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Brodfuehrer SH, Blomdahl DC, Wahman DG, Speitel GE, Misztal PK, Katz LE. Simultaneous time-resolved inorganic haloamine measurements enable analysis of disinfectant degradation kinetics and by-product formation. NATURE WATER 2024; 2:434-442. [PMID: 38993391 PMCID: PMC11235187 DOI: 10.1038/s44221-024-00227-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024]
Abstract
We demonstrate the application of proton transfer time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-TOF-MS) in monitoring the kinetics of disinfectant decay in water with a sensitivity one to three orders of magnitude greater than other analytical methods. Chemical disinfection inactivates pathogens during water treatment and prevents regrowth as water is conveyed in distribution system pipes, but it also causes formation of toxic disinfection by-products. Analytical limits have hindered kinetic models, which aid in ensuring water quality and protecting public health by predicting disinfection by-products formation. PTR-TOF-MS, designed for measuring gas phase concentrations of organic compounds, was able to simultaneously monitor aqueous concentrations of five inorganic haloamines relevant to chloramine disinfection under drinking water relevant concentrations. This novel application to aqueous analytes opens a new range of applications for PTR-TOF-MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel H Brodfuehrer
- Maseeh Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- These authors contributed equally: Samuel H. Brodfuehrer, Daniel C. Blomdahl
| | - Daniel C Blomdahl
- Maseeh Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
- These authors contributed equally: Samuel H. Brodfuehrer, Daniel C. Blomdahl
| | - David G Wahman
- Office of Research and Development, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Gerald E Speitel
- Maseeh Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Pawel K Misztal
- Maseeh Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Lynn E Katz
- Maseeh Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
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2
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Wastensson G, Eriksson K. Inorganic chloramines: a critical review of the toxicological and epidemiological evidence as a basis for occupational exposure limit setting. Crit Rev Toxicol 2020; 50:219-271. [PMID: 32484073 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2020.1744514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Inorganic chloramines are not commercially available, but monochloramine is produced in situ for disinfection or for use in chemical synthesis. Inorganic chloramines are also formed when free chlorine reacts with nitrogen containing substances, e.g. ammonia and urea, present in chlorinated water sources. Occupational exposure may, therefore, occur in e.g. swimming pool facilities and the food processing industry. Monochloramine is soluble and stable in water and the dominating inorganic chloramine in chlorinated water sources. No clinical effects were seen in healthy volunteers given monochloramine in drinking water during 4 or 12 weeks in doses of 0.043 or 0.034 mg/kg bw/day, respectively. Limited data indicate that monochloramine is weakly mutagenic in vitro but not genotoxic in vivo. One drinking water study indicated equivocal evidence of carcinogenicity in female rats but not in male rats and mice. No reproductive or developmental effects were shown in rodents in the few studies located. Dichloramine is soluble but unstable in water. In the only study located, mild histological effects in kidneys, thyroid and gastric cardia were observed in rats administered dichloramine in drinking water for 13 weeks. Trichloramine is immiscible with water and evaporates easily from water into air. Therefore, the primary exposure route of concern in the occupational setting is inhalation. Occupational exposure to trichloramine has been demonstrated in indoor swimming pool facilities and in the food processing industry where chlorinated water is used for disinfection. Exposure-response relationships between airborne levels and self-reported ocular and upper airway irritation have been shown in several studies. Exposure to trichloramine may aggravate asthma symptoms in individuals with existing asthma. The risk of developing asthma following long-term exposure to trichloramine cannot be evaluated at present. No data on genotoxic, carcinogenic, reproductive or developmental effects were located. The toxicological data for mono- and dichloramine are insufficient to recommend health-based occupational exposure limits (OELs).As regard trichloramine, the critical effect is judged to be irritation observed in several studies on pool workers, starting at approximately 0.4 mg/m3 (stationary sampling). Based on these data, a health-based OEL of 0.1 mg/m3 (8-h time-weighted average) is recommended. This corresponds to 0.2 mg/m3 for stationary measurements in swimming pool facilities. No short-term exposure limit (STEL) is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gunilla Wastensson
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Kåre Eriksson
- Department of Sustainable Health, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
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Louarn E, Asri-Idlibi AM, Leprovost J, Héninger M, Mestdagh H. Evidence of Reactivity in the Membrane for the Unstable Monochloramine during MIMS Analysis. SENSORS 2018; 18:s18124252. [PMID: 30513986 PMCID: PMC6308428 DOI: 10.3390/s18124252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Revised: 11/29/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Membrane Inlet Mass Spectrometry (MIMS) was used to analyze monochloramine solutions (NH2Cl) and ammonia solutions in a compact FTICR. Chemical ionization enables identification and quantification of the products present in the permeate. The responses of protonated monochloramine and ammonium increase linearly with the solution concentration. The enrichments were respectively 1.2 and 5.5. Pervaporation is dependent on pH and only the basic form of ammonia NH3 pervaporates through the membrane. Unexpectedly, the small ammonia molecule permeated very slowly. It could be due to interactions with water molecules inside the membrane that create clusters. Moreover, NH2Cl solutions, in addition to the NH3Cl+ signal, presented a strong NH4+ signal at m/z 18.034. Ammonia presence in the low-pressure zone before ionization is probable as NH4+ was detected with all the precursors used, particularly CF3+ and trimethylbenzene that presents a proton affinity higher than monochloramine. Ammonia may be formed inside the membrane due to the fact that NH2Cl is unstable and may react with the water present in the membrane. Those results highlight the need for caution when dealing with chloramines in MIMS and more generally with unstable molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Essyllt Louarn
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique, UMR 8000, CNRS et Université Paris Sud, 91405 Orsay, France.
| | | | - Julien Leprovost
- AlyXan, Centre Hoche, 3 rue Condorcet, Avenue 91260 Juvisy-sur-Orge, France.
| | - Michel Héninger
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique, UMR 8000, CNRS et Université Paris Sud, 91405 Orsay, France.
| | - Hélène Mestdagh
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique, UMR 8000, CNRS et Université Paris Sud, 91405 Orsay, France.
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Kuchmenko TA, Shuba AA, Bityukova VV, Matveeva NA. Application of a Chemical Sensor Array to Assessing the Presence of Neoplasms by Blood Smell. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2018. [DOI: 10.1134/s1061934817110053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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5
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Salas LA, Font-Ribera L, Bustamante M, Sumoy L, Grimalt JO, Bonnin S, Aguilar M, Mattlin H, Hummel M, Ferrer A, Kogevinas M, Villanueva CM. Gene expression changes in blood RNA after swimming in a chlorinated pool. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 58:250-261. [PMID: 28774616 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2017.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2016] [Revised: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 05/05/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to disinfection by-products (DBP) such as trihalomethanes (THM) in swimming pools has been linked to adverse health effects in humans, but their biological mechanisms are unclear. We evaluated short-term changes in blood gene expression of adult recreational swimmers after swimming in a chlorinated pool. Volunteers swam 40min in an indoor chlorinated pool. Blood samples were drawn and four THM (chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform) were measured in exhaled breath before and after swimming. Intensity of physical activity was measured as metabolic equivalents (METs). Gene expression in whole blood mRNA was evaluated using IlluminaHumanHT-12v3 Expression-BeadChip. Linear mixed models were used to evaluate the relationship between gene expression changes and THM exposure. Thirty-seven before-after pairs were analyzed. The median increase from baseline to after swimming were: 0.7 to 2.3 for MET, and 1.4 to 7.1μg/m3 for exhaled total THM (sum of the four THM). Exhaled THM increased on average 0.94μg/m3 per 1 MET. While 1643 probes were differentially expressed post-exposure. Of them, 189 were also associated with exhaled levels of individual/total THM or MET after False Discovery Rate. The observed associations with the exhaled THM were low to moderate (Log-fold change range: -0.17 to 0.15). In conclusion, we identified short-term gene expression changes associated with swimming in a pool that were minor in magnitude and their biological meaning was unspecific. The high collinearity between exhaled THM levels and intensity of physical activity precluded mutually adjusted models with both covariates. These exploratory results should be validated in future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucas A Salas
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Epidemiology, The Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Lebanon, NH, USA; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Laia Font-Ribera
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain; IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mariona Bustamante
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics and Disease, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Lauro Sumoy
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics Core Facility, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain; Institute of Predictive and Personalized Medicine of Cancer (IMPPC), Institut Germans Trias i Pujol (IGTP), Can Ruti Campus, Badalona, Spain
| | - Joan O Grimalt
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Institute of Environmental Assessment and Water Research (CSIC), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sarah Bonnin
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics Core Facility, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria Aguilar
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics Core Facility, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Heidi Mattlin
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics Core Facility, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manuela Hummel
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics Core Facility, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Ferrer
- Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; Genomics Core Facility, Centre for Genomic Regulation (CRG), The Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Manolis Kogevinas
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain; IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina M Villanueva
- ISGlobal, Centre for Research in Environmental Epidemiology (CREAL), Barcelona, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Barcelona, Spain; IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
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Storer MK, Dummer JD, Cook J, McEwan M, Epton MJ. Increased concentrations of breath haloamines are not detectable in airways inflammation using SIFT-MS. J Breath Res 2011; 5:037105. [DOI: 10.1088/1752-7155/5/3/037105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Spaněl P, Smith D. Progress in SIFT-MS: breath analysis and other applications. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2011; 30:236-267. [PMID: 20648679 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 212] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2009] [Revised: 09/12/2009] [Accepted: 09/12/2009] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The development of selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry, SIFT-MS, is described from its inception as the modified very large SIFT instruments used to demonstrate the feasibility of SIFT-MS as an analytical technique, towards the smaller but bulky transportable instruments and finally to the current smallest Profile 3 instruments that have been located in various places, including hospitals and schools to obtain on-line breath analyses. The essential physics and engineering principles are discussed, which must be appreciated to design and construct a SIFT-MS instrument. The versatility and sensitivity of the Profile 3 instrument is illustrated by typical mass spectra obtained using the three precursor ions H(3)O(+), NO(+) and O(2)(+)·, and the need to account for differential ionic diffusion and mass discrimination in the analytical algorithms is emphasized to obtain accurate trace gas analyses. The performance of the Profile 3 instrument is illustrated by the results of several pilot studies, including (i) on-line real time quantification of several breath metabolites for cohorts of healthy adults and children, which have provided representative concentration/population distributions, and the comparative analyses of breath exhaled via the mouth and nose that identify systemic and orally-generated compounds, (ii) the enhancement of breath metabolites by drug ingestion, (iii) the identification of HCN as a marker of Pseudomonas colonization of the airways and (iv) emission of volatile compounds from urine, especially ketone bodies, and from skin. Some very recent developments are discussed, including the quantification of carbon dioxide in breath and the combination of SIFT-MS with GC and ATD, and their significance. Finally, prospects for future SIFT-MS developments are alluded to.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrik Spaněl
- J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Dolejškova 3, 182 23, Prague 8, Czech Republic.
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Hu WP, Langford VS, McEwan MJ, Milligan DB, Storer MK, Dummer J, Epton MJ. Monitoring chloramines and bromamines in a humid environment using selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2010; 24:1744-1748. [PMID: 20499318 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.4570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The selectivity and sensitivity of selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry (SIFT-MS) for individual breath analysis of haloamines has been improved by heating the flow tube in a commercial instrument to around 106 degrees C. Data is presented showing the marked reduction in the number density of water clusters of product ions of common breath metabolites that are isobaric with the product ions from monochloramine and monobromamine that are used to monitor the haloamine concentrations. These results have direct relevance to the real-time monitoring of chloramines in drinking water, swimming pools and food processing plants. However, once the isobaric overlaps from water cluster ions are reduced at the higher temperatures, there is no conclusive evidence showing the presence of haloamines on single breath exhalations in the mid parts per trillion range from examination of the breaths of volunteers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Ping Hu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
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9
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Instrumentation and Sensors for Human Breath Analysis. LECTURE NOTES IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-05167-8_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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Epton MJ, Ledingham K, Dummer J, Hu WP, Rhodes B, Senthilmohan ST, Scotter JM, Allardyce R, Cook J, Swanney MP. Interference of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC)-containing inhalers with measurements of volatile compounds using selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2009; 23:443-447. [PMID: 19125425 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.3875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry (SIFT-MS) is a sensitive technique capable of measuring volatile compounds (VCs) in complex gas mixtures in real time; it is now being applied to breath analysis. We investigated the effect of inhalers containing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) on the detection and measurement of haloamines in human breath. SIFT-MS mass scans (MS) and selected ion monitoring (SIM) scans were performed on three healthy non-smoking volunteers before and after inhalation of the following medications: Combiventtrade mark metered-dose inhaler (MDI) (CFC-containing); Ventolintrade mark MDI (CFC-free); Atroventtrade mark MDI (CFC-free), Beclazonetrade mark MDI (CFC-containing); Duolintrade mark nebuliser. In addition, the duration of the persistence of the mass/charge ratios was measured for 20 h. Inhalers containing CFCs generated large peaks at m/z 85, 87, 101, 103 and 105 in vitro and in vivo, consistent with the predicted product ions of CFCs 12, 114 and 11. No such peaks were seen with Duolintrade mark via nebuliser, or CFC-free MDIs. We conclude that measurement of VCs, such as haloamines, with product ions of similar m/z values to the ions found for CFCs would be significantly affected by the presence of CFCs in inhalers. This issue needs to be accounted for prior to the measurement of VCs in breath in people using inhalers containing CFCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Epton
- Department of Medicine, University of Otago, Christchurch School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Christchurch, New Zealand.
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Seeley MJ, Hu WP, Scotter JM, Storer MK, Shaw GM. In vitro
SIFT-MS validation of a breath fractionating device using a model VOC and ventilation system. J Breath Res 2009; 3:016001. [DOI: 10.1088/1752-7155/3/1/016001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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Coker MSA, Hu WP, Senthilmohan ST, Kettle AJ. Pathways for the Decay of Organic Dichloramines and Liberation of Antimicrobial Chloramine Gases. Chem Res Toxicol 2008; 21:2334-43. [DOI: 10.1021/tx800232v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Melanie S. A. Coker
- Free Radical Research Group, Department of Pathology, University of Otago, Christchurch, P.O. Box 4345, Syft Technologies Ltd., P.O. Box 28-149, and Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Wan-Ping Hu
- Free Radical Research Group, Department of Pathology, University of Otago, Christchurch, P.O. Box 4345, Syft Technologies Ltd., P.O. Box 28-149, and Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Senti T. Senthilmohan
- Free Radical Research Group, Department of Pathology, University of Otago, Christchurch, P.O. Box 4345, Syft Technologies Ltd., P.O. Box 28-149, and Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand
| | - Anthony J. Kettle
- Free Radical Research Group, Department of Pathology, University of Otago, Christchurch, P.O. Box 4345, Syft Technologies Ltd., P.O. Box 28-149, and Department of Chemistry, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch, New Zealand
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Cáp P, Dryahina K, Pehal F, Spanel P. Selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry of exhaled breath condensate headspace. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2008; 22:2844-2850. [PMID: 18712707 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.3685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Collection of exhaled breath condensate (EBC) is a relatively simple noninvasive method of breath analysis; however, no data have been reported that would relate concentration of volatile compounds in EBC to their gaseous concentrations in exhaled air. The aim of the study was to investigate which volatile compounds are present in EBC and how their concentrations relate to results of direct breath analysis. Thus, samples of EBC were collected in a standard way from several subjects and absolute levels of several common volatile breath metabolites (ammonia, acetone, ethanol, methanol, propanol, isoprene, hydrogen cyanide, formaldehyde and acetaldehyde) were then determined in their headspace using selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry (SIFT-MS). Results are compared with those from on-line breath analyses carried out immediately before collecting the EBC samples. It has been demonstrated that SIFT-MS can be used to quantify the concentrations of volatiles in EBC samples and that, for methanol, ammonia, ethanol and acetone, the EBC concentrations correlate with the direct breath levels. However, the EBC concentrations of isoprene, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, hydrogen cyanide and propanol do not correlate with direct breath measurements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petr Cáp
- Department of Allergology and Clinical Immunology, Hospital Na Homolce, Institute for Postgraduate Medical Education, Prague, Czech Republic
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