Polymer carpets

Photoactive ultrathin molecular nanosheets with reversible lanthanide binding terpyridine centers

In recent years, functional molecular nanosheets have attracted much attention in the fields of sensors and energy storage. Here, we present an approach for the synthesis of photoactive metal-organic nanosheets with ultimate molecular thickness. To this end, we apply low-energy electron irradiation induced cross-linking of 4'-(2,2':6',2''-terpyridine-4'-yl)-1,1'-biphenyl-4-thiol self-assembled monolayers on gold to convert them into functional ∼1 nm thick carbon nanomembranes possessing the ability to reversibly complex lanthanide ions (Ln-CNMs). The obtained Ln-CNMs can be prepared on a large-scale (>10 cm²) and inherit the photoactivity of the pristine terpyridine lanthanide complex (Ln(III)-tpy). Moreover, they possess mechanical stability as free-standing sheets over micrometer sized openings. The presented methodology paves a simple and robust way for the preparation of ultrathin nanosheets with tailored photoactive properties for application in photocatalytic and energy conversion devices.

N, P-Codoped Carbon Film Derived from Phosphazenes and Its Printing Integration with a Polymer Carpet Via "Molecular Welding" for Flexible Electronics

Although high-performance graphene-based micro/nano flexible electronic devices have shown promising applications in numerous fields, there are still many problems in converting graphene into practical applications. Heteroatom-doped graphene materials are of huge importance because heteroatom doping can significantly change the electronic structure and introduce the active site, which benefits the integration with a promising substrate and achieves nondestructive transfer of carbon materials. Herein, we analyze in detail the pyrolysis gas composition of heteroatom-enriched phosphazenes with different structures and prepare a series of high-quality in situ N, P-codoped carbon-based films from phosphazene solid sources on a low-cost glass substrate by a convenient one-step method. The N, P-codoped carbon film shows reflectivity, good conductivity, and transparency. In addition, with the help of in situ "molecular welding", we achieve nondestructive transfer of a conductive carbon-based film from a glass substrate to promising layer-polyimide (PI) and prepare a flexible free-standing carbon/PI hybrid film with an excellent binding interface. The flexible conductive hybrid film shows excellent durability under an extremely low temperature environment and superior bending stability after 800 bending cycles. The results suggest that a phosphazene precursor is an amazing choice for constructing high-quality heteroatom-doped conductive carbon films. Besides, this work provides a promising way for nondestructive transfer of the conductive carbon-based films and large-scale preparation of large-area patterned conductive thin films.

Mixed Polymer Brushes for "Smart" Surfaces

Mixed polymer brushes (MPBs) are composed of two or more disparate polymers covalently tethered to a substrate. The resulting phase segregated morphologies have been extensively studied as responsive "smart" materials, as they can be reversible tuned and switched by external stimuli. Both computational and experimental work has attempted to establish an understanding of the resulting nanostructures that vary as a function of many factors. This contribution highlights state-of-the-art MPBs studies, covering synthetic approaches, phase behavior, responsiveness to external stimuli as well as novel applications of MPBs. Current limitations are recognized and possible directions for future studies are identified.

Polymer Brushes on Graphitic Carbon Nitride for Patterning and as a SERS Active Sensing Layer via Incorporated Nanoparticles

Graphitic carbon nitride (gCN) has a broad range of promising applications, from energy harvesting and storage to sensing. However, most of the applications are still restricted due to gCN poor dispersibility and limited functional groups. Herein, a direct photografting of gCN using various polymer brushes with tailorable functionalities via UV photopolymerization at ambient conditions is demonstrated. The systematic study of polymer brush-functionalized gCN reveals that the polymerization did not alter the inherent structure of gCN. Compared to the pristine gCN, the gCN-polymer composites show good dispersibility in various solvents such as water, ethanol, and tetrahydrofuran (THF). Patterned polymer brushes on gCN can be realized by employing photomask and microcontact printing technology. The polymer brushes with incorporated silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) on gCN can act as a multifunctional recyclable active sensing layer for surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) detection and photocatalysis. This multifunctionality is shown in consecutive cycles of SERS and photocatalytic degradation processes that can be applied to in situ monitor pollutants, such as dyes or pharmaceutical waste, with high chemical sensitivity as well as to water remediation. This dual functionality provides a significant advantage to our AgNPs/polymer-gCN with regard to state-of-the-art systems reported so far that only allow SERS pollutant detection but not their decomposition. These results may provide a new methodology for the covalent functionalization of gCN and may enable new applications in the field of catalysis, biosensors, and, most interestingly, environmental remediation.

Nonspherical Nanoparticle Shape Stability Is Affected by Complex Manufacturing Aspects: Its Implications for Drug Delivery and Targeting

The shape of nanoparticles is known recently as an important design parameter influencing considerably the fate of nanoparticles with and in biological systems. Several manufacturing techniques to generate nonspherical nanoparticles as well as studies on in vitro and in vivo effects thereof have been described. However, nonspherical nanoparticle shape stability in physiological-related conditions and the impact of formulation parameters on nonspherical nanoparticle resistance still need to be investigated. To address these issues, different nanoparticle fabrication methods using biodegradable polymers are explored to produce nonspherical nanoparticles via the prevailing film-stretching method. In addition, systematic comparisons to other nanoparticle systems prepared by different manufacturing techniques and less biodegradable materials (but still commonly utilized for drug delivery and targeting) are conducted. The study evinces that the strong interplay from multiple nanoparticle properties (i.e., internal structure, Young's modulus, surface roughness, liquefaction temperature [glass transition (T_g ) or melting (T_m )], porosity, and surface hydrophobicity) is present. It is not possible to predict the nonsphericity longevity by merely one or two factor(s). The most influential features in preserving the nonsphericity of nanoparticles are existence of internal structure and low surface hydrophobicity (i.e., surface-free energy (SFE) > ≈55 mN m^-1 , material-water interfacial tension <6 mN m^-1 ), especially if the nanoparticles are soft (<1 GPa), rough (R_rms > 10 nm), porous (>1 m² g^-1 ), and in possession of low bulk liquefaction temperature (<100 °C). Interestingly, low surface hydrophobicity of nanoparticles can be obtained indirectly by the significant presence of residual stabilizers. Therefore, it is strongly suggested that nonsphericity of particle systems is highly dependent on surface chemistry but cannot be appraised separately from other factors. These results and reviews allot valuable guidelines for the design and manufacturing of nonspherical nanoparticles having adequate shape stability, thereby appropriate with their usage purposes. Furthermore, they can assist in understanding and explaining the possible mechanisms of nonspherical nanoparticles effectivity loss and distinctive material behavior at the nanoscale.

Polymer Brushes on Hexagonal Boron Nitride

Direct covalent functionalization of large-area single-layer hexagonal boron nitride (hBN) with various polymer brushes under mild conditions is presented. The photopolymerization of vinyl monomers results in the formation of thick and homogeneous (micropatterned, gradient) polymer brushes covalently bound to hBN. The brush layer mechanically and chemically stabilizes the material and allows facile handling as well as long-term use in water splitting hydrogen evolution reactions.

Stable polymer brushes with effectively varied grafting density synthesized from highly crosslinked random copolymer thin films

Crosslinkable epoxy copolymers enable achieving highly stable P(S-b-MMA) brushes with controlled grafting density for close examination of phase separation behaviors.

Surface-Initiated Controlled Radical Polymerization: State-of-the-Art, Opportunities, and Challenges in Surface and Interface Engineering with Polymer Brushes

The generation of polymer brushes by surface-initiated controlled radical polymerization (SI-CRP) techniques has become a powerful approach to tailor the chemical and physical properties of interfaces and has given rise to great advances in surface and interface engineering. Polymer brushes are defined as thin polymer films in which the individual polymer chains are tethered by one chain end to a solid interface. Significant advances have been made over the past years in the field of polymer brushes. This includes novel developments in SI-CRP, as well as the emergence of novel applications such as catalysis, electronics, nanomaterial synthesis and biosensing. Additionally, polymer brushes prepared via SI-CRP have been utilized to modify the surface of novel substrates such as natural fibers, polymer nanofibers, mesoporous materials, graphene, viruses and protein nanoparticles. The last years have also seen exciting advances in the chemical and physical characterization of polymer brushes, as well as an ever increasing set of computational and simulation tools that allow understanding and predictions of these surface-grafted polymer architectures. The aim of this contribution is to provide a comprehensive review that critically assesses recent advances in the field and highlights the opportunities and challenges for future work.

Carbon Nanomembranes

Carbon nanomembranes (CNMs) are synthetic 2D carbon sheets with tailored physical or chemical properties. These depend on the structure, molecular composition, and surroundings on either side. Due to their molecular thickness, they can be regarded as "interfaces without bulk" separating regions of different gaseous, liquid, or solid components and controlling the materials exchange between them. Here, a universal scheme for the fabrication of 1 nm-thick, mechanically stable, functional CNMs is presented. CNMs can be further modified, for example perforated by ion bombardment or chemically functionalized by the binding of other molecules onto the surfaces. The underlying physical and chemical mechanisms are described, and examples are presented for the engineering of complex surface architectures, e.g., nanopatterns of proteins, fluorescent dyes, or polymer brushes. A simple transfer procedure allows CNMs to be placed on various support structures, which makes them available for diverse applications: supports for electron and X-ray microscopy, nanolithography, nanosieves, Janus nanomembranes, polymer carpets, complex layered structures, functionalization of graphene, novel nanoelectronic and nanomechanical devices. To close, the potential of CNMs in filtration and sensorics is discussed. Based on tests for the separation of gas molecules, it is argued that ballistic membranes may play a prominent role in future efforts of materials separation.

Mussel-Inspired Polymer Carpets: Direct Photografting of Polymer Brushes on Polydopamine Nanosheets for Controlled Cell Adhesion

2D mussel-inspired polydopamine (PDA) nanosheets are prepared and exploited as a functional surface for grafting various polymer brushes. The PDA nanosheet and its polymer-brush derivatives show lateral integrity and are robust; therefore, they can be detached from their substrates. Cell-adhesion tests show that the PDA nanosheet promotes cell growth and attachment, while a PDA-based poly(3-sulfopropyl methacrylate) carpet exhibits nonfouling behavior.

Ultrathin free-standing polymer membranes with chemically responsive luminescence via consecutive photopolymerizations

A facile and general strategy for the preparation of chemically responsive ultrathin free-standing polymer membranes is demonstrated via UV-induced photopolymerizations.

Ultrathin, freestanding, stimuli-responsive, porous membranes from polymer hydrogel-brushes

The fabrication of freestanding, sub-100 nm-thick, pH-responsive hydrogel membranes with controlled nano-morphology, based on modified poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (PHEMA) is presented. Polymer hydrogel-brush films were first synthesized by surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP) and subsequently detached from silicon substrates by UV-induced photo-cleavage of a specially designed linker within the initiator groups. The detachment was also assisted by pH-induced osmotic forces generated within the films in the swollen state. The mechanical properties and morphology of the freestanding films were studied by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Inclusion of nanopores of controlled diameter was accomplished by performing SI-ATRP from initiator-coated surfaces that had previously been patterned with polystyrene nanoparticles. Assembly parameters and particle sizes could be varied, in order to fabricate nanoporous hydrogel-brush membranes with tunable pore coverage and characteristics. Additionally, due to the presence of weak polyacid functions within the hydrogel, the membranes exhibited pH-dependent thickness in water and reversible opening/closing of the pores.

Microporous polymer network films covalently bound to gold electrodes

Covalent attachment of a microporous polymer network (MPN) on a gold surface is presented. A functional bromophenyl-based self-assembled monolayer (SAM) formed on the gold surface acts as co-monomer in the polymerisation of the MPN yielding homogeneous and robust coatings. Covalent binding of the films to the electrode is confirmed by SEIRAS measurements.

Electrowetting of nitro-functionalized oligoarylene thiols self-assembled on polycrystalline gold

Four linear terarylene molecules (i) 4-nitro-terphenyl-4″-methanethiol (NTM), (ii) 4-nitro-terphenyl-3″,5″-dimethanethiol (NTD), (iii) ([1,1';4',1″] terphenyl-3,5-diyl)methanethiol (TM), and (iv) ([1,1';4',1″] terphenyl-3,5-diyl)dimethanethiol (TD) have been synthesized and their self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) have been obtained on polycrystalline gold. NTM and NTD SAMs have been characterized by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Kelvin probe measurements, electrochemistry, and contact angle measurements. The terminal nitro group (-NO2) is irreversibly reduced to hydroxylamine (-NHOH), which can be reversibly turned into nitroso group (-NO). The direct comparison between NTM/NTD and TM/TD SAMs unambiguously shows the crucial influence of the nitro group on electrowetting properties of polycrystalline Au. The higher grade of surface tension related to NHOH has been successfully exploited for basic operations of digital μ-fluidics, such as droplets motion and merging.

Surface-initiated Cu(0) mediated controlled radical polymerization (SI-CuCRP) using a copper plate

We report on a new, extremely fast, very simple and versatile method to produce polymer brushes by surface-initiated controlled/living radical polymerization.

Exploring the potential of exfoliated ternary ultrathin Ti4AlN3 nanosheets for fabricating hybrid patterned polymer brushes

A new type of ternary Ti₄AlN₃ nanosheets was prepared for the first time. The obtained sheets with surface groups could be further used to fabricate micro-patterns and subsequently functionalized to achieve hybrid patterned polymer brushes.

Controlled evaporative self-assembly of Fe3O4 nanoparticles assisted by an external magnetic field

A simple yet robust approach of magnetic field assisted controlled evaporative self-assembly (CESA) is developed to achieve Fe₃O₄ nanoparticles (NPs) micro- and nano-patterns in two dimensional (2D) direction.

Tailoring the mechanics of ultrathin carbon nanomembranes by molecular design

Freestanding carbon nanomembranes (CNMs) with a thickness between 0.6 and 1.7 nm were prepared from self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of diverse polyaromatic precursors via low-energy electron-induced cross-linking. The mechanical properties of CNMs were investigated using AFM bulge test, where a pressure difference was applied to the membrane and the resulting deflection was measured by atomic force microscopy. We found a correlation between the rigidity of the precursor molecules and the macroscopic mechanical stiffness of CNMs. While CNMs from rigid and condensed precursors like naphthalene and pyrene thiols prove to exhibit higher Young's moduli of 15-19 GPa, CNMs from nonfused oligophenyls possess lower Young's moduli of ~10 GPa. For CNMs from less densely packed SAMs, the presence of defects and nanopores plays an important role in determining their mechanical properties. The finite element method (FEM) was applied to examine the deformation profiles and simulate the pressure-deflection relationships.

Molecular composition, grafting density and film area affect the swelling-induced Au-S bond breakage

In previous studies, we reported the first observation of the Au-S bond breakage induced mechanically by the swelling of the surface-tethered weak polyelectrolyte brushes in phosphate buffered saline (PBS), a phenomenon with broad applications in the fields of biosensors and functional surfaces. In this study, three factors, namely the molecular composition, grafting density and film area of the weak polyelectrolyte, carboxylated poly(oligo(ethylene glycol) methacrylate-random-2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (poly(OEGMA-r-HEMA)), were studied systematically on how they affected the swelling-induced Au-S bond breakage (ABB). The results showed that, first, the swelling-induced ABB is applicable to a range of molecular compositions and grafting densities; but the critical thickness (Tcritical,dry) varied with both of the two factors. An analysis on the swelling ratio further revealed that the difference in the Tcritical,dry arose from the difference in the swelling ability. A film needed to swell to ∼250 nm to induce ABB regardless of its composition or structure, thus a higher swelling ratio would lead to a lower Tcritical,dry value. Then, the impact of the film area was studied in micrometer- and sub-micrometer-scale brush patterns, which showed that only partial, rather than complete ABB was induced in these microscopic films, resulting in buckling instead of film detaching. These results demonstrated that the ABB is suitable to be used in the design of biosensors, stimulus-responsive materials and mechanochemical devices. Although the >160 μm(2) required area for uniform ABB hinders the application of ABB in nanolithography, the irreversible buckling provides a facile method of generating rough surfaces.

Carbon nanomembranes (CNMs) supported by polymer: mechanics and gas permeation

Gas permeation characteristics of carbon nanomembranes (CNMs) from self-assembled monolayers are reported for the first time. The assembly of CNMs onto polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) support membranes allows mechanical measurements under compression as well as determination of gas permeation characteristics. The results suggest that molecular-sized channels in CNMs dominate the permeation properties of the 1 nm thin CNMs.

Controlled evaporative self-assembly of poly(acrylic acid) in a confined geometry for fabricating patterned polymer brushes

A simple yet robust approach was exploited to fabricate large-scaled patterned polymer brushes by combining controlled evaporative self-assembly (CESA) in a confined geometry and self-initiated photografting and photopolymerization (SIPGP). Our method was carried out without any sophisticated instruments, free of lithography, overcoming current difficulties in fabricating polymer patterns by using complex instruments.

Characterization of Polymer Brush Membranes via HF Etch Liftoff Technique

Surface modification using end-tethered polymer brushes is an attractive, versatile, and effective method of tailoring the surface properties of a material. However, because the chains are covalently attached, characterization of these films is limited. When polymer brushes are detached in their native state, as opposed to fabricating a cross-linked initiator support, additional analytical techniques can be employed. We report lifting off patterned polymer brush membranes from a silicon oxide surface via a hydrofluoric acid etch. This method allows examination of polymer brushes via TEM and thus provides information regarding the perfection of initiator self-assembled monolayer formation and brush growth, as well as the effect of different cross-linking procedures.

Modification of nitrile-terminated biphenylthiol self-assembled monolayers by electron irradiation and related applications

Here we describe the behavior of self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of 4'-cyanobiphenyl-4-thiol (CBPT) on Au(111) upon electron irradiation. Under such a treatment, the aromatic framework of CBPT SAMs is laterally cross-linked while the nitrile groups, located at the SAM-ambience interface, are reduced to active amine moieties which can be used as docking sites for the coupling of other species. This makes CBPT monolayers as a promising system for conventional and chemical lithography as well as for nanofabrication. Along these lines, we demonstrate the preparation of complex polymer brushes, patterning of the underlying substrate, and fabrication of molecule-thin, free-standing membranes on the basis of CBPT SAMs. The balance between the application-favorable processes and defragmentation in these films is studied in detail, and comparison to the well-established (for the relevant applications) system of 4'-nitrobiphenyl-4-thiols is performed. Taking CBPT SAMs as a model system, the effect of the energy of the primary electrons on the extent of the chemical transformation and cross-linking in substituted aromatic SAMs is investigated.

Stimuli-responsive binary mixed polymer brushes and free-standing films by LbL-SIP

We report a facile approach to preparing binary mixed polymer brushes and free-standing films by combining the layer-by-layer and surface-initiated polymerization (LbL-SIP) techniques. Specifically, the grafting of mixed polymer brushes of poly(n-isopropylacrylamide) and polystyrene (pNIPAM-pSt) onto LbL-macroinitiator-modified planar substrates is described. Atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP) and free radical polymerization (FRP) techniques were employed for the syntheses of pNIPAM and pSt, respectively, yielding pNIPAM-pSt mixed polymer brushes. The composition of the two polymers was controlled by varying the number of macroinitiator layers deposited on the substrate (i.e., LbL layers = 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20); consequently, mixed brushes of different thicknesses and composition ratios were obtained. Moreover, the switching behavior of the LbL-mixed brush films as a function of solvent and temperature was demonstrated and evaluated by water contact angle and atomic force microscopy (AFM) experiments. It was found that both the solvent and temperature stimuli responses were a function of the mixed brush composition and thickness ratio where the dominant component played a larger role in the response behavior. Furthermore, the ability to obtain free-standing films was exploited. The LbL technique provided the macroinitiator density variation necessary for the preparation of stable free-standing mixed brush films. Specifically, the free-standing films exhibited the rigidity to withstand changes in the solvent and temperature environment and at the same time were flexible enough to respond accordingly to external stimuli.

Patterned polymer carpets

For the development of polymer carpets as active devices for micro- and nanotechnology, a control of the polymer carpet morphology and especially control of the stimulus responsive polymer brush is needed. Here, we report on the first example for the fabrication of patterned polymer carpets. On a two-dimensional framework of fully crosslinked and chemically patterned nanosheets, polymer brushes of styrene and 4-vinyl pyridine were grafted by self-initiated surface photopolymerization and photografting (SIPGP). It was found that polymer grafting by SIPGP occurred over the entire nanosheets but with a preferred grafting on the amino functionalized nanosheet areas. This results in continuous polymer carpets with an intact nanosheet framework but with amplification of the chemical patterning into a three dimensional topography of the grafted polymer brush. In the case of negative patterned nanosheets, the patterned carpet could be prepared as freestanding ultrathin membranes. Furthermore, swelling experiments with poly(4-vinyl pyridine) carpets showed that the patterns induces a directional buckling of the flexible polymer carpet. This may open the possibility of the development of micro- or nanoactuator devices with anisotropic responds upon environmental changes.