Ginsenoside Rg3 and Rh2 protect trimethyltin-induced neurotoxicity via prevention on neuronal apoptosis and neuroinflammation

Exploring the Potential Therapeutic Approach Using Ginsenosides for the Management of Neurodegenerative Disorders

There is a need for an efficient and long-lasting treatment due to the population's increasing prevalence of neurodegenerative disorders. In an effort to generate fresh ideas and create novel therapeutic medications, scientists have recently started to investigate the biological functions of compounds derived from plants and herbs. Ginseng, famous Chinese herbal medicine, has therapeutic value by virtue of its compounds ginsenosides or panaxosides, which are triterpene saponins and steroid glycosides. Research revealed positive impacts on ameliorating various disease conditions and found it as a possible drug candidate. Several neuroprotection mechanisms followed by this compound are inhibition of cell apoptosis, oxidative stress, inflammatory, and tumor activity. It has been demonstrated that controlling these mechanisms enhances cognitive performance and safeguards the brain against neurodegenerative disorders. The main objective of this review is to give a description of the most recent studies on ginsenoside's possible therapeutic application in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Using organic compounds like ginseng and its various components may create new avenues for innovative treatment approaches development for neurological diseases. However, further research is necessary to confirm the stability and effectiveness of ginsenosides for neurodegenerative disease.

Neuroprotection and mechanisms of ginsenosides in nervous system diseases: Progress and perspectives

Ginsenosides are the primary component discernible from ginseng, including Rb1, Rb2, Rd, Rg1, Rg2, and compound K, and so forth. They have been shown to have multiple pharmacological activities. In recent years, more and more studies have been devoted to the neuroprotection of various ginsenosides against neurological diseases and their potential mechanisms. This paper comprehensively summarizes and reviews the neuroprotective effects of various ginsenosides on neurological diseases, especially acute and chronic neurodegenerative diseases, and their mechanisms, as well as their potential therapeutic applications to promote neuroprotection in disease prevention, treatment, and prognosis. Briefly, ginsenosides exert effective neuroprotective effects on neurological conditions, including stroke, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and brain/spinal cord injuries through a variety of molecular mechanisms, including anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-apoptotic. Among them, some signaling pathways play important roles in related processes, such as PI3K/Akt, TLR4/NF-κB, ROS/TXNIP/NLRP3, HO-1/Nrf2, Wnt/β-catenin, and Ca2+ pathway. In conclusion, the present study reviews the research progress on the neuroprotective effects of ginsenosides in the last decade, with the aim of furnishing essential theoretical underpinning and effective references for further research and exploration of the multiple medicinal values of Chinese herbal medicines and their small molecule compounds, including ginseng and panax ginseng. Because there is less evidence in the existing clinical studies, future research should be focused on clinical trials in order to truly reflect the clinical value of various ginsenosides for the benefit of patients.

Ginsenoside Rg3 attenuates neuroinflammation and hippocampal neuronal damage after traumatic brain injury in mice by inactivating the NF-kB pathway via SIRT1 activation

This investigation examined the potential of ginsenoside Rg3 in addressing traumatic brain injury (TBI). A TBI mouse model underwent treatment with ginsenoside Rg3 and nicotinamide (NAM). Neurological and motor functions were assessed using modified neurological severity score and rotarod tests. Brain water content in mice was detected. Primary mouse microglia were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), ginsenoside Rg3, and NAM. Nissl and immunofluorescence staining were utilized to investigate hippocampal damage, and localization of P65, Iba1 and INOS in microglia. Hippocampal neurons were grown in a culture medium derived from microglia. CCK-8 and TUNEL assays were employed to evaluate the viability and apoptosis of hippocampal neurons. Proinflammatory factors and proteins were tested using ELISA, western blot and immunofluorescence staining. As a result, ginsenoside Rg3 enhanced neurological and motor functions in mice post-TBI, reduced brain water content, alleviated hippocampal neuronal neuroinflammation and damage, activated SIRT1, and deactivated the NF-kB pathway. In LPS-stimulated microglia, ginsenoside Rg3 diminished inflammation, activated SIRT1, deactivated the NF-kB pathway, and facilitated nuclear localization of P65 and co-localization of Iba1 and INOS. The effects of ginsenoside Rg3 were countered by NAM in both TBI mice and LPS-stimulated microglia. Hippocampal neurons cultured in a medium containing LPS, ginsenoside Rg3, and NAM-treated microglia showed improved viability and reduced apoptosis compared to those cultured in a medium with LPS and ginsenoside Rg3-treated microglia alone. Ginsenoside Rg3 was effective in reducing neuroinflammation and damage in hippocampal neurons following TBI by modulating the SIRT1/NF-kB pathway, suggesting its potential as a therapeutic agent for TBI.

Traditional Chinese medicines treat ischemic stroke and their main bioactive constituents and mechanisms

Ischemic stroke (IS) remains one of the leading causes of death and disability in humans. Unfortunately, none of the treatments effectively provide functional benefits to patients with IS, although many do so by targeting different aspects of the ischemic cascade response. The advantages of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in preventing and treating IS are obvious in terms of early treatment and global coordination. The efficacy of TCM and its bioactive constituents has been scientifically proven over the past decades. Based on clinical trials, this article provides a review of commonly used TCM patent medicines and herbal decoctions indicated for IS. In addition, this paper also reviews the mechanisms of bioactive constituents in TCM for the treatment of IS in recent years, both domestically and internationally. A comprehensive review of preclinical and clinical studies will hopefully provide new ideas to address the threat of IS.

Increasing minor ginsenosides contents and enhancing neuroprotective effects of total ginsenosides fermented by Lactiplantibacillus plantarum

Minor ginsenosides have been proven to have higher pharmacological activity than the major ginsenosides. The transformation of major ginsenosides to minor ginsenosides by lactic acid bacteria was considered to be a promising method. Therefore, this study focuses on utilizing glycosidase-producing Lactiplantibacillus plantarum GLP40 to transform total ginsenosides (TG) and increase the content of minor ginsenosides, as well as investigate the neuroprotective effects of fermented total ginsenosides (FTG). After 21d fermentation, the transformation products were purified using D101 macroporous resin column chromatography, and identified by HPLC and LC-MS analyses. The neuroprotective effect of FTG was evaluated using MPTP-induced neural injury mice model. Lact. plantarum GLP40 fermentation increased the contents of minor ginsenosides in TG, such as Rg3, Rh2, CK, and Rk3. FTG showed stronger alleviation of 1-Methyl-4-Phenyl-1,2,3,6-Tetrahydropyridine Hydrochloride (MPTP) induced memory loss and dyskinesia in mice, and inhibited tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) depletion and ionized calcium binding adapter molecule 1 (Iba-1) production than TG. Further, FTG significantly increased serum IL-10 levels and inhibited the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines compared to TG. Moreover, FTG treatment activated the anti-apoptotic PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway and inhibited the expression of the inflammatory NF-κB/COX-2/iNOS pathway. In conclusion, Lact. plantarum GLP40 fermentation enhances the neuroprotective effects of total ginsenosides by increasing minor ginsenosides. FTG protected MPTP induced neural injury in mice by regulating inflammation and cell apoptosis signaling pathways.

Quantitative proteomics reveals the neurotoxicity of trimethyltin chloride on mitochondria in the hippocampus of mice

Trimethyltin chloride (TMT) is a potent neurotoxin widely used as a constituent of polyvinyl chloride plastic in the industrial and agricultural fields. However, the underlying mechanisms by which TMT leads to neurotoxicity remain elusive. In the present study, we constructed a dose and time dependent neurotoxic mouse model of TMT exposure to explore the molecular mechanisms involved in TMT-induced neurological damage. Based on this model, the cognitive ability of TMT exposed mice was assessed by the Morris water maze test and a passive avoidance task. The ultrastructure of hippocampus was analyzed by the transmission electron microscope. Subsequently, proteomics integrated with bioinformatics and experimental verification were employed to reveal potential mechanisms of TMT-induced neurotoxicity. Gene ontology (GO) and pathway enrichment analysis were done by using Metascape and GeneCards database respectively. Our results demonstrated that TMT-exposed mice exhibited cognitive disorder, and mitochondrial respiratory chain abnormality of the hippocampus. Proteomics data showed that a total of 7303 proteins were identified in hippocampus of mice of which 224 ones displayed a 1.5-fold increase or decrease in TMT exposed mice compared with controls. Further analysis indicated that these proteins were mainly involved in tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and respiratory electron transport, proteasome degradation, and multiple metabolic pathways as well as inflammatory signaling pathways. Some proteins, including succinate-CoA ligase subunit (Suclg1), NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (Nd5), NADH dehydrogenase [ubiquinone] 1 alpha subcomplex subunit 4-like 2 (Ndufa4l2) and cytochrome c oxidase assembly factor 7 (Coa7), which were closely related to mitochondrial respiratory electron transport, showed TMT dose and time dependent changes in the hippocampus of mice. Moreover, apoptotic molecules Bax and cleaved caspase-3 were up-regulated, while anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 was down-regulated compared with controls. In conclusion, our findings suggest that impairment of mitochondrial respiratory chain transport and promotion of apoptosis are the potential mechanisms of TMT induced hippocampus toxicity in mice.

Research Progress of Protein-Based Bioactive Substance Nanoparticles

Bioactive substances exhibit various physiological activities-such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities-and have great potential for application in food, pharmaceuticals, and nutraceuticals. However, the low solubility, chemical instability, and low bioavailability of bioactive substances limit their application in the food industry. Using nanotechnology to prepare protein nanoparticles to encapsulate and deliver active substances is a promising approach due to the abundance, biocompatibility, and biodegradability of proteins. Common protein-based nanocarriers include nano-emulsions, nano-gels, nanoparticles, and nano complexes. In this review, we give an overview of protein-based nanoparticle fabrication methods, highlighting their pros and cons. Additionally, we discuss the applications and current issues regarding the utilization of protein-based nanoparticles in the food industry. Finally, we provide perspectives on future development directions, with a focus on classifying bioactive substances and their functional properties.

American Ginseng for the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease: A Review

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prevalent degenerative condition that is increasingly affecting populations globally. American ginseng (AG) has anti-AD bioactivity, and ginsenosides, as the main active components of AG, have shown strong anti-AD effects in both in vitro and in vivo studies. It has been reported that ginsenosides can inhibit amyloid β-protein (Aβ) production and deposition, tau phosphorylation, apoptosis and cytotoxicity, as well as possess anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties, thus suppressing the progression of AD. In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the pathogenesis of AD, the potential anti-AD effects of ginsenosides found in AG, and the underlying molecular mechanisms associated with these effects. Additionally, we will discuss the potential use of AG in the treatment of AD, and how ginsenosides in AG may exert more potent anti-AD effects in vivo may be a direction for further research.

Ginsenoside Rh2: A shining and potential natural product in the treatment of human nonmalignant and malignant diseases in the near future

BACKGROUND

Ginseng is well-known as one of the most valuable and commonly used Chinese medicines not only in ancient China but also worldwide including East, Russia, Southeast Asia, North America and some Western European countries. Ginsenosides, as one of the main high active components of Ginseng, have various pharmacological activities, such as anti-inflammatory, antianaphylaxis, anti-depression, and anticancer activities. Ginsenoside Rh2 (Rh2), one of the major bioactive ginsenosides in Panax ginseng, also exhibits versatile pharmacological activities, such as increasing non-specific resistance and specific immune response, improving cardiac function and fibrosis, anti-inflammatory effects and antitumor effects, which may serve as an excellent medicinal potential.

PURPOSE

As one of hundreds of ginsenosides being identified from ginseng, Rh2 exerts a markedly pharmacological effect on various diseases without severe toxicity, it has attracted many researchers 'attention. Although Rh2 plays important roles in some animal models and cell lines to simulate human diseases, its underlying molecular mechanisms have yet to be determined. During the past ten years, nearly 450 studies on Rh2 in the treatment of complex disease have been reported, however, up to now, no comprehensive reviews about the roles of Rh2 in animal models and cellular lines of human nonmalignant and malignant diseases have been conducted.

METHOD

We searched articles on ginsenoside-related diseases from December 2010 to February 2023 in peer-reviewed and nonclinical databases, which include Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, China national knowledge internet and Medline, and using the following keywords: Ginsenoside Rh2, Human diseases, Cancer, Mechanisms, Chinese herbal medicine, Natural products and Signaling pathway.

RESULTS

Therefore, in this review, we make a comprehensive summary on the roles of Rh2 and support the potential mechanisms of Rh2 according to the disease classification, including nonmalignant disease such as ulcerative colitis, neuropathic pain, Asthma, myocardial injury, depression and malignant disease such as breast cancer, colorectal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma and gastric cancer. Finally, the combination therapy of Rh2 and other medications in human diseases are summarized, apart from that, there are other problems such as the bioavailability of oral administration Rh2 to be overcome in following research.

CONCLUSION

These findings provide strong evidence that Ginsenoside Rh2 plays important roles in the treatment of nonmalignant and malignant diseases.

Advances in the biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides

Rare ginsenosides are the deglycosylated secondary metabolic derivatives of major ginsenosides, and they are more readily absorbed into the bloodstream and function as active substances. The traditional preparation methods hindered the potential application of these effective components. The continuous elucidation of ginsenoside biosynthesis pathways has rendered the production of rare ginsenosides using synthetic biology techniques effective for their large-scale production. Previously, only the progress in the biosynthesis and biotechnological production of major ginsenosides was highlighted. In this review, we summarized the recent advances in the identification of key enzymes involved in the biosynthetic pathways of rare ginsenosides, especially the glycosyltransferases (GTs). Then the construction of microbial chassis for the production of rare ginsenosides, mainly in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, was presented. In the future, discovery of more GTs and improving their catalytic efficiencies are essential for the metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides. This review will give more clues and be helpful for the characterization of the biosynthesis and metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides. KEY POINTS: • The key enzymes involved in the biosynthetic pathways of rare ginsenosides are summarized. • The recent progress in metabolic engineering of rare ginsenosides is presented. • The discovery of glycosyltransferases is essential for the microbial production of rare ginsenosides in the future.

Potential therapeutic effects of Chinese meteria medica in mitigating drug-induced acute kidney injury

Drug-induced acute kidney injury (DI-AKI) is one of the leading causes of kidney injury, is associated with high mortality and morbidity, and limits the clinical use of certain therapeutic or diagnostic agents, such as antineoplastic drugs, antibiotics, immunosuppressants, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and contrast media. In recent years, numerous studies have shown that many Chinese meteria medica, metabolites derived from botanical drugs, and Chinese medicinal formulas confer protective effects against DI-AKI by targeting a variety of cellular or molecular mechanisms, such as oxidative stress, inflammatory, cell necrosis, apoptosis, and autophagy. This review summarizes the research status of common DI-AKI with Chinese meteria medica interventions, including cisplatin, gentamicin, contrast agents, methotrexate, and acetaminophen. At the same time, this review introduces the metabolites with application prospects represented by ginseng saponins, tetramethylpyrazine, panax notoginseng saponins, and curcumin. Overall, this review provides a reference for the development of promising nephroprotectants.

Integration of transcriptomics and metabolomics to reveal the effect of ginsenoside Rg3 on allergic rhinitis in mice

Increasing studies have demonstrated that ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) plays an important role in the prevention and treatment of various diseases, including allergic lower airway inflammation such as asthma. To investigate the role of Rg3 in allergic upper airway disease, the effect and therapeutic mechanism of Rg3 in allergic rhinitis (AR) were studied. Ovalbumin-induced AR model mice were intragastrically administered with Rg3. Nasal symptoms, levels of IgE, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13, SOD and MDA in serum, and histopathological analysis of nasal mucosa were used to evaluate the effect of Rg3 on ameliorating AR in mice. Moreover, nasal mucosa samples from the normal control group, AR model group and high dosage of Rg3 were collected to perform omics analysis. The differentially expressed genes and significantly changed metabolites were screened based on transcriptomics and metabolomics analyses, respectively. Integrative analysis was further performed to confirm the hub genes, metabolites and pathways. After Rg3 intervention, the nasal symptoms and inflammatory infiltration were effectively improved, the levels of IgE, IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 and MDA were significantly reduced, and the level of SOD was obviously increased. The results of the qRT-PCR assay complemented the transcriptomic findings. Integrated analysis showed that Rg3 played an anti-AR role mainly by regulating the interaction network, which was constructed by 12 genes, 8 metabolites and 4 pathways. Our findings suggested that Rg3 had a therapeutic effect on ovalbumin-induced AR in mice by inhibiting inflammation development and reducing oxidative stress. The present study could provide a potential natural agent for the treatment of AR.

Ginsenoside Rh2 inhibits CBP/p300-mediated FOXO3a acetylation and epilepsy-induced oxidative damage via the FOXO3a-KEAP1-NRF2 pathway

Epilepsy is a chronic disease that affects a wide range of people. Furthermore, a third of patients suffering from epileptic seizures do not respond to antiepileptic drugs. In recent years, increasing attention has focused on the role of oxidative stress in acquired epilepsy, and adjuvant antiepileptic drugs to reduce oxidative stress may be a new therapeutic strategy. In this study ginsenoside Rh2 was resistant to oxidative stress induced by epileptic activity in vivo and in vitro. Using online databases, we identified forkhead box O3a (FOXO3a) overexpression in epilepsy tissue and validated this in vitro, in vivo, and in clinical tissues of patients with epilepsy. An in vitro epilepsy model revealed that the overexpression of FOXO3a led to more severe oxidative stress, while the knockdown of FOXO3a had a protective effect on SH-SY5Y cells. Moreover, our results showed that the positive effect of FOXO3a on oxidative stress was caused by the transcriptional activation of Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (KEAP1), a negative regulator of nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (NRF2). We also found that ginsenoside Rh2 can directly inhibit the activation of FOXO3a by selectively blocking CREB-binding protein (CBP)/p300-mediated FOXO3a acetylation and play a role in regulating the KEAP1-NRF2 pathway to resist oxidative stress.

Red Ginger Extract Prevents the Development of Oxaliplatin-Induced Neuropathic Pain by Inhibiting the Spinal Noradrenergic System in Mice

Oxaliplatin is a well-known chemotherapeutic drug that is widely used to treat colorectal cancer. However, it can induce acute side effects in up to 90% of patients. Serotonin and norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) are used as first-choice drugs; however, even SNRIs are known to be effective only in treatment and not for prevention. Therefore, finding a drug that can prevent the development of cold and mechanical forms of allodynia induced by oxaliplatin is needed. This study demonstrated that multiple oral administrations of 100 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg of red ginger extract could significantly prevent pain development in mice. The role of the noradrenergic system was investigated as an underlying mechanism of action. Both the spinal α1- and α2-adrenergic receptors were significantly downregulated after treatment. Furthermore, the noradrenaline levels in the serum and spinal cord were upregulated and downregulated after treatment with paclitaxel and red ginger, respectively. As the active sub-component of red ginger, ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) was identified and quantified using HPLC. Moreover, multiple intraperitoneal injections of Rg3 prevented the development of pain in paclitaxel-treated mice, suggesting that RG3 may induce the effect of red ginger extract.

Facile approach for surfactant-free synthesis of Au@ginsenoside Rh2 nanoparticles and researches on anticancer activity

Background

Inorganic nanocomposites especially Au nanostructures have exhibited outstanding physicochemical properties in biomedical fields. For further clinical applications on theranostics, especially drug delivery, numerous explorations of green and facile synthesis methods combining with pharmacoactive natural components have been investigated to construct safe and multifunctional bioactive Au nanoparticles (NPs). Ginsenoside Rh2 is protopanaxadiol type compound isolated from plants of genus Panax, with excellent anticancer effect and antioxidant activity. In this research, we prepared the novel Au nanoparticles using ginsenoside Rh2 as both reducing and stabilizing agents.

Results

The synthesized Au@ginsenoside Rh2 NPs were proved to exhibit desirable inhibitory effect on different cancer cell lines, which benefited from the inherent anticancer effect of the ginsenoside Rh2. Investigations in vitro indicated that Au@ginsenoside Rh2 NPs inhibited cell proliferation, cell migration and invasion, induced cell cycle arrest, enhanced the reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and regulated the protein expressions of caspase-3, 8, 9 to trigger cell apoptosis as well.

Conclusions

Because of the absence of toxic chemical surfactants, the eco-friendly synthesis method of Au NPs modified by natural phytochemicals avoided tedious separation and modification processes. On the other hand, Au@ginsenoside Rh2 NPs also improved water solubility and bioavailability of the hydrophobic drug ginsenoside Rh2. It broadened minds for preparation and application of traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) modified metal nanoparticles and deserved further study.

Progress on the efficacy and mechanism of action of panax ginseng monomer saponins treat toxicity

As a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (PG) has preventive and therapeutic effects on various diseases. Ginsenosides are main active ingredients of PG and have good pharmacological effects. Due to the diversity of chemical structures and physicochemical properties of ginsenosides, Currently, related studies on PG monomer saponins are mainly focused on the cardiovascular system, nervous system, antidiabetic, and antitumor. There are few types of research on the toxin treatment, predominantly exogenous toxicity. PG and its monomer ginsenosides are undoubtedly a practical option for treating exogenous toxicity for drug-induced or metal-induced side effects such as nephrotoxicity, hepatotoxicity, cardiotoxicity, metal toxicity and other exogenous toxicity caused by drugs or metals. The mechanism focuses on antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic, as well as modulation of signaling pathways. It summarized the therapeutic effects of ginseng monomer saponins on exogenous toxicity and demonstrated that ginsenosides could be used as potential drugs to treat exogenous toxicity and reduce drug toxicities.

Pharmacological properties, molecular mechanisms and therapeutic potential of ginsenoside Rg3 as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory agent

Inflammation and oxidative stress lead to various acute or chronic diseases, including pneumonia, liver and kidney injury, cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases, metabolic diseases, and cancer. Ginseng is a well-known and widely used ethnic medicine in Asian countries, and ginsenoside Rg3 is a saponin isolated from Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer, Panax notoginseng, or Panax quinquefolius L. This compound has a wide range of pharmacological properties, including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, which have been evaluated in disease models of inflammation and oxidative stress. Rg3 can attenuate lung inflammation, prevent liver and kidney function damage, mitigate neuroinflammation, prevent cerebral and myocardial ischemia–reperfusion injury, and improve hypertension and diabetes symptoms. The multitarget, multipathway mechanisms of action of Rg3 have been gradually deciphered. This review summarizes the existing knowledge on the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects and underlying molecular mechanisms of ginsenoside Rg3, suggesting that ginsenoside Rg3 may be a promising candidate drug for the treatment of diseases with inflammatory and oxidative stress conditions.

Protective effect of ginsenoside Rh2 against Toxoplasma gondii infection-induced neuronal injury through binding TgCDPK1 and NLRP3 to inhibit microglial NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Toxoplasma gondii (T. gondii) is a neurotropic obligate intracellular parasite that can activate microglial and promote neuronal apoptosis, leading to central nervous system diseases. The NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome signaling complex plays a key role in inducing neuroinflammation. Our previous studies have found that ginsenoside Rh2 (GRh2) inhibits T. gondii infection-induced microglial activation and neuroinflammation by downregulating the Toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway. However, whether GRh2 reduces T. gondii infection-induced neuronal injury through actions on microglial NLRP3 inflammasome signaling has not yet been clarified.

METHODS

In this study, we employed T. gondii RH strain to establish in vitro and in vivo infection models in BV2 microglia cell line and BALB/c mice. Molecular docking, localized surface plasmon resonance assay, quantitative competitive-PCR, ELISA, western blotting, flow cytometric analysis, and immunofluorescence were performed.

RESULTS

Our results showed that GRh2 alleviated neuropathological damage and neuronal apoptosis in cortical tissue of T. gondii-infected mice. GRh2 and CY-09 (an inhibitor of NLRP3) exhibited potent anti-T. gondii effects through binding T. gondii calcium-dependent protein kinase 1 (TgCDPK1). GRh2 decreased Iba-1 (a specific microglial marker) and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway-related protein expression by binding NLRP3. Co-culture of microglia/primary cortical neurons revealed that T. gondii-induced microglial activation caused neuronal apoptosis, but GRh2 reduced this effect, consistent with the effects of CY-09.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, our results show that GRh2 has a protective effect against T. gondii infection-induced neuronal injury by binding TgCDPK1 and NLRP3 to inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome signaling pathway in microglia.

Ginseng extract and ginsenosides improve neurological function and promote antioxidant effects in rats with spinal cord injury: A meta-analysis and systematic review

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is defined as damage to the spinal cord that temporarily or permanently changes its function. There is no definite treatment established for neurological complete injury patients. This study investigated the effect of ginseng extract and ginsenosides on neurological recovery and antioxidant efficacies in rat models following SCI and explore the appropriate dosage. Searches were done on PubMed, Embase, and Chinese databases, and animal studies matches the inclusion criteria were selected. Pair-wise meta-analysis and subgroup analysis were performed. Ten studies were included, and the overall methodological qualities were low quality. The result showed ginseng extract and ginsenosides significantly improve neurological function, through the Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan (BBB) locomotor rating scale (pooled MD = 4.40; 95% CI = 3.92 to 4.88; p < 0.00001), significantly decrease malondialdehyde (MDA) (n = 290; pooled MD = −2.19; 95% CI = −3.16 to −1.22; p < 0.0001) and increase superoxide dismutase (SOD) levels (n = 290; pooled MD = 2.14; 95% CI = 1.45 to 2.83; p < 0.00001). Both low (<25 mg/kg) and high dosage (≥25 mg/kg) showed significant improvement in the motor function recovery in SCI rats. Collectively, this review suggests ginseng extract and ginsenosides has a protective effect on SCI, with good safety and a clear mechanism of action and may be suitable for future clinical trials and applications.

Ginsenoside Rg3 exerts a neuroprotective effect in rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease mice via its anti-oxidative properties

Ginsenoside Rg3, extracted from Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, has been shown to possess neuroprotective properties. The present study aims to investigate the neuroprotective effects of ginsenoside Rg3 on rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease mice. Rotenone, a mitochondrial complex I inhibitor, leads to the augmentation of reactive oxygen species production in cells. Male C57/BL6 mice were intragastrically administered rotenone (30 mg/kg) and then treated with ginsenoside Rg3 (5, 10, or 20 mg/kg). Pole, rotarod, and open field tests were performed to evaluate motor function. Ginsenoside Rg3 decreased the climbing time in the pole test (p < 0.01), whereas it increased the latency in the rotarod test (p < 0.01) and the total distance (p < 0.01) and mean speed in the open field test (p < 0.01). Ginsenoside Rg3 treatment augmented the number of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive neurons in the substantia nigra (p < 0.01), mean density of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive nerve fibers (p < 0.01), and dopamine content (p < 0.01) in the striatum and reduced the reactive oxygen species level in the substantia nigra (p < 0.01). Glutathione cysteine ligase regulatory subunit and glutathione cysteine ligase modulatory subunit expression levels were elevated in the ginsenoside Rg3 groups. Ginsenoside Rg3 also improved motor function in rotenone-induced Parkinson's disease mice. The neuroprotective effects of ginsenoside Rg3 are at least partly associated with its anti-oxidative properties via regulation of glutathione cysteine ligase modulatory subunit and glutathione cysteine ligase regulatory subunit expression.

Neurorescue Effects of Frondoside A and Ginsenoside Rg3 in C. elegans Model of Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is a currently incurable neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the loss of dopaminergic (DAergic) neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and α-synuclein aggregation. Accumulated evidence indicates that the saponins, especially from ginseng, have neuroprotective effects against neurodegenerative disorders. Interestingly, saponin can also be found in marine organisms such as the sea cucumber, but little is known about its effect in neurodegenerative disease, including PD. In this study, we investigated the anti-Parkinson effects of frondoside A (FA) from Cucumaria frondosa and ginsenoside Rg3 (Rg3) from Panax notoginseng in C. elegans PD model. Both saponins were tested for toxicity and optimal concentration by food clearance assay and used to treat 6-OHDA-induced BZ555 and transgenic α-synuclein NL5901 strains in C. elegans. Treatment with FA and Rg3 significantly attenuated DAergic neurodegeneration induced by 6-OHDA in BZ555 strain, improved basal slowing rate, and prolonged lifespan in the 6-OHDA-induced wild-type strain with downregulation of the apoptosis mediators, egl-1 and ced-3, and upregulation of sod-3 and cat-2. Interestingly, only FA reduced α-synuclein aggregation, rescued lifespan in NL5901, and upregulated the protein degradation regulators, including ubh-4, hsf-1, hsp-16.1 and hsp-16.2. This study indicates that both FA and Rg3 possess beneficial effects in rescuing DAergic neurodegeneration in the 6-OHDA-induced C. elegans model through suppressing apoptosis mediators and stimulating antioxidant enzymes. In addition, FA could attenuate α-synuclein aggregation through the protein degradation process.

Panax quinquefolium saponin liposomes prepared by passive drug loading for improving intestinal absorption

Panax quinquefolium saponin (PQS) composed of 45% pseudo-ginsenoside F11 (PF11), is a natural mixture of sterol compounds obtained from the American ginseng plant, having numerous promising benefits for health. However, low solubility and permeability limit the development of PQS as a therapeutic agent for oral administration. In this study, PQS liposomes (PQS-Lips) were prepared by thin layer hydration, an in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion (SPIP) model was used to verify the improvement of membrane permeability of PQS-Lips. PQS-Lips had a high encapsulation efficiency (EE) of 65%∼70%, a particle size about 100.0 nm, and a zeta potential of -60 mV with regular spherical surface. FTIR and DSC showed the PQS in liposomes were amorphous, indicating that hydrogen bonds formed between one or several hydroxyl groups in PQS and C-O group at the phospholipid polar terminal. In addition, PQS-Lips showed sustained release in vitro than PQS at pH 1.2 and pH 6.8, and PQS-Lips had good stability in simulated gastric and intestinal fluid. Then, the absorption rate (K _a) and effective permeability coefficient (P _eff) of PQS-Lips in the whole small intestine were significantly higher than those in PQS solution (PQS-Sol), which proved that the PQS-Lips could significantly increase the membrane permeability of PQS and promote its absorption in the small intestine. From the experimental results, it could be known that liposome technology could effectively improve the absorption of PQS in the small intestine.

Rg3-enriched Korean Red Ginseng extract inhibits blood-brain barrier disruption in an animal model of multiple sclerosis by modulating expression of NADPH oxidase 2 and 4

Background

Multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model, the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), are primarily characterized as dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Ginsenoside-Rg3-enriched Korean Red Ginseng extract (Rg3-KRGE) is known to exert neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory, and anti-oxidative effects on neurological disorders. However, effects of Rg3-KRGE in EAE remain unclear.

Methods

Here, we investigated whether Rg3-KRGE may improve the symptoms and pathological features of myelin oligodendroglial glycoprotein (MOG)_35-55 peptide – induced chronic EAE mice through improving the integrity of the BBB.

Results

Rg3-KRGE decreased EAE score and spinal demyelination. Rg3-KRGE inhibited Evan's blue dye leakage in spinal cord, suppressed increases of adhesion molecule platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1, extracellular matrix proteins fibronection, and matrix metallopeptidase-9, and prevented decreases of tight junction proteins zonula occludens-1, claudin-3, and claudin-5 in spinal cord following EAE induction. Rg3-KRGE repressed increases of proinflammatory transcripts cyclooxygenase-2, inducible nitric oxide synthase, interleukin (IL)-1 beta, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, but enhanced expression levels of anti-inflammatory transcripts arginase-1 and IL-10 in the spinal cord following EAE induction. Rg3-KRGE inhibited the expression of oxidative stress markers (MitoSOX and 4-hydroxynonenal), the enhancement of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase 2 (NOX2) and NOX4, and NADPH activity in the spinal cord of chronic EAE mice. Furthermore, apocynin, a NOX inhibitor, mimicked beneficial effects of Rg3-KRGE in chronic EAE mice.

Conclusion

Our findings suggest that Rg3-KRGE might alleviate behavioral symptoms and pathological features of MS by improving BBB integrity through modulation of NOX2/4 expression.

Taurine and Ginsenoside Rf Induce BDNF Expression in SH-SY5Y Cells: A Potential Role of BDNF in Corticosterone-Triggered Cellular Damage

This study shows that taurine and ginsenoside Rf act synergistically to increase the expression of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. The increase of BDNF mRNA by taurine and ginsenoside Rf was markedly attenuated by inhibitors of extracellular signal-regulated kinase and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase. In addition, taurine and ginsenoside Rf protected cells from corticosterone-induced BDNF suppression and reduced cell viability and lactate dehydrogenase release. The results from this study showed that combined treatment with both taurine and ginsenoside Rf enhanced BDNF expression and protected cells against corticosterone-induced damage.

Ginsenoside Rd therapy improves histological and functional recovery in a rat model of inflammatory bowel disease

Ginsenoside Rd (GRd) is a biologically active component of ginseng that stimulates the proliferation of endogenous stem cells. The objective of our research was to evaluate the utility of GRd in gastrointestinal mucosal regeneration in a rat model of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and to clarify whether GRd exerts its pharmacological effects by modulating endogenous intestinal stem cells. The IBD rat model was established via subcutaneous injection of indomethacin, and 10, 20, or 40 mg/kg GRd or an equal volume of physiological saline was then administered orally to rats in different groups every day for seven consecutive days. We observed that GRd treatment, especially 20 mg/kg GRd, significantly reduced indomethacin-induced damage compared with that in the control group. By measuring the mRNA and protein levels of the intestinal stem cell markers Bmi and Msi-1 and the intestinal epithelial cell marker CDX-2 as well as by double-labelling these markers with 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU), we inferred that GRd could stimulate the proliferation and differentiation of endogenous intestinal stem cells in IBD model rats, leading to improved recovery of intestinal function.

Effects of Ginseng on Neurological Disorders

Ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer), a famous traditional medicinal herb, has been widely used for many centuries. Numerous studies have shown that ginseng has a positive effect on the prevention and treatment of neurological disorders. In this review, we summarized the effects of ginseng in treating neurological diseases, particularly the anti-depressant effects of ginseng. Furthermore, its potential mechanism was also outlined. Therefore, this review may provide new insight into the treatment of ginseng on neurological diseases.

Trends in use, pharmacology, and clinical applications of emerging herbal nutraceuticals

The nutraceuticals market is vast, encompassing many different products with inconsistent levels of evidence available to support their use. This overview represents a Western perspective of the nutraceuticals market, with a brief comparison with that in China, as an illustration of how individual health supplements increase and decrease in popularity in regional terms. Recent changes in sales patterns, mainly taken from the US market, are summarized and a selection of five newer products, which have not been subject to extensive recent review are profiled: astaxanthin, a carotenoid found in red algae, seafood, salmon and trout, as an antioxidant; cannabidiol, a non-euphoric marijuana ingredient used as mood enhancer and for painful/inflammatory conditions; modified extracts of ginseng used in new indications including dementia and space travel; monk fruit, a non-sugar high intensity sweetener and nigella seed, a popular food ingredient and Asian medicine, which has experienced an extraordinary rise in sales recently. LINKED ARTICLES: This article is part of a themed section on The Pharmacology of Nutraceuticals. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v177.6/issuetoc.