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Facanali R, Porto NDA, Crucello J, Carvalho RM, Vaz BG, Hantao LW. Naphthenic Acids: Formation, Role in Emulsion Stability, and Recent Advances in Mass Spectrometry-Based Analytical Methods. JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL METHODS IN CHEMISTRY 2021; 2021:6078084. [PMID: 34956687 PMCID: PMC8709775 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6078084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Naphthenic acids (NAs) are compounds naturally present in most petroleum sources comprised of complex mixtures with a highly variable composition depending on their origin. Their occurrence in crude oil can cause severe corrosion problems and catalysts deactivation, decreasing oil quality and consequently impacting its productivity and economic value. NAs structures also allow them to behave as surfactants, causing the formation and stabilization of emulsions. In face of the ongoing challenge of treatment of water-in-oil (W/O) or oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions in the oil and gas industry, it is important to understand how NAs act in emulsified systems and which acids are present in the interface. Considering that, this review describes the properties of NAs, their role in the formation and stability of oil emulsions, and the modern analytical methods used for the qualitative analysis of such acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roselaine Facanali
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-862, SP, Brazil
| | | | - Juliana Crucello
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-862, SP, Brazil
| | - Rogerio M. Carvalho
- Leopoldo Américo Miguez de Mello Research and Development Center, Petrobras, Rio de Janeiro 20031-912, RJ, Brazil
| | - Boniek G. Vaz
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia 74690-900, GO, Brazil
| | - Leandro W. Hantao
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Campinas, Campinas 13083-862, SP, Brazil
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2
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Kristensen M, Johnsen AR, Christensen JH. Super-complex mixtures of aliphatic- and aromatic acids may be common degradation products after marine oil spills: A lab-study of microbial oil degradation in a warm, pre-exposed marine environment. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2021; 285:117264. [PMID: 33962305 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 04/22/2021] [Accepted: 04/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
When assessing oil spills in marine environments, focus has often been on describing degradation and removal of hydrocarbons. However, more and more attention is now given to the formation of mineral oil transformation products, and their potential toxicity and persistency in the environment. The aim of this study was to investigate the formation of dissolved acidic degradation products from crude oil in sea water from the Persian Gulf in a lab-experiment. A super-complex mixture of acidic degradation products was formed in the water phase and compound groups of aliphatic acids, monocyclic aromatic acids-, and polycyclic aromatic acids were identified. More specifically, alkylated PAHs were biodegraded to a high number of aromatic, carboxylic acids by hydroxylation of the alkyl side chains. These degradation products are more bioavailable than their parent compounds, and may therefore constitute a new group of contaminants that should be considered in oil spill assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mette Kristensen
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark; Section of Forensic Chemistry, Department of Forensic Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Frederik V's vej 11, 2100, København Ø, Denmark
| | - Anders R Johnsen
- Geological Survey of Denmark and Greenland (GEUS), Department of Geochemistry, Øster Voldgade 10, 1350, Copenhagen K, Denmark
| | - Jan H Christensen
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
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3
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Suliman MA, Olarewaju TA, Basheer C, Lee HK. Microextraction and its application for petroleum and crude oil samples. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1636:461795. [PMID: 33340743 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.461795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Petroleum is an extremely heterogeneous material. It consists of a wide range of aliphatic, aromatic, and compounds containing heteroatoms such as metals, sulfur, and nitrogen. The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) methods are used globally as accepted analytical methods for petroleum, petrochemicals, and fuels. A major drawback of ASTM methods is that they require multistep sample preparation that consumes substantial volumes of samples. Thus, the challenge in the petrochemical analysis is to develop rapid and simpler sample preparation procedures that can be automated. An assessment based on the current literature, specifically on the sample preparation of petroleum samples, leads to the authors' conclusion that microextraction provides an excellent complement to current methods. In this review, solvent and sorbent-based microextraction techniques in the context of the consideration of petroleum and crude oil, and samples related to the petrochemical industry, are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammed Altahir Suliman
- Department of Chemistry, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Chanbasha Basheer
- Department of Chemistry, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Hian Kee Lee
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, 3 Science Drive 3, Singapore 117543, Singapore
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4
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Bowman DT, Warren LA, Slater GF. Isomer-specific monitoring of naphthenic acids at an oil sands pit lake by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 746:140985. [PMID: 32739755 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 07/12/2020] [Accepted: 07/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Naphthenic acids (NAs) are persistent, toxic contaminants that are found to accumulate in oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) and tailings after bitumen extraction. A number of strategies for the reclamation of oil sands tailings are currently being tested, including the development of the first demonstration pit lake by Syncrude Canada, Base Mine Lake (BML). An important component of reclamation activities is understanding the source and cycling of NAs in such reclamation systems. However, NAs exist as a highly complex mixture of thousands of compounds which makes their analysis an ongoing challenge. Herein, comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled to time of flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC/TOFMS) was used to analyze the methylated extracts of water samples from the water cap and fluid fine tailings (FFT) deposit of BML to characterize the variations in NA distributions between geochemical zones. A collection of (alkylated) monocyclic-, bicyclic-, adamantane-, and thiophene-type carboxylic acids were identified. Total relative abundances were calculated for each NA class (by summation of peak areas of all detected isomers) and minimal variability was detected in the water cap. Total relative abundances for each NA class were either similar or higher in the FFT, relative to the water cap. Examination of isomer distributions indicated that differences in abundance values were generally driven by variations in only one or two isomers of a given NA class. Furthermore, GC × GC revealed distinct isomer profiles were observed between two FFT samples and between the FFT and water cap. While it is not yet clear whether these differences are due to differences in sources of NAs or in their environmental processing, these results illustrate the capability of GC × GC to investigate these questions and thus contribute to the management of these compounds within reclamation or environmental systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- David T Bowman
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Lesley A Warren
- School of Geography and Earth Sciences, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada; Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, 35 St. George St., Toronto, ON M5S 1A4, Canada
| | - Gregory F Slater
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada; School of Geography and Earth Sciences, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada.
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5
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Ahad JME, Pakdel H, Gammon PR, Mayer B, Savard MM, Peru KM, Headley JV. Distinguishing Natural from Anthropogenic Sources of Acid Extractable Organics in Groundwater near Oil Sands Tailings Ponds. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:2790-2799. [PMID: 31995355 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b06875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Distinguishing between naphthenic acids (NAs) associated with oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) and those found naturally in groundwaters in contact with the bituminous McMurray Formation poses a considerable analytical challenge to environmental research in Canada's oil sands region. Previous work addressing this problem combined high-resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry with carbon isotope values generated by online pyrolysis (δ13Cpyr) to characterize and quantify the acid extractable organics (AEOs) fraction containing NAs in the subsurface near an oil sands tailings pond. Here, we build upon this work through further development and application of these techniques at two different study sites near two different tailings ponds, in conjunction with the use of an additional isotopic tool-sulfur isotope analysis (δ34S) of AEOs. The combined use of both δ13Cpyr and δ34S allowed for discrimination of AEOs into the three end-members relevant to ascertaining the NA environmental footprint within the region: (1) OSPW; (2) McMurray Formation groundwater (i.e., naturally occurring bitumen), and; (3) naturally occurring non-bitumen. A Bayesian isotopic mixing model was used to determine the relative proportions of these three sources in groundwater at both study sites. Although background levels of OSPW-derived AEOs were generally low, one sample containing 49-99% (95% credibility interval) OSPW-derived AEOs was detected within an inferred preferential flow-path, highlighting the potential for this technique to track tailings pond seepage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M E Ahad
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Québec City, Québec G1K 9A9, Canada
| | - Hooshang Pakdel
- INRS Eau Terre Environnement, Québec City, Québec G1K 9A9, Canada
| | - Paul R Gammon
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0E8, Canada
| | - Bernhard Mayer
- Department of Geoscience, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Martine M Savard
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Québec City, Québec G1K 9A9, Canada
| | - Kerry M Peru
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - John V Headley
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 3H5, Canada
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6
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Kristensen M, Christensen P, Christensen JH. Optimization and validation of a derivatization method with boron trifluoride in ethanol for analysis of aromatic carboxylic acids in water. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1601:21-26. [PMID: 31078279 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Gas-chromatography (GC) analysis of carboxylic acids is limited by the high polarity and low volatility of most of these compounds. Boron trifluoride (BF3) mediated alkylation reactions is one of the most commonly used derivatization methods for making carboxylic acids GC compatible. A semi-automated BF3·EtOH (ethanol) derivatization method was optimized for comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC × GC-HR MS) analysis of carboxylic acids in solid phase extraction (SPE) extracts of oil polluted water. The optimal derivatization method were found to be with addition of 300 μL BF3·EtOH per 200 μL sample and reaction at 75 °C for 24 h. Derivatives of eight selected acids (aliphatic, mono- and di-aromatic) were stable over 12 h with relative standard deviations (RSDs) of 2.0-10.7 %, the derivatization method was repeatable (RSDs of 3.2-17.2 %), detection limits (DL) and limit of detections (LODs) was in the range of DL = 0.53-1.63 ppb and LOD = 0.19-2.51 ppb for pure acid standards, and DL = 0.18-3.41 ppb and LOD = 0.28-5.46 ppb for matrix matched acid standards. Finally, the method was validated on the acidic fraction of a mixed anion-exchange SPE of oil polluted water. Thousands of degradation products from parent alkylated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and aliphatic hydrocarbons, such as aliphatic acids and mono-, di- and tri- aromatic acids were analyzed by the applied method and compound groups were tentatively identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mette Kristensen
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark.
| | - Peter Christensen
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
| | - Jan H Christensen
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, 1871, Frederiksberg C, Denmark
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7
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Wei C, Ren P, Cen Q, Zhu Y, Zhang Y. Simultaneous determination of dissolved phenanthrene and its metabolites by derivative synchronous fluorescence spectrometry with double scans method in aqueous solution. Talanta 2019; 195:339-344. [PMID: 30625553 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2018.11.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 11/15/2018] [Accepted: 11/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
A simple and sensitive derivative synchronous fluorescence spectrometry with double scans (DS-DSFS) method was developed for simultaneous determination of dissolved Phenanthrene (Phe) and its metabolites 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid (1H2NA) and salicylic acid (SA) in aqueous solution. The value of 69 nm was selected as the optimal Δλ conditions for Phe and 1H2NA, and the Δλ value of 55 nm was selected for SA. The overlapping fluorescence emission spectra of Phe, 1H2NA and SA were resolved by DS-DSFS. The signals detected at wavelength of 296 nm for Phe, 352 nm for 1H2NA and 307 nm for SA vary linearly when the concentrations in the range of 4.0-1.0 × 103 μg L-1, 4.0-1.2 × 103 μg L-1 and 4.0-8.0 × 102 μg L-1, respectively. The detection limits were 0.08, 0.07 and 0.88 μg L-1 for Phe, 1H2NA and SA, with the relatively standard deviations less than 5.0%. The established method was successfully applied in the determination of Phe and the metabolites during the biodegradation of dissolved Phe in the lab. It was evidenced that the method has potential for the in situ investigation of PAH biodegradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaoxian Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science of China (Xiamen University), College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, 361102 Xiamen, Fujian Province, PR China
| | - Pei Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science of China (Xiamen University), College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, 361102 Xiamen, Fujian Province, PR China
| | - Qiulin Cen
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science of China (Xiamen University), College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, 361102 Xiamen, Fujian Province, PR China
| | - Yaxian Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, PR China
| | - Yong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science of China (Xiamen University), College of the Environment & Ecology, Xiamen University, 361102 Xiamen, Fujian Province, PR China.
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8
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Bowman DT, Warren LA, McCarry BE, Slater GF. Profiling of individual naphthenic acids at a composite tailings reclamation fen by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 649:1522-1531. [PMID: 30308920 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2018] [Revised: 08/23/2018] [Accepted: 08/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Naphthenic acids (NAs) are naturally occurring in the Athabasca oil sands region (AOSR) and accumulate in tailings as a result of water-based extraction processes. NAs exist as a complex mixture, so the development of an analytical technique to characterize them has been an on-going challenge. The aim of this study was to use comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry to monitor individual NAs within a wetland reclamation site in the AOSR. Samples were collected from four monitoring wells at the site and the extracts were found to contain numerous resolved isomers of classical (monocyclic-, bicyclic-, adamantane-, indane-, and tetralin-type carboxylic acids) and sulfur-containing NAs (thiamonocyclic- and thiophene-type carboxylic acids). The absolute abundances of the monitored NAs were compared between four monitoring wells and unique profiles were observed at each well. Few significant changes in absolute abundances were observed over the sampling period, with the exception of one well (Well 6A). In addition, isomeric percent compositions were calculated for each set of structural isomers, and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and two-dimensional hierarchical cluster analysis revealed high spatial variation at the site. However, consistent distributions were observed at each of the monitoring wells for some sets of NA isomers (such as: adamantane NAs), which may be useful for forensic applications, such as identifying sources of contamination or demonstrating biodegradation. The methods and results presented in this study demonstrate the utility of monitoring individual NAs, since both changes in absolute abundances of individual NAs and the distribution of NA isomers have the ability to provide insight into their sources and the processes controlling their concentrations that are not only of relevance to the Alberta Oil Sands, but also to other petroleum deposits and environmental systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- David T Bowman
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton L8S 4M1, ON, Canada
| | - Lesley A Warren
- School of Geography and Earth Sciences, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton L8S 4K1, ON, Canada; Department of Civil Engineering, University of Toronto, 35 St. George St. Toronto, ON M5S 1A4, Canada
| | - Brian E McCarry
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton L8S 4M1, ON, Canada
| | - Gregory F Slater
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton L8S 4M1, ON, Canada; School of Geography and Earth Sciences, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton L8S 4K1, ON, Canada.
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9
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Zhu GT, Hu XL, He S, He XM, Zhu SK, Feng YQ. Hydrothermally tailor-made chitosan fiber for micro-solid phase extraction of petroleum acids in crude oils. J Chromatogr A 2018; 1564:42-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2018.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2017] [Revised: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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10
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Dogra Y, Scarlett AG, Rowe D, Galloway TS, Rowland SJ. Predicted and measured acute toxicity and developmental abnormalities in zebrafish embryos produced by exposure to individual aromatic acids. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 205:98-107. [PMID: 29689530 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.04.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Revised: 04/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Petroleum acids, often called 'Naphthenic Acids' (NA), enter the environment in complex mixtures from numerous sources. These include from Produced and Process-Affected waters discharged from some oil industry activities, and from the environmental weathering of spilled crude oil hydrocarbons. Here, we test the hypothesis that individual NA within the complex mixtures can induce developmental abnormalities in fish, by screening a range of individual acids, with known chemical structures. Sixteen aromatic NA were tested using a Thamnocephalus platyrus (beavertail fairyshrimp) assay, to establish acute toxicity. Toxicities ranged from 568 to 8 μM, with the methylbiphenyl acid, 4-(p-tolyl)benzoic acid, most toxic. Next, five of the most toxic monoacids and for comparison, a diacid, were assayed using Danio rerio (zebrafish) embryos to test for lethality and developmental abnormalities. The toxicities were also predicted using Admet predictor™ software. Exposure to the five monoacids produced deformities in zebrafish embryos in a dose-dependent manner. Thus, exposure to 4-(p-tolyl)benzoic acid produced abnormalities in >90% of the embryos at concentrations of <1 μM; exposure to dehydroabietic acid caused pericardial edema and stunted growth in 100% of the embryos at 6 μM and exposure to pyrene-1-carboxylic acid caused 80% of embryos to be affected at 3 μM. The findings of this preliminary study therefore suggest that some aromatic acids are targets for more detailed mechanistic studies of mode of action. The results should help to focus on those NA which may be important for monitoring in oil industry wastewaters and polluted environmental samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuktee Dogra
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD UK
| | - Alan G Scarlett
- Petroleum and Environmental Geochemistry Group, Biogeochemistry Research Centre, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK.
| | - Darren Rowe
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD UK
| | - Tamara S Galloway
- Biosciences, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Stocker Road, Exeter, EX4 4QD UK
| | - Steven J Rowland
- Petroleum and Environmental Geochemistry Group, Biogeochemistry Research Centre, University of Plymouth, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK.
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11
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Improved coverage of naphthenic acid fraction compounds by comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2018; 1536:88-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2017.07.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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12
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Aitken C, Head I, Jones D, Rowland S, Scarlett A, West C. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of complex mixtures of anaerobic bacterial metabolites of petroleum hydrocarbons. J Chromatogr A 2018; 1536:96-109. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2017.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Revised: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 06/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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13
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Ahad JME, Pakdel H, Lavoie D, Lefebvre R, Peru KM, Headley JV. Naphthenic acids in groundwater overlying undeveloped shale gas and tight oil reservoirs. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 191:664-672. [PMID: 29078190 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/02/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The acid extractable organics (AEOs) containing naphthenic acids (NAs) in groundwater overlying undeveloped shale gas (Saint-Édouard region) and tight oil (Haldimand sector, Gaspé) reservoirs in Québec, Canada, were analysed using high resolution Orbitrap mass spectrometry and thermal conversion/elemental analysis - isotope ratio mass spectrometry. As classically defined by CnH2n+ZO2, the most abundant NAs detected in the majority of groundwater samples were straight-chain (Z = 0) or monounsaturated (Z = -2) C16 and C18 fatty acids. Several groundwater samples from both study areas, however, contained significant proportions of presumably alicyclic bicyclic NAs (i.e., Z = -4) in the C10-C18 range. These compounds may have originated from migrated waters containing a different distribution of NAs, or are the product of in situ microbial alteration of shale organic matter and petroleum. In most groundwater samples, intramolecular carbon isotope values generated by pyrolysis (δ13Cpyr) of AEOs were on average around 2-3‰ heavier than those generated by bulk combustion (δ13C) of AEOs, providing further support for microbial reworking of subsurface organic carbon. Although concentrations of AEOs were very low (<2.0 mg/L), the detection of potentially toxic bicyclic acids in groundwater overlying unconventional hydrocarbon reservoirs points to a natural background source of organic contaminants prior to any large-scale commercial hydrocarbon development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason M E Ahad
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Québec, QC, G1K 9A9, Canada.
| | - Hooshang Pakdel
- INRS, Centre Eau Terre Environnement, Québec, QC, G1K 9A9, Canada
| | - Denis Lavoie
- Geological Survey of Canada, Natural Resources Canada, Québec, QC, G1K 9A9, Canada
| | - René Lefebvre
- INRS, Centre Eau Terre Environnement, Québec, QC, G1K 9A9, Canada
| | - Kerry M Peru
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - John V Headley
- Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 3H5, Canada
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14
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Zhu GT, Liu F, He S, He XM, Zhu SK, Feng YQ. Magnetic extractant with an Fe3O4@SiO2 core and aqueous ammonia coating for microextraction of petroleum acids. RSC Adv 2018; 8:19486-19493. [PMID: 35541011 PMCID: PMC9080699 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra02262c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Custom-made magnetic aqueous ammonia was prepared for rapid and selective extraction of petroleum acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang-Tian Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Tectonics and Petroleum Resources (Ministry of Education)
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| | - Fei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Tectonics and Petroleum Resources (Ministry of Education)
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| | - Sheng He
- Key Laboratory of Tectonics and Petroleum Resources (Ministry of Education)
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Mei He
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education)
- Department of Chemistry
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
- P. R. China
| | - Shu-Kui Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| | - Yu-Qi Feng
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education)
- Department of Chemistry
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
- P. R. China
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15
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Zhu GT, He S, He XM, Zhu SK, Feng YQ. A micro-solid phase extraction in glass pipette packed with amino-functionalized silica for rapid analysis of petroleum acids in crude oils. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra06763a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
A convenient micro-SPE was designed for rapid analysis of petroleum acids in crude oils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang-Tian Zhu
- Key Laboratory of Tectonics and Petroleum Resources (Ministry of Education)
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| | - Sheng He
- Key Laboratory of Tectonics and Petroleum Resources (Ministry of Education)
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Mei He
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education)
- Department of Chemistry
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
- P. R. China
| | - Shu-Kui Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Biogeology and Environmental Geology
- China University of Geosciences
- Wuhan 430074
- P. R. China
| | - Yu-Qi Feng
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education)
- Department of Chemistry
- Wuhan University
- Wuhan 430072
- P. R. China
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16
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Scherr KE, Backes D, Scarlett AG, Lantschbauer W, Nahold M. Biogeochemical gradients above a coal tar DNAPL. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 563-564:741-754. [PMID: 26610368 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.11.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2015] [Revised: 11/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/07/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Naturally occurring distribution and attenuation processes can keep hydrocarbon emissions from dense non aqueous phase liquids (DNAPL) into the adjacent groundwater at a minimum. In a historically coal tar DNAPL-impacted site, the de facto absence of a plume sparked investigations regarding the character of natural attenuation and DNAPL resolubilization processes at the site. Steep vertical gradients of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, microbial community composition, secondary water quality and redox-parameters were found to occur between the DNAPL-proximal and shallow waters. While methanogenic and mixed-electron acceptor conditions prevailed close to the DNAPL, aerobic conditions and very low dissolved contaminant concentrations were identified in three meters vertical distance from the phase. Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC×GC-MS) proved to be an efficient tool to characterize the behavior of the present complex contaminant mixture. Medium to low bioavailability of ferric iron and manganese oxides of aquifer samples was detected via incubation with Shewanella alga and evidence for iron and manganese reduction was collected. In contrast, 16S rDNA phylogenetic analysis revealed the absence of common iron reducing bacteria. Aerobic hydrocarbon degraders were abundant in shallow horizons, while nitrate reducers were dominating in deeper aquifer regions, in addition to a low relative abundance of methanogenic archaea. Partial Least Squares - Canonical Correspondence Analysis (PLS-CCA) suggested that nitrate and oxygen concentrations had the greatest impact on aquifer community structure in on- and offsite wells, which had a similarly high biodiversity (H' and Chao1). Overall, slow hydrocarbon dissolution from the DNAPL appears to dominate natural attenuation processes. This site may serve as a model for developing legal and technical strategies for the treatment of DNAPL-impacted sites where contaminant plumes are absent or shrinking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerstin E Scherr
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Department IFA-Tulln, Institute for Environmental Biotechnology, Konrad Lorenz Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria.
| | - Diana Backes
- University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Department IFA-Tulln, Institute for Environmental Biotechnology, Konrad Lorenz Strasse 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Alan G Scarlett
- University of Plymouth, Petroleum and Environmental Geochemistry Group, Biogeochemistry Research Centre, Drake Circus, Plymouth, Devon PL4 8AA, UK
| | - Wolfgang Lantschbauer
- Government of Upper Austria, Directorate for Environment and Water Management, Division for Environmental Protection, Kärntner Strasse 10-12, 4021 Linz, Austria
| | - Manfred Nahold
- GUT Gruppe Umwelt und Technik GmbH, Ingenieurbüro für Technischen Umweltschutz, Plesching 15, 4040 Linz, Austria
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17
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Byer JD, Siek K, Jobst K. Distinguishing the C3 vs SH4 Mass Split by Comprehensive Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography–High Resolution Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2016; 88:6101-4. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.6b01137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan D. Byer
- Life
Science and Chemical Analysis, LECO Corporation, 3000 Lakeview Ave., Saint Joseph, Michigan 49085, United States
| | - Kevin Siek
- Life
Science and Chemical Analysis, LECO Corporation, 3000 Lakeview Ave., Saint Joseph, Michigan 49085, United States
| | - Karl Jobst
- Laboratory
Services Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment and Climate Change, 125 Resources Rd., Etobicoke, Toronto, Ontario M9P 3V6, Canada
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18
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Headley JV, Peru KM, Barrow MP. Advances in mass spectrometric characterization of naphthenic acids fraction compounds in oil sands environmental samples and crude oil--A review. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2016; 35:311-328. [PMID: 25970647 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
There has been a recent surge in the development of mass spectrometric methods for detailed characterization of naphthenic acid fraction compounds (all C(c)H(h)N(n)O(o)S(s), species, including heteroatomic and aromatic components in the acid-extractable fraction) in environmental samples. This surge is driven by the increased activity in oil sands environmental monitoring programs in Canada, the exponential increase in research studies on the isolation and toxicity identification of components in oil sands process water (OSPW), and the analytical requirements for development of technologies for treatment of OSPW. There has been additional impetus due to the parallel studies to control corrosion from naphthenic acids during the mining and refining of heavy bitumen and crude oils. As a result, a range of new mass spectrometry tools have been introduced since our last major review of this topic in 2009. Of particular significance are the developments of combined mass spectrometric methods that incorporate technologies such as gas chromatography, liquid chromatography, and ion mobility. There has been additional progress with respect to improved visualization methods for petroleomics and oil sands environmental forensics. For comprehensive coverage and more reliable characterization of samples, an approach based on multiple-methods that employ two or more ionization modes is recommended. On-line or off-line fractionation of isolated extracts, with or without derivatization, might also be used prior to mass spectrometric analyses. Individual ionization methods have their associated strengths and weaknesses, including biases, and thus dependence upon a single ionization method is potentially misleading. There is also a growing trend to not rely solely on low-resolution mass spectrometric methods (<20,000 resolving power at m/z 200) for characterization of complex samples. Future research is anticipated to focus upon (i) structural elucidation of components to determine the correlation with toxicity or corrosion, (ii) verification of characterization studies based on authentic reference standards and reference materials, and (iii) integrated approaches based on multiple-methods and ionization methods for more-reliable oil sands environmental forensics.
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Affiliation(s)
- John V Headley
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Kerry M Peru
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Water Science and Technology Directorate, Environment Canada, 11 Innovation Boulevard, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, S7N 3H5, Canada
| | - Mark P Barrow
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
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19
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Lengger SK, Scarlett AG, West CE, Frank RA, Hewitt LM, Milestone CB, Rowland SJ. Use of the distributions of adamantane acids to profile short-term temporal and pond-scale spatial variations in the composition of oil sands process-affected waters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2015; 17:1415-1423. [PMID: 26160340 DOI: 10.1039/c5em00287g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Oil industry produced waters, such as the oils sands process-affected waters (OSPW) of Alberta, Canada, represent a challenge in terms of risk assessment and reclamation due to their extreme complexity, particularly of the organic chemical constituents, including the naphthenic acids (NA). The identification of numerous NA in single samples has raised promise for the use of NA distributions for profiling OSPW. However, monitoring of the success of containment is still difficult, due to the lack of knowledge of the homogeneity (or otherwise) of OSPW composition within, and between, different industry containments. Here we used GC×GC-MS to compare the NA of five OSPW samples from each of two different industries. Short-term temporal and pond-scale spatial variations in the distributions of known adamantane acids and diacids and other unknown tricyclic acids were examined and a statistical appraisal of the replicate data made. The presence/absence of individual acids easily distinguished the OSPW NA of one industry from those of the other. The proportions of tricyclic acids with different carbon numbers also varied significantly between the OSPW of the two industries. The pond-scale spatial variation in NA in OSPW samples was higher than the short-term (2 weeks) temporal variations. An OSPW sample from an aged pond was exceptionally high in the proportion of C15,16,17 compounds, possibly due to increased biotransformation. Such techniques could possibly also help to distinguish different sources of NA in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine K Lengger
- Petroleum and Environmental Geochemistry Group, Biogeochemistry Research Centre Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth PL4 8AA, UK.
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20
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Wilde MJ, West CE, Scarlett AG, Jones D, Frank RA, Hewitt LM, Rowland SJ. Bicyclic naphthenic acids in oil sands process water: Identification by comprehensive multidimensional gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2015; 1378:74-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2014.12.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2014] [Revised: 11/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/03/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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21
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Rowland SJ, Pereira AS, Martin JW, Scarlett AG, West CE, Lengger SK, Wilde MJ, Pureveen J, Tegelaar EW, Frank RA, Hewitt LM. Mass spectral characterisation of a polar, esterified fraction of an organic extract of an oil sands process water. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2014; 28:2352-62. [PMID: 25279749 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2014] [Revised: 08/21/2014] [Accepted: 08/21/2014] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Characterising complex mixtures of organic compounds in polar fractions of heavy petroleum is challenging, but is important for pollution studies and for exploration and production geochemistry. Oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) stored in large tailings ponds by Canadian oil sands industries contains such mixtures. METHODS A polar OSPW fraction was obtained by silver ion solid-phase extraction with methanol elution. This was examined by numerous methods, including electrospray ionisation (ESI) Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FTICRMS) and ultra-high-pressure liquid chromatography (uHPLC)/Orbitrap MS, in multiple ionisation and MS/MS modes. Compounds were also synthesised for comparison. RESULTS The major ESI ionisable compounds detected (+ion mode) were C15-28 SO3 species with 3-7 double bond equivalents (DBE) and C27-28 SO5 species with 5 DBE. ESI-MS/MS collision-induced losses were due to water, methanol, water plus methanol and water plus methyl formate, typical of methyl esters of hydroxy acids. Once the fraction was re-saponified, species originally detected by positive ion MS, could be detected only by negative ion MS, consistent with their assignment as sulphur-containing hydroxy carboxylic acids. The free acid of a keto dibenzothiophene alkanoic acid was added to an unesterified acid extract of OSPW in known concentrations as a putative internal standard, but attempted quantification in this way proved unreliable. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest the more polar acidic organic SO3 constituents of OSPW include C15-28 S-containing, alicyclic and aromatic hydroxy carboxylic acids. SO5 species are possibly sulphone analogues of these. The origin of such compounds is probably via further biotransformation (hydroxylation) of the related S-containing carboxylic acids identified previously in a less polar OSPW fraction. The environmental risks, corrosivity and oil flow assurance effects should be easier to assess, given that partial structures are now known, although further identification is still needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Rowland
- Biogeochemistry Research Centre, Plymouth University, Drake Circus, Plymouth, PL4 8AA, UK
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22
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Bowman DT, Slater GF, Warren LA, McCarry BE. Identification of individual thiophene-, indane-, tetralin-, cyclohexane-, and adamantane-type carboxylic acids in composite tailings pore water from Alberta oil sands. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2014; 28:2075-83. [PMID: 25156597 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.6996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2014] [Revised: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 07/23/2014] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Naphthenic acids (NAs) accumulate in oil sands process-affected water (OSPW) as a result of the water-based extraction processes, and represent one of the toxic fractions in OSPW. They exist as a complex mixture and so the development of an analytical method to characterize and quantify individual acids has been an on-going challenge. The multidimensional separation technique of two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) has the potential to provide a fingerprint of the sources of NAs and can potentially resolve individual analytes for target analysis. However, the identity and toxicity of a large proportion of the acids present in tailing waters are still unknown. METHODS Comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography/time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC × GC/TOFMS) was used to characterize NAs in a pore water sample from a Syncrude composite tailings (CT) deposit in Fort McMurray, Alberta, Canada. The extractable organic acid fraction was derivatized with diazomethane and the structures of selected resolved esters were elucidated through interpretation of their electron ionization (EI) mass spectra and, if available, confirmed by comparison with the spectra of reference standards. RESULTS The high resolving power of the GC × GC/TOFMS technique allowed for the structural elucidation of numerous as yet unidentified acids in the CT pore water sample such as carboxylic acids containing a thiophene, indane, tetralin or cyclohexane moiety. Seventeen members of the previously reported class of adamantane-type carboxylic acids in oil sands process water could also be identified in the sample. CONCLUSIONS This study underlines the complexity of naphthenic acid isomer distributions in composite tailings and provides a useful inventory of individual acids.
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Affiliation(s)
- David T Bowman
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, 1280 Main St W., Hamilton, ON, Canada, L8S 4 K1
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