1
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Keymeulen B, De Groot K, Jacobs-Tulleneers-Thevissen D, Thompson DM, Bellin MD, Kroon EJ, Daniels M, Wang R, Jaiman M, Kieffer TJ, Foyt HL, Pipeleers D. Encapsulated stem cell-derived β cells exert glucose control in patients with type 1 diabetes. Nat Biotechnol 2023:10.1038/s41587-023-02055-5. [PMID: 38012450 DOI: 10.1038/s41587-023-02055-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Clinical studies on the treatment of type 1 diabetes with device-encapsulated pancreatic precursor cells derived from human embryonic stem cells found that insulin output was insufficient for clinical benefit. We are conducting a phase 1/2, open-label, multicenter trial aimed at optimizing cell engraftment (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03163511 ). Here we report interim, 1-year outcomes in one study group that received 2-3-fold higher cell doses in devices with an optimized membrane perforation pattern. β cell function was measured by meal-stimulated plasma C-peptide levels at 3-month intervals, and the effect on glucose control was assessed by continuous glucose monitoring (CGM) and insulin dosing. Of 10 patients with undetectable baseline C-peptide, three achieved levels ≥0.1 nmol l-1 from month 6 onwards that correlated with improved CGM measures and reduced insulin dosing, indicating a glucose-controlling effect. The patient with the highest C-peptide (0.23 nmol l-1) increased CGM time-in-range from 55% to 85% at month 12; β cell mass in sentinel devices in this patient at month 6 was 4% of the initial cell mass, indicating directions for improving efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart Keymeulen
- Diabetes Research Center, Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Kaat De Groot
- Diabetes Research Center, Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - David M Thompson
- Division of Endocrinology, Department of Medicine, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Melena D Bellin
- Department of Pediatrics and Department of Surgery, University of Minnesota Medical Center, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | | | | | | | | | - Timothy J Kieffer
- ViaCyte Inc., San Diego, CA, USA
- Department of Cellular and Physiological Sciences and Department of Surgery, University of British Columbia, Life Sciences Institute, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
| | | | - Daniel Pipeleers
- Diabetes Research Center, Vrije Universiteit Brussel and Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
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2
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Neumann M, Arnould T, Su BL. Encapsulation of stem-cell derived β-cells: A promising approach for the treatment for type 1 diabetes mellitus. J Colloid Interface Sci 2023; 636:90-102. [PMID: 36623370 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2022.12.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 12/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes mellitus is an auto-immune disease causing the T-cell mediated destruction of insulin-producing β-cells, resulting in chronic hyperglycemia. Current treatments such as insulin replacement therapy or the transplantation of pancreas or pancreatic islets present major disadvantages such as the constant need of drugs, as well as a shortage of donor organs. In this review, we discuss a sustainable solution to overcome these limitations combining the use of β-cells, derived from stem cells, and their encapsulation within a protective matrix. This article provides an exhaustive overview of currently investigated stem cell sources including embryonic, mesenchymal as well as induced pluripotent stem cells in combination with various up to date encapsulation methods allowing the formation of immuno-protective devices. In order to identify current limitations of this interdisciplinary therapeutic approach and to find sustainable solutions, it is essential to consider key aspects from all involved domains. This includes biological parameters such as the stem cell origin but also the different aspects of the encapsulation process, the used materials and their physico-chemical properties such as elasticity, porosity and permeability cut-off as well as the best implantation sites allowing efficient and self-autonomous control of glycemia by the transplanted encapsulated cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Neumann
- Laboratory of Inorganic Materials Chemistry (CMI), University of Namur, 61 Rue de Bruxelles, B-5000 Namur, Belgium; Namur Institute of Structured Matter (NISM), University of Namur, 61 Rue de Bruxelles, B-5000 Namur, Belgium; Laboratory of Biochemistry and Cellular Biology (URBC), University of Namur, 61 Rue de Bruxelles, B-5000 Namur, Belgium; Research Institute for Life Sciences (NARILIS), University of Namur, 61 Rue de Bruxelles, B-5000 Namur, Belgium
| | - Thierry Arnould
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Cellular Biology (URBC), University of Namur, 61 Rue de Bruxelles, B-5000 Namur, Belgium; Research Institute for Life Sciences (NARILIS), University of Namur, 61 Rue de Bruxelles, B-5000 Namur, Belgium.
| | - Bao-Lian Su
- Laboratory of Inorganic Materials Chemistry (CMI), University of Namur, 61 Rue de Bruxelles, B-5000 Namur, Belgium; Namur Institute of Structured Matter (NISM), University of Namur, 61 Rue de Bruxelles, B-5000 Namur, Belgium.
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3
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Nijns JR, De Mesmaeker I, Suenens KG, Stangé GM, De Groot K, Marques de Lima M, Kraus MRC, Keymeulen B, Waelput W, Jacobs-Tulleneers Thevissen D, Pipeleers DG. Comparison of Omentum and Subcutis as Implant Sites for Device-Encapsulated Human iPSC-Derived Pancreatic Endoderm in Nude Rats. Cell Transplant 2023; 32:9636897231167323. [PMID: 37129266 PMCID: PMC10150423 DOI: 10.1177/09636897231167323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Subcutaneous implants of device-encapsulated stem cell-derived pancreatic endoderm (PE) can establish a functional beta cell mass (FBM) with metabolic control in immune-compromised mice. In a study with human-induced pluripotent stem cell-PE, this outcome was favored by a preformed pouch which allowed lesion-free insertion of devices in a pre-vascularized site. This was not reproduced in nude rats, known to exhibit a higher innate reactivity than mice and therefore relevant as preclinical model: a dense fibrotic capsule formed around subcutis (SC) implants with virtually no FBM formation. Placement in omentum (OM) of nude rats provided a less fibrous, better vascularized environment than SC. It resulted in less donor cell loss (56% recovery at post-transplant-PT week 3 versus 16% in SC) allowing FBM-formation. At PT week 30, 6/13 OM-recipients exhibited glucose-induced plasma hu-C-peptide to 0.1-0.4 ng/ml, versus 0/8 in SC-recipients. These levels are more than 10-fold lower than in a state of metabolic control. This shortcoming is not caused by inadequate glucose responsiveness of the beta cells but by their insufficient number. The size of the formed beta cell mass (0.4 ± 0.2 µl) was lower than that reported in mice receiving the same cell product subcutaneously; the difference is attributed to a lower expansion of pancreatic progenitor cells and to their lower degree of differentiation to beta cells. This study in the nude rat model demonstrates that OM provides a better environment for formation of beta cells in device-encapsulated PE-implants than SC. It also identified targets for increasing their dose-efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jolien R Nijns
- Diabetes Research Center, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ines De Mesmaeker
- Diabetes Research Center, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Krista G Suenens
- Diabetes Research Center, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Geert M Stangé
- Diabetes Research Center, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kaat De Groot
- Diabetes Research Center, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Marine R C Kraus
- Nestlé Institute of Health Sciences (NIHS), Nestec SA, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bart Keymeulen
- Diabetes Research Center, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
| | - Wim Waelput
- Department of Pathology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel (UZB), Brussels, Belgium
| | | | - Daniel G Pipeleers
- Diabetes Research Center, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
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4
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Bolla AM, Montefusco L, Pastore I, Lunati ME, Ben Nasr M, Fiorina P. Benefits and Hurdles of Pancreatic β-Cell Replacement. Stem Cells Transl Med 2022; 11:1029-1039. [PMID: 36073717 PMCID: PMC9585952 DOI: 10.1093/stcltm/szac058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Insulin represents a life-saving treatment in patients with type 1 diabetes, and technological advancements have improved glucose control in an increasing number of patients. Despite this, adequate control is often still difficult to achieve and insulin remains a therapy and not a cure for the disease. β-cell replacement strategies can potentially restore pancreas endocrine function and aim to maintain normoglycemia; both pancreas and islet transplantation have greatly progressed over the last decades and, in subjects with extreme glycemic variability and diabetes complications, represent a concrete and effective treatment option. Some issues still limit the adoption of this approach on a larger scale. One is represented by the strict selection criteria for the recipient who can benefit from a transplant and maintain the lifelong immunosuppression necessary to avoid organ rejection. Second, with regard to islet transplantation, up to 40% of islets can be lost during hepatic engraftment. Recent studies showed very preliminarily but promising results to overcome these hurdles: the ability to induce β-cell maturation from stem cells may represent a solution to the organ shortage, and the creation of semi-permeable membranes that envelope or package cells in either micro- or macro- encapsulation strategies, together with engineering cells to be hypo-immunogenic, pave the way for developing strategies without immunosuppression. The aim of this review is to describe the state of the art in β-cell replacement with a focus on its efficacy and clinical benefits, on the actual limitations and still unmet needs, and on the latest findings and future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laura Montefusco
- Division of Endocrinology, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Milan, Italy
| | - Ida Pastore
- Division of Endocrinology, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Moufida Ben Nasr
- International Center for T1D, Pediatric Clinical Research Center Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, DIBIC, Università di Milano, Milan, Italy.,Nephrology Division, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Paolo Fiorina
- Division of Endocrinology, ASST Fatebenefratelli-Sacco, Milan, Italy.,International Center for T1D, Pediatric Clinical Research Center Romeo ed Enrica Invernizzi, DIBIC, Università di Milano, Milan, Italy.,Nephrology Division, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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5
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Nihad M, Shenoy P S, Bose B. Cell therapy research for Diabetes: Pancreatic β cell differentiation from pluripotent stem cells. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 2021; 181:109084. [PMID: 34673084 DOI: 10.1016/j.diabres.2021.109084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 09/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Human pluripotent stem cells (PSCs), both embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), have been differentiated into pancreatic β isletsin vitrofor more than a decade. The idea is to get enough β cells for cell transplantation for diabetics. Finding a standard cell therapy for diabetes is essential because of the logarithmic increase in the global population of people with diabetes and the insufficient availability of the human cadaveric pancreas. Moreover, with better insights into developmental biology, thein vitroβ cell differentiation protocols have depended on thein vivoβ cell organogenesis. Various protocols for pancreatic β cell differentiation have been developed. Such protocols are based on the modulation of cell signalling pathways with growth factors, small molecules, RNAi approaches, directed differentiation using transcription factors, genome editing. Growth factor free differentiation protocols, epigenetic modulations, 3D differentiation approaches, and encapsulation strategies have also been reported for better glycemic control and endocrine modulations. Here, we have reviewed various aforementionedin vitroβ cell differentiation protocols from human PSCs, their respective comparisons, challenges, past, present, and future. The literature has been reviewed primarily from PubMed from the year 2000 till date using the mentioned keywords.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Nihad
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, Pincode-575 018, Karnataka, India
| | - Sudheer Shenoy P
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, Pincode-575 018, Karnataka, India
| | - Bipasha Bose
- Stem Cells and Regenerative Medicine Centre, Yenepoya Research Centre, Yenepoya (Deemed to be University), Mangalore, Pincode-575 018, Karnataka, India.
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6
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Van Hulle F, De Groot K, Stangé G, Suenens K, De Mesmaeker I, De Paep DL, Ling Z, Hilbrands R, Gillard P, Keymeulen B, Kroon E, Westermark GT, Jacobs-Tulleneers-Thevissen D, Pipeleers D. Formation of amyloid in encapsulated human pancreatic and human stem cell-generated beta cell implants. Am J Transplant 2021; 21:2090-2099. [PMID: 33206461 DOI: 10.1111/ajt.16398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 11/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Detection of amyloid in intraportal islet implants of type 1 diabetes patients has been proposed as cause in their functional decline. The present study uses cultured adult human islets devoid of amyloid to examine conditions of its formation. After intraportal injection in patients, amyloid deposits <15 µm diameter were identified in 5%-12% of beta cell containing aggregates, 3-76 months posttransplant. Such deposits also formed in glucose-controlling islet implants in the kidney of diabetic mice but not in failing implants. Alginate-encapsulated islets formed amyloid during culture when functional, and in all intraperitoneal implants that corrected diabetes in mice, exhibiting larger sizes than in functioning nonencapsulated implants. After intraperitoneal injection in a patient, retrieved single capsules presented amyloid near living beta cells, whereas no amyloid occurred in clustered capsules with dead cells. Amyloid was also demonstrated in functional human stem cell-generated beta cell implants in subcutaneous devices of mice. Deposits up to 35 µm diameter were localized in beta cell-enriched regions and related to an elevated IAPP over insulin ratio in the newly generated beta cells. Amyloid in device-encapsulated human stem cell-generated beta cell implants marks the formation of a functional beta cell mass but also an imbalance between its activated state and its microenvironment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Freya Van Hulle
- Diabetes Research Center, Free University Brussels - VUB, Brussels, Belgium.,Internal Medicine, University Hospital Brussels - UZB, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kaat De Groot
- Diabetes Research Center, Free University Brussels - VUB, Brussels, Belgium.,Internal Medicine, University Hospital Brussels - UZB, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Geert Stangé
- Diabetes Research Center, Free University Brussels - VUB, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Krista Suenens
- Diabetes Research Center, Free University Brussels - VUB, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Ines De Mesmaeker
- Diabetes Research Center, Free University Brussels - VUB, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Diedert L De Paep
- Diabetes Research Center, Free University Brussels - VUB, Brussels, Belgium.,Department Surgery, University Hospital Brussels - UZB, Brussels, Belgium.,Beta Cell Bank, University Hospital Brussels - UZB, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Zhidong Ling
- Diabetes Research Center, Free University Brussels - VUB, Brussels, Belgium.,Beta Cell Bank, University Hospital Brussels - UZB, Brussels, Belgium.,Consortium, Center for Beta Cell Therapy in Diabetes, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Robert Hilbrands
- Diabetes Research Center, Free University Brussels - VUB, Brussels, Belgium.,Diabetes Clinic, University Hospital Brussels - UZB, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Pieter Gillard
- Department Endocrinology, University Hospital Leuven - KUL, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bart Keymeulen
- Diabetes Research Center, Free University Brussels - VUB, Brussels, Belgium.,Consortium, Center for Beta Cell Therapy in Diabetes, Brussels, Belgium.,Diabetes Clinic, University Hospital Brussels - UZB, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Evert Kroon
- Consortium, Center for Beta Cell Therapy in Diabetes, Brussels, Belgium.,ViaCyte, Inc, San Diego, California, USA
| | | | - Daniel Jacobs-Tulleneers-Thevissen
- Diabetes Research Center, Free University Brussels - VUB, Brussels, Belgium.,Department Surgery, University Hospital Brussels - UZB, Brussels, Belgium.,Consortium, Center for Beta Cell Therapy in Diabetes, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Daniel Pipeleers
- Diabetes Research Center, Free University Brussels - VUB, Brussels, Belgium.,Consortium, Center for Beta Cell Therapy in Diabetes, Brussels, Belgium
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7
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Abstract
Type 1 diabetes mellitus is a common and highly morbid disease for which there is no cure. Treatment primarily involves exogenous insulin administration, and, under specific circumstances, islet or pancreas transplantation. However, insulin replacement alone fails to replicate the endocrine function of the pancreas and does not provide durable euglycemia. In addition, transplantation requires lifelong use of immunosuppressive medications, which has deleterious side effects, is expensive, and is inappropriate for use in adolescents. A bioartificial pancreas that provides total endocrine pancreatic function without immunosuppression is a potential therapy for treatment of type 1 diabetes. Numerous models are in development and take different approaches to cell source, encapsulation method, and device implantation location. We review current therapies for type 1 diabetes mellitus, the requirements for a bioartificial pancreas, and quantitatively compare device function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara J. Photiadis
- From the Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Rebecca C. Gologorsky
- From the Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
| | - Deepika Sarode
- From the Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA
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8
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Atkinson SP. A preview of selected articles. Stem Cells 2021; 38:465-468. [PMID: 32232931 DOI: 10.1002/stem.3172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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9
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Maloy MH, Ferrer MA, Parashurama N. In Vivo Differentiation of Stem Cell-derived Human Pancreatic Progenitors to Treat Type 1 Diabetes. Stem Cell Rev Rep 2020; 16:1139-1155. [PMID: 32844324 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-020-10018-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM) is an autoimmune disease that results from the loss of the pancreatic β-cells. The autoimmune destruction of the β-cells causes the loss of insulin production from the islets of the pancreas, resulting in the loss of blood glucose regulation. This loss of regulation, if not treated, can lead to a plethora of long-term complications in patients. Subsequently, T1DM patients rely on the administration of exogenous insulin sources to maintain their blood glucose levels. In this review, we summarize the history of T1DM therapy and current treatment options. Although treatments for T1DM have progressed substantially, none of the available treatment options allow the patient to live autonomously. Therefore, the challenge to develop a therapy that will fully reverse the disease still remains. A promising field of T1DM therapies is cell replacement therapies derived from human pluripotent stem cells. Here, we specifically review studies that employ stem-cell derived pancreatic progenitors transplanted for in vivo differentiation/maturation and discuss, in detail, the complications that arise post transplantation, including heterogeneity, graft immaturity, and host foreign bodyresponse. We also discuss efforts to induce human stem cell-derived mature β-cells in vitro and compare strategies regarding transplantation of pancreatic progenitors versus mature β-cells cells. Finally, we review key approaches that address critical limitations of in vivo progenitor differentiation including vascularization, oxygenation, and transplant location. The field of islet replacement therapy has made tremendous progress in the last two decades. If the strengths and limitations of the field continue to be identified and addressed, future studies will lead to an ideal treatment for T1DM. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell H Maloy
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University at Buffalo (State University of New York), 907 Furnas Hall, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA
| | - Matthew A Ferrer
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University at Buffalo (State University of New York), 907 Furnas Hall, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA
| | - Natesh Parashurama
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University at Buffalo (State University of New York), 907 Furnas Hall, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA. .,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University at Buffalo, (State University of New York), 323 Bonner Hall, Buffalo, NY, 14260, USA. .,Clinical and Translation Research Center (CTRC), University at Buffalo (State University of New York), 875 Ellicott St, Buffalo, NY, 14203, USA.
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10
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Augsornworawat P, Maxwell KG, Velazco-Cruz L, Millman JR. Single-Cell Transcriptome Profiling Reveals β Cell Maturation in Stem Cell-Derived Islets after Transplantation. Cell Rep 2020; 32:108067. [PMID: 32846125 PMCID: PMC7491368 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.108067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Human pluripotent stem cells differentiated to insulin-secreting β cells (SC-β cells) in islet organoids could provide an unlimited cell source for diabetes cell replacement therapy. However, current SC-β cells generated in vitro are transcriptionally and functionally immature compared to native adult β cells. Here, we use single-cell transcriptomic profiling to catalog changes that occur in transplanted SC-β cells. We find that transplanted SC-β cells exhibit drastic transcriptional changes and mature to more closely resemble adult β cells. Insulin and IAPP protein secretions increase upon transplantation, along with expression of maturation genes lacking with differentiation in vitro, including INS, MAFA, CHGB, and G6PC2. Other differentiated cell types, such as SC-α and SC-enterochromaffin (SC-EC) cells, also exhibit large transcriptional changes. This study provides a comprehensive resource for understanding human islet cell maturation and provides important insights into maturation of SC-β cells and other SC-islet cell types to enable future differentiation strategy improvements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Punn Augsornworawat
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Lipid Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Kristina G Maxwell
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Lipid Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | - Leonardo Velazco-Cruz
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Lipid Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA
| | - Jeffrey R Millman
- Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Lipid Research, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
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