Centella asiatica, Clitoria ternatea, Crocus sativus, Terminalia chebula, Withania somnifera, and Asparagus racemosus) were explored through literature review. This appraisal focused on available information about neuroprotective and anti-Alzheimer's use of these plants and their respective bioactive compounds/metabolites and associated effects in animal models and consequences of its use in human as well as proposed molecular mechanisms. This review progresses our existing knowledge to reveal the promising linkage of traditional medicine to halt AD pathogenesis. This analysis also avowed a new insight to search the promising anti-Alzheimer's drugs.

Efficacy and Safety of Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal) Root Extract in Improving Memory and Cognitive Functions

OBJECTIVES

Cognitive decline is often associated with the aging process. Ashwagandha (Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal) has long been used in the traditional Ayurvedic system of medicine to enhance memory and improve cognition.

AIM

This pilot study was designed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of ashwagandha (Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal) in improving memory and cognitive functioning in adults with mild cognitive impairment (MCI).

METHODS

A prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study was conducted in 50 adults. Subjects were treated with either ashwagandha-root extract (300 mg twice daily) or placebo for eight weeks.

RESULTS

After eight weeks of study, the ashwagandha treatment group demonstrated significant improvements compared with the placebo group in both immediate and general memory, as evidenced by Wechsler Memory Scale III subtest scores for logical memory I (p = 0.007), verbal paired associates I (p = 0.042), faces I (p = 0.020), family pictures I (p = 0.006), logical memory II (p = 0.006), verbal paired associates II (p = 0.031), faces II (p = 0.014), and family pictures II (p = 0.006). The treatment group also demonstrated significantly greater improvement in executive function, sustained attention, and information-processing speed as indicated by scores on the Eriksen Flanker task (p = 0.002), Wisconsin Card Sort test (p = 0.014), Trail-Making test part A (p = 0.006), and the Mackworth Clock test (p = 0.009).

CONCLUSIONS

Ashwagandha may be effective in enhancing both immediate and general memory in people with MCI as well as improving executive function, attention, and information processing speed.

Experimental treatment of antipsychotic-induced movement disorders

Antipsychotic drugs are extensively prescribed for the treatment of schizophrenia and other related psychiatric disorders. These drugs produced their action by blocking dopamine (DA) receptors, and these receptors are widely present throughout the brain. Therefore, extended antipsychotic use also leads to severe extrapyramidal side effects. The short-term effects include parkinsonism and the later appearing tardive dyskinesia. Currently available treatments for these disorders are mostly symptomatic and insufficient, and are often linked with a number of detrimental side effects. Antipsychotic-drug-induced tardive dyskinesia prompted researchers to explore novel drugs with fewer undesirable extrapyramidal side effects. Preclinical studies suggest a role of 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin)-1A and 2A/2C receptors in the modulation of dopaminergic neurotransmission and motivating a search for better therapeutic strategies for schizophrenia and related disorders. In addition, adjunctive treatment with antioxidants such as vitamin E, red rice bran oil, and curcumin in the early phases of illness may prevent additional oxidative injury, and thus improve and prevent further possible worsening of related neurological and behavioral deficits in schizophrenia. This review explains the role of serotonergic receptors and oxidative stress, with the aim of providing principles for prospect development of compounds to improve therapeutic effects of antischizophrenic drugs.

Effect of Hypericum perforatum on different models of movement disorders in rats

The effects of Hypericum perforatum, a plant with antidepressant action, were evaluated in models of abnormal movements in rats, brought about by administration of fluphenazine or reserpine. The number of vacuous chewing movements (VCMs) and locomotor activity (the number of crossings and rears in the open field test) were measured. In experiment 1, rats received a single administration of fluphenazine enanthate (25 mg/kg, intramuscular) and/or daily treatment with H. perforatum (300 mg/kg, in place of drinking water) for 7 days. Fluphenazine increased VCMs and decreased locomotor activity. H. perforatum had no effect on either the number of VCMs or the locomotor activity. In experiment 2, rats received reserpine every 2 days for 6 days (0.5 mg/kg, subcutaneous) and/or H. perforatum (300 mg/kg, in place of drinking water) daily for 16 days beginning 10 days before the first administration of reserpine. Reserpine treatment increased VCMs and decreased locomotor activity. H. perforatum had no effect on either the number of VCMs or the number of rears but did prevent the effect of reserpine on the number of crossings. In conclusion, H. perforatum failed to protect against orofacial movements induced by fluphenazine or reserpine in rats.

Beneficial effects of lycopene against haloperidol induced orofacial dyskinesia in rats: Possible neurotransmitters and neuroinflammation modulation

Tardive Dyskinesia is a severe side effect of chronic neuroleptic treatment consisting of abnormal involuntary movements, characterized by orofacial dyskinesia. The study was designed to investigate the protective effect of lycopene against haloperidol induced orofacial dyskinesia possibly by neurochemical and neuroinflammatory modulation in rats. Rats were administered with haloperidol (1mg/kg, i.p for 21 days) to induce orofacial dyskinesia. Lycopene (5 and 10mg/kg, p.o) was given daily 1hour before haloperidol treatment for 21 days. Behavioral observations (vacuous chewing movements, tongue protrusions, facial jerking, rotarod activity, grip strength, narrow beam walking) were assessed on 0th, 7th(,) 14th(,) 21st day after haloperidol treatment. On 22nd day, animals were killed and striatum was excised for estimation of biochemical parameters (malondialdehyde, nitrite and endogenous enzyme (GSH), pro-inflammatory cytokines [Tumor necrosis factor, Interleukin 1β, Interleukin 6] and neurotransmitters level (dopamine, serotonin, nor epinephrine, 5-Hydroxyindole acetic acid (5-HIAA), Homovanillic acid, 3,4- dihydroxyphenylacetic acid. Haloperidol treatment for 21 days impaired muscle co-ordination, motor activity and grip strength with an increased in orofacial dyskinetic movements. Further free radical generation increases MDA and nitrite levels, decreasing GSH levels in striatum. Neuroinflammatory markers were significantly increased with decrease in neurotransmitters levels. Lycopene (5 and 10mg/kg, p.o) treatment along with haloperidol significantly attenuated impairment in behavioral, biochemical, neurochemical and neuroinflammatory markers. Results of the present study attributed the therapeutic potential of lycopene in the treatment (prevented or delayed) of typical antipsychotic induced orofacial dyskinesia.

Withania somnifera Improves Ischemic Stroke Outcomes by Attenuating PARP1-AIF-Mediated Caspase-Independent Apoptosis

Withania somnifera (WS), popularly known as "Ashwagandha" has been used for centuries as a nerve tonic. Its protective effect has been elucidated in many neurodegenerative pathologies, although there is a paucity of data regarding its effects in ischemic stroke. We examined the neuroprotective properties of an aqueous extract of WS in both pre- and poststroke treatment regimens in a mouse model of permanent distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO). WS (200 mg/kg) improved functional recovery and significantly reduced the infarct volume in mice, when compared to those treated with vehicle, in both paradigms. We investigated the protective mechanism/s induced by WS using brain cortices by testing its ability to modulate the expression of key proteins in the ischemic-apoptotic cascade. The Western blots and immunofluorescence analyses of mice cortices revealed that WS upregulated the expression of hemeoxygenase 1 (HO1) and attenuated the expression of the proapoptotic protein poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP1) via the PARP1-AIF pathway, thus preventing the nuclear translocation of apoptosis-inducing factor (AIF), and subsequent apoptosis. Semaphorin-3A (Sema3A) expression was reduced in WS-treated group, whereas Wnt, pGSK3β, and pCRMP2 expression levels were virtually unaltered. These results indicate the interplay of antioxidant-antiapoptic pathways and the possible involvement of angiogenesis in the protective mechanism of WS while emphasizing the noninvolvement of one of the prime pathways of neurogenesis. Our results suggest that WS could be a potential prophylactic as well as a therapeutic agent aiding stroke repair, and that part of its mechanism could be attributed to its antiapoptotic and antioxidant properties.

Molecular, Neurochemical, and Behavioral Hallmarks of Reserpine as a Model for Parkinson's Disease: New Perspectives to a Long-Standing Model

The administration of reserpine to rodents was one of the first models used to investigate the pathophysiology and screening for potential treatments of Parkinson's disease (PD). The reserpine model was critical to the understanding of the role of monoamine system in the regulation of motor and affective disorders, as well as the efficacy of current PD treatments, such as L-DOPA and dopamine agonists. Nevertheless, with the introduction of toxin-induced and genetic models of PD, reserpine became underused. The main rationale to this drawback was the supposed absence of reserpine construct validity with PD. Here, we highlight classical and recent experimental findings that support the face, pharmacological, and construct validity of reserpine PD model and reason against the current rationale for its underuse. We also aim to shed a new perspective upon the model by discussing the main challenges and potentials for the reserpine model of PD.

W ithania somnifera (Ashwagandha) in neurobehavioural disorders induced by brain oxidative stress in rodents: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Objectives

W ithania somnifera has been in use for several thousand years in Ayurveda to treat various neurological disorders. There is, however, not much scientific data on its protective role in neuronal pathology specifically against brain oxidative stress. Hence, an attempt is made in this work for systematic review and meta-analysis of W. somnifera on neurobehavioural disorders induced by brain oxidative stress in rodents.

Methods

A systematic search of the effect of W. somnifera on brain oxidative stress-induced neuronal pathology was performed using electronic databases. The systematic review was performed on neurobehavioural parameters, whereas meta-analysis of W. somnifera effect was done on oxidative stress markers (superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione and lipid peroxidation), nitrite, protein carbonyl, AchE, ChAT and Ach of rodent brain. Data were analysed using Review Manager Software.

Key findings

Twenty-eight studies were selected based upon the inclusion and exclusion criteria. W. somnifera appreciably inhibited the neurological abnormalities due to oxidative stress in rodent brain produced by different physical and chemical stimuli. W. somnifera also significantly restored the altered oxidative and other stress markers in different parts of rodent brain.

Summary

The systematic review provides scientific evidence for the traditional claim of W. somnifera use in different neurological aliments. However, future clinical trials are mandated to establish the therapeutic efficacy and safety in human beings.

Withanolide A prevents neurodegeneration by modulating hippocampal glutathione biosynthesis during hypoxia

Withania somnifera root extract has been used traditionally in ayurvedic system of medicine as a memory enhancer. Present study explores the ameliorative effect of withanolide A, a major component of withania root extract and its molecular mechanism against hypoxia induced memory impairment. Withanolide A was administered to male Sprague Dawley rats before a period of 21 days pre-exposure and during 07 days of exposure to a simulated altitude of 25,000 ft. Glutathione level and glutathione dependent free radicals scavenging enzyme system, ATP, NADPH level, γ-glutamylcysteinyl ligase (GCLC) activity and oxidative stress markers were assessed in the hippocampus. Expression of apoptotic marker caspase 3 in hippocampus was investigated by immunohistochemistry. Transcriptional alteration and expression of GCLC and Nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-related factor 2 (Nrf2) were investigated by real time PCR and immunoblotting respectively. Exposure to hypobaric hypoxia decreased reduced glutathione (GSH) level and impaired reduced gluatathione dependent free radical scavenging system in hippocampus resulting in elevated oxidative stress. Supplementation of withanolide A during hypoxic exposure increased GSH level, augmented GSH dependent free radicals scavenging system and decreased the number of caspase and hoescht positive cells in hippocampus. While withanolide A reversed hypoxia mediated neurodegeneration, administration of buthionine sulfoximine along with withanolide A blunted its neuroprotective effects. Exogenous administration of corticosterone suppressed Nrf2 and GCLC expression whereas inhibition of corticosterone synthesis upregulated Nrf2 as well as GCLC. Thus present study infers that withanolide A reduces neurodegeneration by restoring hypoxia induced glutathione depletion in hippocampus. Further, Withanolide A increases glutathione biosynthesis in neuronal cells by upregulating GCLC level through Nrf2 pathway in a corticosterone dependenet manner.

Plants and phytochemicals for Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by progressive motor dysfunction, including chorea and dystonia, emotional disturbances, memory, and weight loss. The medium spiny neurons of striatum and cortex are mainly effected in HD. Various hypotheses, including molecular genetics, oxidative stress, excitotoxicity, metabolic dysfunction, and mitochondrial impairment have been proposed to explain the pathogenesis of neuronal dysfunction and cell death. Despite no treatment is available to fully stop the progression of the disease, there are treatments available to help control the chorea. The present review deals with brief pathophysiology of the disease, plants and phytochemicals that have shown beneficial effects against HD like symptoms. The literature for the current review was collected using various databases such as Science direct, Pubmed, Scopus, Sci-finder, Google Scholar, and Cochrane database with a defined search strategy.

Beneficial effect of candesartan and lisinopril against haloperidol-induced tardive dyskinesia in rat

INTRODUCTION

Tardive dyskinesia is a serious motor disorder of the orofacial region, resulting from chronic neuroleptic treatment of schizophrenia. Candesartan (AT1 antagonist) and lisinopril (ACE inhibitor) has been reported to possess antioxidant and neuroprotective effects. The present study is designed to investigate the effect of candesartan and lisinopril on haloperidol-induced orofacial dyskinesia and oxidative damage in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Tardive dyskinesia was induced by administering haloperidol (1 mg/kg i.p.) and concomitantly treated with candesartan (3 and 5 mg/kg p.o.) and lisinopril (10 and 15 mg/kg p.o.) for 3 weeks in male Wistar rats. Various behavioral parameters were assessed on days 0, 7, 14 and 21 and biochemical parameters were estimated at day 22.

RESULTS

Chronic administration of haloperidol significantly increased stereotypic behaviors in rats, which were significantly improved by administration of candesartan and lisinopril. Chronic administration of haloperidol significantly increased oxidative stress and neuro-inflammation in the striatum region of the rat's brain. Co-administration of candesartan and lisinopril significantly attenuated the oxidative damage and neuro-inflammation in the haloperidol-treated rat.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study supports the therapeutic use of candesartan and lisinopril in the treatment of typical antipsychotic-induced orofacial dyskinesia and possible antioxidant and neuro-inflammatory mechanisms.

GABA-Mimetic Actions of Withania somnifera on Substantia Gelatinosa Neurons of the Trigeminal Subnucleus Caudalis in Mice

The plant Withania somnifera (WS), also known as Ashwagandha, has been used widely in traditional medicine systems in India and Nepal (Ayurveda), and has been accepted to cure various ailments. In this study, the whole-cell patch clamp technique was performed to examine the mechanism of action of WS on the SG neurons of the Vc from mouse brainstem slices. In whole-cell patch clamp mode, methanol extract of Withania somnifera (mWS) induced short-lived and repeatable inward currents in all SG neurons tested (31.3±8.51 pA, n = 7) using a high chloride pipette solution. The mWS-induced inward currents were concentration dependent and maintained in the presence of tetrodotoxin (TTX), a voltage gated Na + channel blocker, CNQX, a non-NMDA glutamate receptor antagonist, AP5, an NMDA receptor antagonist and strychnine, a glycine receptor antagonist. The mWS induced currents were blocked by picrotoxin, a GABAA receptor antagonist. These results show that mWS has an inhibitory effects on SG neurons of the Vc through GABAA receptor-mediated activation of chloride ion channels, indicating that mWS contains compounds with sedative effects on the central nervous system. These results also suggest that mWS may be a potential target for modulating orofacial pain processing.

Attenuation of oxidative damage-associated cognitive decline by Withania somnifera in rat model of streptozotocin-induced cognitive impairment

Oxidative stress is a critical contributing factor to age-related neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, the inhibition of oxidative damage, responsible for chronic detrimental neurodegeneration, is an important strategy for neuroprotective therapy. Withania somnifera (WS) extract has been reported to have potent antioxidant and free radical quenching properties in various disease conditions. The present study evaluated the hypothesis that WS extract would reduce oxidative stress-associated neurodegeneration after intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin (ICV-STZ) in rats. To test this hypothesis, male Wistar rats were pretreated with WS extract at doses of 100, 200, and 300 mg/kg body weight once daily for 3 weeks. On day 22nd, the rats were infused bilaterally with ICV-STZ injection (3 mg/kg body weight) in normal saline while sham group received only saline. Two weeks after the lesioning, STZ-infused rats showed cognitive impairment in the Morris water maze test. The rats were sacrificed after 3 weeks of the lesioning for the estimation of the contents of lipid peroxidation, reduced glutathione, and activities of glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase. Pretreatment with WS extract attenuated behavioral, biochemical, and histological alterations significantly in dose-dependent manner in the hippocampus and cerebral cortex of ICV-STZ-infused rats. These results suggest that WS affords a beneficial effect on cognitive deficit by ameliorating oxidative damage induced by streptozotocin in a model of cognitive impairment.

Efficacy of Withania somnifera on seminal plasma metabolites of infertile males: a proton NMR study at 800 MHz

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Traditional Indian systems of medicine use roots of Withania somnifera for impotence, infertility treatment, stress, and the aging process. Although Withania somnifera improves semen quality by regulating reproductive hormone levels and oxidative stress, the molecular mechanism is not clear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Our study uses high-resolution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to explore the scientific basis to reveal the pre- and post-treatment efficacy of Withania somnifera on seminal plasma of infertile men-which remains unexplored to date.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 180 infertile male patients were administered Withania somnifera root powder at the rate of 5 g/d for a 3-month period. The study included age-matched, healthy men as a control (n=50) group. Proton NMR spectroscopy was used to measure lactate, alanine, glutamate, glutamine, citrate, lysine, choline, glycerophosphocholine (GPC), glycine, tyrosine, histidine, phenylalanine, and uridine in all seminal plasma samples. To appraise infertility levels, we also measured sperm concentration, motility, lipid peroxide, and hormonal perturbation.

RESULTS

Withania somnifera therapy repairs the disturbed concentrations of lactate, alanine, citrate, GPC, histidine, and phenylalanine in seminal plasma and recovers the quality of semen of post-treated compared to pre-treated infertile men. Serum biochemistry was also improved over post-therapy in infertile men. Our findings reveal that Withania somnifera not only reboots enzymatic activity of metabolic pathways and energy metabolism but also invigorates the harmonic balance of seminal plasma metabolites and reproductive hormones in infertile men.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that Withania somnifera may be used as an empirical therapy for clinical management and treatment of infertility.

Withania somnifera root extract ameliorates hypobaric hypoxia induced memory impairment in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Withania somnifera (WS) root extract has been used traditionally in ayurvedic system of medicine as a memory enhancer and anti-stress agent.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To evaluate the neuroprotective and prophylactic potential of WS root extract in ameliorating hypobaric hypoxia (HH) induced memory impairment and to explore the underlying molecular mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

WS root extract was administered to male Sprague Dawley rats during a period of 21 days pre-exposure and 07 days exposure to a simulated altitude of 25,000 ft. Spatial memory was assessed by Morris Water Maze. Neurodegeneration, corticosterone, acetylcholine (Ach) levels, acetylcholine esterase (AchE) activity, oxidative stress markers and nitric oxide (NO) concentration were assessed in the hippocampus. Synaptic and apoptotic markers were also investigated by immunoblotting. To study the role of NO in regulating corticosterone mediated signaling, the neuronal nitric oxide synthase (n-NOS) inhibitor, L-Nitro-arginine methyl ester (L-Name) and NO agonist sodium nitroprusside (SNP) were administered from 3rd to 7th day of hypoxic exposure.

RESULTS

Administration of WS root extract prevented HH induced memory impairment and neurodegeneration along with decreased NO, corticosterone, oxidative stress and AchE activity in hippocampal region. Inhibition of NO synthesis by administration of L-Name reduced corticosterone levels in hippocampus during hypoxic exposure while co-administration of corticosterone increased neurodegeneration. Administration of sodium nitroprusside (SNP) along with WS root extract supplementation during hypoxic exposure increased corticosterone levels and increased the number of pyknotic cells.

CONCLUSION

WS root extract ameliorated HH induced memory impairment and neurodegeneration in hippocampus through NO mediated modulation of corticosterone levels.

Comparative effects of Rauwolfia vomitoria and chlorpromazine on social behaviour and pain

Background:

Rauwolfia vomitoria has been used in Nigeria to manage psychiatric disorders despite orthodox medicine.

Aims:

This research was therefore aimed at comparing the effects of R. vomitoria, chlorpromazine and reserpine on social behaviour and pain in mice.

Materials and Methods:

Ninety male CD-1 mice (32 – 38g body weight) were grouped into 3 with 5 subgroups (n=6) each. Mice were given chlorpromazine (0.0, 0.25, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 mg/kg i.p.), 30 minutes before testing and R. vomitoria (0.0, 0.25, 1.0, 2.0, 4.0 mg/kg, i.p.) and reserpine (0.0, 0.1, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6 mg/kg, i.p) 24 hours before testing. Nesting score assessed social behaviour while the tail flick and hot plate analgesiometers assessed pain.

Results:

Chlorpromazine dose-dependently decreased nesting score (F_4,25 = 5.5660; p< 0.01), indicating decreased social behaviour (social loss) in the mice. Although R. vomitoria did not affect nesting score, reserpine decreased the nesting score (social loss). In the pain test, chlorpromazine did not alter tail flick latency but decreased hind paw lick latency in the hot plate at 2.0 and 4.0 mg/kg (p< 0.01), indicating increased pain sensitivity at these doses which may indirectly increase social withdrawal and thus aggravating depression. R. vomitoria however, increased tail flick and hind paw lick latencies in the hot plate test (p< 0.05) indicating decreased pain sensitivity. Reserpine, like R. vomitoria, increased latency of hind paw lick in the hot plate.

Conclusion:

R. vomitoria has a high potential as an antipsychotic and may have advantage over chlorpromazine; it is not necessary to isolate active components from this herb.

Comparative effects of Rauwolfia vomitoria and chlorpromazine on locomotor behaviour and anxiety in mice

AIM OF THE STUDY

Since remedies for mental disorders have been sought through both orthodox and traditional medicine this study compared the effects of the antipsychotic, chlorpromazine (Cpz), the herb Rauwolfia vomitoria (RV) and its alkaloid reserpine (Res) in mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ninety male CD-1 strain of mice (75-80 days old; 30-34 g body weight) were divided into 3 major groups and each consisting 5 subgroups (n=6). Cpz (0.0, 0.25, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 mg/kg, i.p.), was administered 30 min before testing. RV (0.0, 0.25, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 mg/kg, i.p.) and Res (0.0, 0.1, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6 mg/kg, i.p.) were administered 24 h before testing. The open field test was used to assess locomotor and exploratory behaviour, acceleratory rotarod for motor coordination, light/dark box for anxiety.

RESULTS

CPZ dose-dependently decreased locomotor and exploration behaviour and impaired motor coordination (p<0.01). RV also decreased locomotor behaviour at 4.0 mg/kg (p<0.5) but did not alter exploration and motor coordination. Res however, decreased locomotion and exploration and impaired motor coordination 0.8 and 1.6 mg/kg (p<0.05). In the light/dark box, CPZ increased anxiety related behaviour at 1.0, 2.0 mg/kg (p<0.05) whereas RV dose-dependently decreased anxiety from 1.0 to 4.0 mg/kg (p<0.01). Res, unlike RV, dose-dependently increased anxiety related behaviour from 0.4 to 1.6 mg/kg.

CONCLUSION

Root bark extract from Rauwolfia vomitoria produced better behavioural effects with less distortion in motor coordination when compared to chlorpromazine and so has a great potential as an alternative antipsychotic agent compared to chlorpromazine. Since Res did not produce same effects as RV, the effect of RV may not be due solely to Res as claimed.

Possible neuroprotective effect of Withania somnifera root extract against 3-nitropropionic acid-induced behavioral, biochemical, and mitochondrial dysfunction in an animal model of Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that results from the destruction of neurons in the basal ganglia, and oxidative stress has been implicated in its pathogenesis. 3-Nitropropionic acid (3-NP), a potent neurotoxin, has been reported to induce oxidative/nitrosative stress and causes neurobehavioral and biochemical changes that mimic HD in humans. It also inhibits complex II of the mitochondrial electron transport chain, thereby causing cellular energy deficit. In the present work, we evaluated the effects of a well-known antioxidant on behavioral, biochemical, and mitochondrial dysfunction induced by 3-NP. The study was designed to investigate the effects of Withania somnifera root extract against 3-NP-induced gait abnormalities, oxidative stress, and mitochondrial dysfunction in striatum and cortex of rat brain. Intraperitoneal administration of 3-NP (10 mg/kg for 14 days) caused a loss in body weight and a decline in motor function (locomotor activity and impaired rotarod activity). Chronic treatment with W. somnifera root extracts (100 and 200 mg/kg) for a period of 2 weeks dose-dependently improved 3-NP-induced behavioral, biochemical, and enzymatic changes (P < .05). Biochemical analysis revealed that systemic 3-NP administration significantly increased lipid peroxidation and nitrite and lactate dehydrogenase enzyme levels, depleted antioxidant enzyme (superoxide dismutase and catalase) levels, and blocked ATP synthesis by inhibiting the mitochondrial complex activity in the different regions (striatum and cortex) of the brain. Chronic administration of W. somnifera root extract (100 and 200 mg/kg) dose-dependently restored biochemical alterations induced by chronic 3-NP treatment (P < .05). These findings suggest that neuroprotective actions of W. somnifera are mediated via its antioxidant activity. However, further studies are required to elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved in order to support the clinical use of the plant extract as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of HD.

Green tea modulates reserpine toxicity in animal models

Reserpine, a natural product extracted from Rauwolfia serpintina or Rauwolfia vomitoria, is a known dopamine depleter that inhibits several neurotransmitters. Reserpine has been used clinically to control hypertension, schizophrenia, insomnia and insanity. The use of this drug, however, has been limited because of its side effects which include oxidative damage to organs, including the liver. Green tea catechins are potent antioxidants that have the potential to counteract reserpine induced oxidative stress. This study investigated the merits of administering green tea concurrently with reserpine to prevent oxidative hepatic damage in Sprague-Dawely (SD) rats. Reserpine was found to cause hepatic damage, with elevated levels of oxidative stress markers, such as Thiobarbituric Acid Reactive Substances (TBARS), transaminases and cholesterol. Reserpine also induced hepatic ultra-structural damage in the cytoplasmic membrane, nuclear envelope, endoplasmic reticulum (rER), ribosomal stripping and mitochondria. Electron microscopy examination showed revival of liver cells as a result of green tea extract administration to experimental rats.

Withania somnifera: an Indian ginseng

Withania somnifera, popularly known as Ashwagandha is widely considered as the Indian ginseng. In Ayurveda, it is classified as a rasayana (rejuvenation) and expected to promote physical and mental health, rejuvenate the body in debilitated conditions and increase longevity. Having wide range of activity, it is used to treat almost all disorders that affect the human health. The present review discusses the pharmacological basis of the use of W. somnifera in various central nervous system (CNS) disorders, particularly its indication in epilepsy, stress and neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disorders, tardive dyskinesia, cerebral ischemia, and even in the management of drug addiction.

Possible anti-oxidant and neuroprotective mechanisms of zolpidem in attenuating typical anti-psychotic-induced orofacial dyskinesia: a biochemical and neurochemical study

Tardive dyskinesia is a serious motor side effect of chronic anti-psychotic therapy. The pathophysiology of this disabling and commonly irreversible movement disorder continues obscure and may be caused due to GABAergic hypofunction or increased oxidative damage and free radical generation. Chronic treatment with typical antipsychotics leads to the development of abnormal hyperkinetic orofacial movements (vacuous chewing movements, tongue protrusions and facial jerking) in rats and is widely accepted as the animal model for tardive dyskinesia. Zolpidem, a GABA-mimetic drug is structurally related to melatonin and has been reported to possess anti-oxidant and neuroprotective effects both in vivo and in vitro. The study was carried out to investigate whether zolpidem can be used in the treatment of typical anti-psychotic-induced orofacial dyskinesia. Chronic haloperidol (1 mg/kg, i.p. for 21 days) and chlorpromazine (5 mg/kg, i.p. for 21 days) treatment significantly induced orofacial hyperkinetic movements and zolpidem [N, N, 6-trimethyl-2-p-tolyl-imidazo (1, 2-a) pyridine 3-acetamideL-(+)] dose dependently (1, 2, 5 mg/kg i.p. for 21 days) reduced these haloperidol and chlorpromazine-induced hyperkinetic orofacial movements. Biochemical analysis revealed that haloperidol and chlorpromazine treatment significantly induced increase in lipid peroxidation and decrease in the levels of total nitric oxide levels, non-protein thiols (NPSH) and of anti-oxidant defense enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase in the striatum of rat brain. Co-administration of zolpidem (1, 2, 5 mg/kg i.p. for 21 days) significantly reduced the lipid peroxidation and restored the non-protein thiols and total nitric oxide levels induced by chronic haloperidol and chlorpromazine treatment. It also significantly reversed the haloperidol and chlorpromazine-induced decrease in brain SOD and catalase activity. Neurochemical analysis (Neurotransmitter and their metabolite level estimation) revealed that haloperidol and chlorpromazine significantly decreased the dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin levels in brain homogenates where as it caused a significant increase in the metabolite (VMA and HVA) levels in urine, which were significantly reversed by zolpidem at higher doses. Result of the present study support the therapeutic use of zolpidem in the treatment of typical anti-psychotic-induced orofacial dyskinesia.

Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants at Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia

An ethnobotanical study on veterinary medicinal plants of Bale Mountains National Park and adjacent areas was conducted from July 2003 to June 2004. Semi-structured interviews and observations were used to generate ethnoveterinary data from traditional healers residing in the park and buffer zones. A total of 25 animal ailments were reported, of which blackleg, Darissaa and hepatitis were the most frequently reported ailments. Seventy four veterinary medicinal plant species that were distributed among 64 genera and 37 families were recorded. The most utilized growth forms were herbs (35 species, 47.3%) followed by shrubs (28 species, 37.84%). Roots (54 species, 41.54%) followed by leaves (47 species, 36.15%) were the most frequently used plant parts for ethnoveterinary medicine. Usually, fresh materials (53 species, 43.44%) were preferred for medicine preparations. The most frequently used route of drug administration was oral (65 species, 42.76%) followed by dermal (55 species, 36.18%). Indigenous knowledge was mostly transferred to an elect of a family member in word of mouth indicating that it was prone to fragmentation or loss.

Reversal of haloperidol-induced tardive vacuous chewing movements and supersensitive somatodendritic serotonergic response by buspirone in rats

Tardive dyskinesia (TD), a syndrome of involuntary hyperkinesias in the orofacial region that develops in patients chronically treated with neuroleptic agents is a major limitation of the therapy. Rats chronically treated with haloperidol exhibit vacuous chewing movements (VCMs) with the twitching of facial musculature and tongue protrusion. The syndrome is widely used as an animal model of TD. Evidence suggests a role of 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT; serotonin)-1A receptors in the pathogenesis and treatment of TD because repeated administration of haloperidol resulted in an increase in the effectiveness of 5-HT-1A receptors while drugs with agonist activity at 5-HT-1A receptors could attenuate haloperidol-induced VCMs. The present study was designed to test the hypothesis that a decrease in the responsiveness of somatodendritic 5-HT-1A receptors by the coadministration of buspirone could reverse the induction of VCMs and supersensitivity at 5-HT-1A receptors by haloperidol. Rats treated with haloperidol at a dose of 1 mg/kg twice a day for 2 weeks displayed VCMs with twitching of facial musculature that increased in a time dependent manner as the treatment continued to 5 weeks. Coadministration of buspirone attenuated haloperidol-induced VCMs after 2 weeks and completely prevented it after 5 weeks. The intensity of 8-hydroxy-2-di (n-propylamino) tetralin (8-OH-DPAT)-induced locomotion was greater in saline+haloperidol injected animals but not in buspirone+haloperidol injected animals. 8-OH-DPAT-induced decreases of 5-HT metabolism were greater in saline+haloperidol injected animals but not in buspirone+haloperidol injected animals. It is suggested that an impaired somatodendritic 5-HT-1A receptor dependent response is a major contributing factor in the pathophysiology of TD and a normalization of the somatodendritic response by drugs may help extending therapeutics in schizophrenia.