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Nemes E, Fiore-Gartland A, Boggiano C, Coccia M, D'Souza P, Gilbert P, Ginsberg A, Hyrien O, Laddy D, Makar K, McElrath MJ, Ramachandra L, Schmidt AC, Shororbani S, Sunshine J, Tomaras G, Yu WH, Scriba TJ, Frahm N. The quest for vaccine-induced immune correlates of protection against tuberculosis. VACCINE INSIGHTS 2022; 1:165-181. [PMID: 37091190 PMCID: PMC10117634 DOI: 10.18609/vac/2022.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/25/2023]
Abstract
Immunization strategies against tuberculosis (TB) that confer better protection than neonatal vaccination with the 101-year-old Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) are urgently needed to control the epidemic, but clinical development is hampered by a lack of established immune correlates of protection (CoPs). Two phase 2b clinical trials offer the first opportunity to discover human CoPs against TB. Adolescent BCG re-vaccination showed partial protection against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) infection, as measured by sustained IFNγ release assay (IGRA) conversion. Adult M72/AS01E vaccination showed partial protection against pulmonary TB. We describe two collaborative research programs to discover CoPs against TB and ensure rigorous, streamlined use of available samples, involving international immunology experts in TB and state-of-the-art technologies, sponsors and funders. Hypotheses covering immune responses thought to be important in protection against TB have been defined and prioritized. A statistical framework to integrate the data analysis strategy was developed. Exploratory analyses will be performed to generate novel hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Nemes
- South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Andrew Fiore-Gartland
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Cesar Boggiano
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health
| | | | - Patricia D'Souza
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health
| | - Peter Gilbert
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Ann Ginsberg
- Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Ollivier Hyrien
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | | | - Karen Makar
- Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - M Juliana McElrath
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Lakshmi Ramachandra
- National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health
| | | | - Solmaz Shororbani
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Justine Sunshine
- Bill & Melinda Gates Medical Research Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Georgia Tomaras
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Wen-Han Yu
- Bill & Melinda Gates Medical Research Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Thomas J Scriba
- South African Tuberculosis Vaccine Initiative, Division of Immunology, Department of Pathology and Institute of Infectious Disease and Molecular Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Nicole Frahm
- Bill & Melinda Gates Medical Research Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA
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2
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Martens MJ, Logan BR. A unified approach to sample size and power determination for testing parameters in generalized linear and time-to-event regression models. Stat Med 2020; 40:1121-1132. [PMID: 33210321 DOI: 10.1002/sim.8823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
To ensure that a study can properly address its research aims, the sample size and power must be determined appropriately. Covariate adjustment via regression modeling permits more precise estimation of the effect of a primary variable of interest at the expense of increased complexity in sample size/power calculation. The presence of correlation between the main variable and other covariates, commonly seen in observational studies and non-randomized clinical trials, further complicates this process. Though sample size and power specification methods have been obtained to accommodate specific covariate distributions and models, most existing approaches rely on either simple approximations lacking theoretical support or complex procedures that are difficult to apply at the design stage. The current literature lacks a general, coherent theory applicable to a broader class of regression models and covariate distributions. We introduce succinct formulas for sample size and power determination with the generalized linear, Cox, and Fine-Gray models that account for correlation between a main effect and other covariates. Extensive simulations demonstrate that this method produces studies that are appropriately sized to meet their type I error rate and power specifications, particularly offering accurate sample size/power estimation in the presence of correlated covariates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Martens
- Division of Biostatistics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Brent R Logan
- Division of Biostatistics, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
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Halloran ME, Longini IM, Gilbert PB. Designing a Study of Correlates of Risk for Ebola Vaccination. Am J Epidemiol 2020; 189:747-754. [PMID: 31971229 DOI: 10.1093/aje/kwaa001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (rVSV) Ebola vaccine was shown to be very efficacious in a novel ring vaccination trial in Guinea. However, no correlates of vaccine protection have been established for Ebola vaccines. Several Ebola vaccine candidates are available, but conducting randomized trials of additional candidates in outbreaks is difficult. Establishing correlates of vaccine protection is essential. Here we explore power and sample-size calculations to evaluate potential correlates of risk during an Ebola vaccination campaign in an outbreak. The method requires that a blood draw be made at a predetermined time after vaccination. The statistical analysis estimates the relative risk of the Ebola endpoint occurring from after the blood draw through to the end of follow-up, contrasting vaccine recipients with different values of the immune response marker. The analysis can be done assuming a trichotomous or continuous marker. Under certain assumptions, at an overall vaccine efficacy of 75%, 50 Ebola endpoints in the vaccinees provided good power. At an overall vaccine efficacy of 90%, 20 Ebola endpoints gave good power. Power was highest when more vaccinees were in the high- and low-responder groups versus the middle group and when vaccine efficacy differed the most between the high- and low-responder groups.
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Zhao LP, Fiore-Gartland A, Carpp LN, Cohen KW, Rouphael N, Fleurs L, Dintwe O, Zhao M, Moodie Z, Fong Y, Garrett N, Huang Y, Innes C, Janes HE, Lazarus E, Michael NL, Nitayaphan S, Pitisuttithum P, Rerks-Ngarm S, Robb ML, De Rosa SC, Corey L, Gray GE, Seaton KE, Yates NL, McElrath MJ, Frahm N, Tomaras GD, Gilbert PB. Landscapes of binding antibody and T-cell responses to pox-protein HIV vaccines in Thais and South Africans. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0226803. [PMID: 31999736 PMCID: PMC6992005 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0226803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND HIV vaccine trials routinely measure multiple vaccine-elicited immune responses to compare regimens and study their potential associations with protection. Here we employ unsupervised learning tools facilitated by a bidirectional power transformation to explore the multivariate binding antibody and T-cell response patterns of immune responses elicited by two pox-protein HIV vaccine regimens. Both regimens utilized a recombinant canarypox vector (ALVAC-HIV) prime and a bivalent recombinant HIV-1 Envelope glycoprotein 120 subunit boost. We hypothesized that within each trial, there were participant subgroups sharing similar immune responses and that their frequencies differed across trials. METHODS AND FINDINGS We analyzed data from three trials-RV144 (NCT00223080), HVTN 097 (NCT02109354), and HVTN 100 (NCT02404311), the latter of which was pivotal in advancing the tested pox-protein HIV vaccine regimen to the HVTN 702 Phase 2b/3 efficacy trial. We found that bivariate CD4+ T-cell and anti-V1V2 IgG/IgG3 antibody response patterns were similar by age, sex-at-birth, and body mass index, but differed for the pox-protein clade AE/B alum-adjuvanted regimen studied in RV144 and HVTN 097 (PAE/B/alum) compared to the pox-protein clade C/C MF59-adjuvanted regimen studied in HVTN 100 (PC/MF59). Specifically, more PAE/B/alum recipients had low CD4+ T-cell and high anti-V1V2 IgG/IgG3 responses, and more PC/MF59 recipients had broad responses of both types. Analyses limited to "vaccine-matched" antigens suggested that some of the differences in responses between the regimens could have been due to antigens in the assays that did not match the vaccine immunogens. Our approach was also useful in identifying subgroups with unusually absent or high co-responses across assay types, flagging individuals for further characterization by functional assays. We also found that co-responses of anti-V1V2 IgG/IgG3 and CD4+ T cells had broad variability. As additional immune response assays are standardized and validated, we anticipate our framework will be increasingly valuable for multivariate analysis. CONCLUSIONS Our approach can be used to advance vaccine development objectives, including the characterization and comparison of candidate vaccine multivariate immune responses and improved design of studies to identify correlates of protection. For instance, results suggested that HVTN 702 will have adequate power to interrogate immune correlates involving anti-V1V2 IgG/IgG3 and CD4+ T-cell co-readouts, but will have lower power to study anti-gp120/gp140 IgG/IgG3 due to their lower dynamic ranges. The findings also generate hypotheses for future testing in experimental and computational analyses aimed at achieving a mechanistic understanding of vaccine-elicited immune response heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lue Ping Zhao
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Andrew Fiore-Gartland
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Lindsay N. Carpp
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Kristen W. Cohen
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Nadine Rouphael
- Hope Clinic of the Emory Vaccine Center, Division of Infectious Diseases, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Llewellyn Fleurs
- Desmond Tutu HIV Centre, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - One Dintwe
- Cape Town HVTN Immunology Laboratory, Hutchinson Centre Research Institute of South Africa, NPC (HCRISA), Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Michael Zhao
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Informatics, School of Arts and Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Zoe Moodie
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Youyi Fong
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Nigel Garrett
- Centre for the AIDS Programme of Research in South Africa (CAPRISA), University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Ying Huang
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Craig Innes
- The Aurum Institute, Klerksdorp Research Centre, Klerksdorp, South Africa
| | - Holly E. Janes
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Erica Lazarus
- Perinatal HIV Research Unit, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Nelson L. Michael
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sorachai Nitayaphan
- Armed Forces Research Institute of Medical Sciences (AFRIMS), Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Punnee Pitisuttithum
- Vaccine Trial Centre, Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Supachai Rerks-Ngarm
- Department of Disease Control, C/O Ministry of Public Health, Nonthaburi, Thailand
| | - Merlin L. Robb
- U.S. Military HIV Research Program, Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Silver Spring, Maryland, United States of America
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Bethesda, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Stephen C. De Rosa
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Lawrence Corey
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Glenda E. Gray
- Perinatal HIV Research Unit, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
- South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Kelly E. Seaton
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Nicole L. Yates
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - M. Juliana McElrath
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Nicole Frahm
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Bill & Melinda Gates Medical Research Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Georgia D. Tomaras
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Surgery, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Peter B. Gilbert
- Division of Public Health Sciences, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
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Huang Y, Zhang Y, Zhang Z, Gilbert PB. Generating Survival Times Using Cox Proportional Hazards Models with Cyclic and Piecewise Time-Varying Covariates. STATISTICS IN BIOSCIENCES 2020; 12:324-339. [PMID: 32421033 PMCID: PMC7223425 DOI: 10.1007/s12561-020-09266-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2019] [Revised: 09/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Time-to-event outcomes with cyclic time-varying covariates are frequently encountered in biomedical studies that involve multiple or repeated administrations of an intervention. In this paper, we propose approaches to generating event times for Cox proportional hazards models with both time-invariant covariates and a continuous cyclic and piecewise time-varying covariate. Values of the latter covariate change over time through cycles of interventions and its relationship with hazard differs before and after a threshold within each cycle. The simulations of data are based on inverting the cumulative hazard function and a log link function for relating the hazard function to the covariates. We consider closed-form derivations with the baseline hazard following the exponential, Weibull, or Gompertz distribution. We propose two simulation approaches: one based on simulating survival data under a single-dose regimen first before data are aggregated over multiple-dosing cycles and another based on simulating survival data directly under a multiple-dose regimen. We consider both fixed intervals and varying intervals of the drug administration schedule. The method's validity is assessed in simulation experiments. The results indicate that the proposed procedures perform well in generating data that conform to their cyclic nature and assumptions of the Cox proportional hazards model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunda Huang
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, 1100 Fairview Ave. North, Seattle, WA 98109 USA
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105 USA
| | - Yuanyuan Zhang
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, 1100 Fairview Ave. North, Seattle, WA 98109 USA
| | - Zong Zhang
- Department of Computer Science, Carnegie Mellon University, 5000 Forbes Avenue, Pittsburgh, PA 15213 USA
| | - Peter B. Gilbert
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, 1100 Fairview Ave. North, Seattle, WA 98109 USA
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
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Gilbert PB, Juraska M, deCamp AC, Karuna S, Edupuganti S, Mgodi N, Donnell DJ, Bentley C, Sista N, Andrew P, Isaacs A, Huang Y, Zhang L, Capparelli E, Kochar N, Wang J, Eshleman SH, Mayer KH, Magaret CA, Hural J, Kublin JG, Gray G, Montefiori DC, Gomez MM, Burns DN, McElrath J, Ledgerwood J, Graham BS, Mascola JR, Cohen M, Corey L. Basis and Statistical Design of the Passive HIV-1 Antibody Mediated Prevention (AMP) Test-of-Concept Efficacy Trials. STATISTICAL COMMUNICATIONS IN INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2017; 9:20160001. [PMID: 29218117 PMCID: PMC5714515 DOI: 10.1515/scid-2016-0001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anti-HIV-1 broadly neutralizing antibodies (bnAbs) have been developed as potential agents for prevention of HIV-1 infection. The HIV Vaccine Trials Network and the HIV Prevention Trials Network are conducting the Antibody Mediated Prevention (AMP) trials to assess whether, and how, intravenous infusion of the anti-CD4 binding site bnAb, VRC01, prevents HIV-1 infection. These are the first test-of-concept studies to assess HIV-1 bnAb prevention efficacy in humans. METHODS The AMP trials are two parallel phase 2b HIV-1 prevention efficacy trials conducted in two cohorts: 2700 HIV-uninfected men and transgender persons who have sex with men in the United States, Peru, Brazil, and Switzerland; and 1500 HIV-uninfected sexually active women in seven countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Participants are randomized 1:1:1 to receive an intravenous infusion of 10 mg/kg VRC01, 30 mg/kg VRC01, or a control preparation every 8 weeks for a total of 10 infusions. Each trial is designed (1) to assess overall prevention efficacy (PE) pooled over the two VRC01 dose groups vs. control and (2) to assess VRC01 dose and laboratory markers as correlates of protection (CoPs) against overall and genotype- and phenotype-specific infection. RESULTS Each AMP trial is designed to have 90% power to detect PE > 0% if PE is ≥ 60%. The AMP trials are also designed to identify VRC01 properties (i.e., concentration and effector functions) that correlate with protection and to provide insight into mechanistic CoPs. CoPs are assessed using data from breakthrough HIV-1 infections, including genetic sequences and sensitivities to VRC01-mediated neutralization and Fc effector functions. CONCLUSIONS The AMP trials test whether VRC01 can prevent HIV-1 infection in two study populations. If affirmative, they will provide information for estimating the optimal dosage of VRC01 (or subsequent derivatives) and identify threshold levels of neutralization and Fc effector functions associated with high-level protection, setting a benchmark for future vaccine evaluation and constituting a bridge to other bnAb approaches for HIV-1 prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter B. Gilbert
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Biostatistics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Michal Juraska
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Allan C. deCamp
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Shelly Karuna
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | | | - Nyaradzo Mgodi
- University of Zimbabwe – University of California San Francisco Research Program, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Deborah J. Donnell
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Carter Bentley
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | | | | | - Abby Isaacs
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Yunda Huang
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Lily Zhang
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Edmund Capparelli
- Department of Pediatrics, University of California, San Diego, California, USA
| | - Nidhi Kochar
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Jing Wang
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Susan H. Eshleman
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Kenneth H. Mayer
- The Fenway Institute, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Craig A. Magaret
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - John Hural
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - James G. Kublin
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Glenda Gray
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
- South African Medical Research Council, Cape Town, South Africa; Perinatal HIV Research Unit, University of the Witwatersrand, Braamfontein, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | | | - Margarita M. Gomez
- Vaccine Research Program, Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - David N. Burns
- Prevention Sciences Program, Division of AIDS, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Julie McElrath
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Julie Ledgerwood
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Barney S. Graham
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - John R. Mascola
- Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Myron Cohen
- Department of Medicine, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Lawrence Corey
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, USA
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Methodical Considerations. HUMAN VACCINES 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-802302-0.00006-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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