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Olaizola-Rodrigo C, Castro-Abril H, Perisé-Badía I, Pancorbo L, Ochoa I, Monge R, Oliván S. Reducing Inert Materials for Optimal Cell-Cell and Cell-Matrix Interactions within Microphysiological Systems. Biomimetics (Basel) 2024; 9:262. [PMID: 38786472 PMCID: PMC11118140 DOI: 10.3390/biomimetics9050262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2024] [Revised: 04/19/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
In the pursuit of achieving a more realistic in vitro simulation of human biological tissues, microfluidics has emerged as a promising technology. Organ-on-a-chip (OoC) devices, a product of this technology, contain miniature tissues within microfluidic chips, aiming to closely mimic the in vivo environment. However, a notable drawback is the presence of inert material between compartments, hindering complete contact between biological tissues. Current membranes, often made of PDMS or plastic materials, prevent full interaction between cell types and nutrients. Furthermore, their non-physiological mechanical properties and composition may induce unexpected cell responses. Therefore, it is essential to minimize the contact area between cells and the inert materials while simultaneously maximizing the direct contact between cells and matrices in different compartments. The main objective of this work is to minimize inert materials within the microfluidic chip while preserving proper cellular distribution. Two microfluidic devices were designed, each with a specific focus on maximizing direct cell-matrix or cell-cell interactions. The first chip, designed to increase direct cell-cell interactions, incorporates a nylon mesh with regular pores of 150 microns. The second chip minimizes interference from inert materials, thereby aiming to increase direct cell-matrix contact. It features an inert membrane with optimized macropores of 1 mm of diameter for collagen hydrogel deposition. Biological validation of both devices has been conducted through the implementation of cell migration and cell-to-cell interaction assays, as well as the development of epithelia, from isolated cells or spheroids. This endeavor contributes to the advancement of microfluidic technology, aimed at enhancing the precision and biological relevance of in vitro simulations in pursuit of more biomimetic models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Olaizola-Rodrigo
- Tissue Microenvironment (TME) Lab, Aragón Institute of Engineering Research (I3A), University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (C.O.-R.); (H.C.-A.); (I.P.-B.); (S.O.)
- BEOnChip S.L., 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (L.P.); (R.M.)
| | - Héctor Castro-Abril
- Tissue Microenvironment (TME) Lab, Aragón Institute of Engineering Research (I3A), University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (C.O.-R.); (H.C.-A.); (I.P.-B.); (S.O.)
- Laboratorio de Biomiméticos, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá 111321, Colombia
| | - Ismael Perisé-Badía
- Tissue Microenvironment (TME) Lab, Aragón Institute of Engineering Research (I3A), University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (C.O.-R.); (H.C.-A.); (I.P.-B.); (S.O.)
- Institute for Health Research Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Lara Pancorbo
- BEOnChip S.L., 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (L.P.); (R.M.)
| | - Ignacio Ochoa
- Tissue Microenvironment (TME) Lab, Aragón Institute of Engineering Research (I3A), University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (C.O.-R.); (H.C.-A.); (I.P.-B.); (S.O.)
- Institute for Health Research Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28029 Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosa Monge
- BEOnChip S.L., 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (L.P.); (R.M.)
| | - Sara Oliván
- Tissue Microenvironment (TME) Lab, Aragón Institute of Engineering Research (I3A), University of Zaragoza, 50018 Zaragoza, Spain; (C.O.-R.); (H.C.-A.); (I.P.-B.); (S.O.)
- Institute for Health Research Aragón (IIS Aragón), 50009 Zaragoza, Spain
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2
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Ahmad D, Linares I, Pietropaoli A, Waugh RE, McGrath JL. Sided Stimulation of Endothelial Cells Modulates Neutrophil Trafficking in an In Vitro Sepsis Model. Adv Healthc Mater 2024:e2304338. [PMID: 38547536 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202304338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/09/2024]
Abstract
While the role of dysregulated polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMN) transmigration in septic mediated tissue damage is well documented, strategies to mitigate aberrant transmigration across endothelium have yet to yield viable therapeutics. Recently, microphysiological systems (MPS) have emerged as novel in vitro mimetics that facilitate the development of human models of disease. With this advancement, aspects of endothelial physiology that are difficult to assess with other models can be directly probed. In this study, the role of endothelial cell (EC) apicobasal polarity on leukocyte trafficking response is evaluated with the µSiM-MVM (microphysiological system enabled by a silicon membrane - microvascular mimetic). Here, ECs are stimulated either apically or basally with a cytokine cocktail to model a septic-like challenge before introducing healthy donor PMNs into the device. Basally oriented stimulation generated a stronger PMN transmigratory response versus apical stimulation. Importantly, healthy PMNs are unable to migrate towards a bacterial peptide chemoattractant when ECs are apically stimulated, which mimics the attenuated PMN chemotaxis seen in sepsis. Escalating the apical inflammatory stimulus by a factor of five is necessary to elicit high PMN transmigration levels across endothelium. These results demonstrate that EC apicobasal polarity modulates PMN transmigratory behavior and provides insight into the mechanisms underlying sepsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danial Ahmad
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Isabelle Linares
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Anthony Pietropaoli
- Department of Medicine, Pulmonary Diseases and Critical Care at the University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Richard E Waugh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - James L McGrath
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
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McCloskey MC, Kasap P, Trempel M, Widom LP, Kuebel J, Chen K, Gaborski TR, Engelhardt B, McGrath JL. Use of the MicroSiM (µSiM) Barrier Tissue Platform for Modeling the Blood-Brain Barrier. J Vis Exp 2024:10.3791/65258. [PMID: 38284519 PMCID: PMC11293877 DOI: 10.3791/65258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
The microSiM (µSiM) is a membrane-based culture platform for modeling the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Unlike conventional membrane-based platforms, the µSiM provides experimentalists with new capabilities, including live cell imaging, unhindered paracrine signaling between 'blood' and 'brain' chambers, and the ability to directly image immunofluorescence without the need for the extraction/remounting of membranes. Here we demonstrate the basic use of the platform to establish monoculture (endothelial cells) and co-culture (endothelial cells and pericytes) models of the BBB using ultrathin nanoporous silicon-nitride membranes. We demonstrate compatibility with both primary cell cultures and human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) cultures. We provide methods for qualitative analysis of BBB models via immunofluorescence staining and demonstrate the use of the µSiM for the quantitative assessment of barrier function in a small molecule permeability assay. The methods provided should enable users to establish their barrier models on the platform, advancing the use of tissue chip technology for studying human tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pelin Kasap
- Theodor Kocher Institute, University of Bern
| | | | - Louis P Widom
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology
| | - Julia Kuebel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester
| | - Kaihua Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester
| | - Thomas R Gaborski
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology
| | | | - James L McGrath
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester;
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4
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Awad H, Ajalik R, Alenchery R, Linares I, Wright T, Miller B, McGrath J. Human tendon-on-a-chip for modeling vascular inflammatory fibrosis. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-3722255. [PMID: 38168335 PMCID: PMC10760304 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-3722255/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Understanding vascular inflammation and myofibroblast crosstalk is critical to developing therapies for fibrotic diseases. Here we report the development of a novel human Tendon-on-a-Chip (hToC) to model this crosstalk in peritendinous adhesions, a debilitating fibrotic condition affecting flexor tendon, which currently lacks biological therapies. The hToC enables cellular and paracrine interactions between a vascular compartment harboring endothelial cells and monocytes with a tissue hydrogel compartment containing tendon fibroblasts and macrophages. We find that the hToC replicates in vivo inflammatory and fibrotic phenotypes in preclinical and clinical samples, including myofibroblast differentiation and tissue contraction, excessive ECM deposition, and inflammatory cytokines secretion. We further show that the fibrotic phenotypes are driven by the transmigration of monocytes from the vascular to the tissue compartments of the chip. We demonstrate significant overlap in fibrotic transcriptional signatures in the hToC with human tenolysis samples, including mTOR signaling, a regulatory nexus of fibrosis across various organs. Treatment with rapamycin suppressed the fibrotic phenotype on the hToC, which validates the hToC as a preclinical alternative for investigating fibrosis and testing therapeutics.
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5
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Graybill PM, Jacobs EJ, Jana A, Agashe A, Nain AS, Davalos RV. Ultra-thin and ultra-porous nanofiber networks as a basement-membrane mimic. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:4565-4578. [PMID: 37772328 PMCID: PMC10623910 DOI: 10.1039/d3lc00304c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/30/2023]
Abstract
Current basement membrane (BM) mimics used for modeling endothelial and epithelial barriers in vitro do not faithfully recapitulate key in vivo physiological properties such as BM thickness, porosity, stiffness, and fibrous composition. Here, we use networks of precisely arranged nanofibers to form ultra-thin (∼3 μm thick) and ultra-porous (∼90%) BM mimics for blood-brain barrier modeling. We show that these nanofiber networks enable close contact between endothelial monolayers and pericytes across the membrane, which are known to regulate barrier tightness. Cytoskeletal staining and transendothelial electrical resistance (TEER) measurements reveal barrier formation on nanofiber membranes integrated within microfluidic devices and transwell inserts. Further, significantly higher TEER values indicate a biological benefit for co-cultures formed on the ultra-thin nanofiber membranes. Our BM mimic overcomes critical technological challenges in forming co-cultures that are in proximity and facilitate cell-cell contact, while still being constrained to their respective sides. We anticipate that our nanofiber networks will find applications in drug discovery, cell migration, and barrier dysfunction studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip M Graybill
- Bioelectromechanical Systems Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Edward J Jacobs
- Bioelectromechanical Systems Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Aniket Jana
- Spinneret-Based Tunable Engineering Parameters (STEP) Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Atharva Agashe
- Spinneret-Based Tunable Engineering Parameters (STEP) Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Amrinder S Nain
- Spinneret-Based Tunable Engineering Parameters (STEP) Lab, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
| | - Rafael V Davalos
- Bioelectromechanical Systems Lab, Department of Biomedical Engineering and Mechanics, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
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6
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Lyck R, Nishihara H, Aydin S, Soldati S, Engelhardt B. Modeling Brain Vasculature Immune Interactions In Vitro. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2023; 13:a041185. [PMID: 36617644 PMCID: PMC10513158 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a041185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The endothelial blood-brain barrier (BBB) protects central nervous system (CNS) neurons from the changeable milieu of the bloodstream by strictly controlling the movement of molecules and immune cells between the blood and the CNS. Immune cell migration across the vascular wall is a multistep process regulated by the sequential interaction of different signaling and adhesion molecules on the endothelium and the immune cells. Accounting for its unique barrier properties and trafficking molecule expression profile, particular adaptions in immune cell migration across the BBB have been observed. Thus, in vitro models of the BBB are desirable to explore the precise cellular and molecular mechanisms involved in immune cell trafficking across the BBB. The challenge to overcome is that barrier properties of brain microvascular endothelial cells are not intrinsic and readily lost in culture. With a focus on human in vitro BBB models, we here discuss the suitability of available in vitro models for the BBB for exploring the specific mechanisms involved in immune cell trafficking across the BBB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruth Lyck
- Theodor Kocher Institute, University of Bern, CH 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Hideaki Nishihara
- Theodor Kocher Institute, University of Bern, CH 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Sidar Aydin
- Theodor Kocher Institute, University of Bern, CH 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Sasha Soldati
- Theodor Kocher Institute, University of Bern, CH 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Britta Engelhardt
- Theodor Kocher Institute, University of Bern, CH 3012 Bern, Switzerland
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7
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Cognetti JS, Moen MT, Brewer MG, Bryan MR, Tice JD, McGrath JL, Miller BL. A photonic biosensor-integrated tissue chip platform for real-time sensing of lung epithelial inflammatory markers. LAB ON A CHIP 2023; 23:239-250. [PMID: 36594179 PMCID: PMC10311125 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00864e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Tissue chip (TC) devices, also known as microphysiological systems (MPS) or organ chips (OCs or OoCs), seek to mimic human physiology on a small scale. They are intended to improve upon animal models in terms of reproducibility and human relevance, at a lower monetary and ethical cost. Virtually all TC systems are analyzed at an endpoint, leading to widespread recognition that new methods are needed to enable sensing of specific biomolecules in real time, as they are being produced by the cells. To address this need, we incorporated photonic biosensors for inflammatory cytokines into a model TC. Human bronchial epithelial cells seeded in a microfluidic device were stimulated with lipopolysaccharide, and the cytokines secreted in response sensed in real time. Sensing analyte transport through the TC in response to disruption of tissue barrier was also demonstrated. This work demonstrates the first application of photonic sensors to a human TC device, and will enable new applications in drug development and disease modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- John S Cognetti
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
| | - Maya T Moen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
| | - Matthew G Brewer
- Department of Dermatology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Michael R Bryan
- Department of Dermatology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | | | - James L McGrath
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
- Program in Materials Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Benjamin L Miller
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
- Department of Dermatology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
- Program in Materials Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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8
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Mansouri M, Ahmed A, Ahmad SD, McCloskey MC, Joshi IM, Gaborski TR, Waugh RE, McGrath JL, Day SW, Abhyankar VV. The Modular µSiM Reconfigured: Integration of Microfluidic Capabilities to Study In Vitro Barrier Tissue Models under Flow. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11:e2200802. [PMID: 35953453 PMCID: PMC9798530 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202200802] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 08/01/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Microfluidic tissue barrier models have emerged to address the lack of physiological fluid flow in conventional "open-well" Transwell-like devices. However, microfluidic techniques have not achieved widespread usage in bioscience laboratories because they are not fully compatible with traditional experimental protocols. To advance barrier tissue research, there is a need for a platform that combines the key advantages of both conventional open-well and microfluidic systems. Here, a plug-and-play flow module is developed to introduce on-demand microfluidic flow capabilities to an open-well device that features a nanoporous membrane and live-cell imaging capabilities. The magnetic latching assembly of this design enables bi-directional reconfiguration and allows users to conduct an experiment in an open-well format with established protocols and then add or remove microfluidic capabilities as desired. This work also provides an experimentally-validated flow model to select flow conditions based on the experimental needs. As a proof-of-concept, flow-induced alignment of endothelial cells and the expression of shear-sensitive gene targets are demonstrated, and the different phases of neutrophil transmigration across a chemically stimulated endothelial monolayer under flow conditions are visualized. With these experimental capabilities, it is anticipated that both engineering and bioscience laboratories will adopt this reconfigurable design due to the compatibility with standard open-well protocols.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehran Mansouri
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Adeel Ahmed
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - S. Danial Ahmad
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Molly C. McCloskey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Indranil M. Joshi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Thomas R. Gaborski
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Richard E. Waugh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - James L. McGrath
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Steven W. Day
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Vinay V. Abhyankar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
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9
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McCloskey MC, Kasap P, Ahmad SD, Su SH, Chen K, Mansouri M, Ramesh N, Nishihara H, Belyaev Y, Abhyankar VV, Begolo S, Singer BH, Webb KF, Kurabayashi K, Flax J, Waugh RE, Engelhardt B, McGrath JL. The Modular µSiM: A Mass Produced, Rapidly Assembled, and Reconfigurable Platform for the Study of Barrier Tissue Models In Vitro. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11:e2200804. [PMID: 35899801 PMCID: PMC9580267 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202200804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2022] [Revised: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Advanced in vitro tissue chip models can reduce and replace animal experimentation and may eventually support "on-chip" clinical trials. To realize this potential, however, tissue chip platforms must be both mass-produced and reconfigurable to allow for customized design. To address these unmet needs, an extension of the µSiM (microdevice featuring a silicon-nitride membrane) platform is introduced. The modular µSiM (m-µSiM) uses mass-produced components to enable rapid assembly and reconfiguration by laboratories without knowledge of microfabrication. The utility of the m-µSiM is demonstrated by establishing an hiPSC-derived blood-brain barrier (BBB) in bioengineering and nonengineering, brain barriers focused laboratories. In situ and sampling-based assays of small molecule diffusion are developed and validated as a measure of barrier function. BBB properties show excellent interlaboratory agreement and match expectations from literature, validating the m-µSiM as a platform for barrier models and demonstrating successful dissemination of components and protocols. The ability to quickly reconfigure the m-µSiM for coculture and immune cell transmigration studies through addition of accessories and/or quick exchange of components is then demonstrated. Because the development of modified components and accessories is easily achieved, custom designs of the m-µSiM shall be accessible to any laboratory desiring a barrier-style tissue chip platform.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly C McCloskey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Pelin Kasap
- Theodor Kocher Institute, University of Bern, Bern, 3012, Switzerland
- Graduate School of Cellular and Biomedical Sciences (GCB), University of Bern, Bern, 3012, Switzerland
| | - S Danial Ahmad
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Shiuan-Haur Su
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Kaihua Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Mehran Mansouri
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Natalie Ramesh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Hideaki Nishihara
- Theodor Kocher Institute, University of Bern, Bern, 3012, Switzerland
| | - Yury Belyaev
- Microscopy Imaging Center, University of Bern, Bern, 3012, Switzerland
| | - Vinay V Abhyankar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | | | - Benjamin H Singer
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Kevin F Webb
- Optics & Photonics Research Group, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Katsuo Kurabayashi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Jonathan Flax
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Richard E Waugh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
| | - Britta Engelhardt
- Theodor Kocher Institute, University of Bern, Bern, 3012, Switzerland
| | - James L McGrath
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14627, USA
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10
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Hsu MC, Mansouri M, Ahamed NNN, Larson SM, Joshi IM, Ahmed A, Borkholder DA, Abhyankar VV. A miniaturized 3D printed pressure regulator (µPR) for microfluidic cell culture applications. Sci Rep 2022; 12:10769. [PMID: 35750792 PMCID: PMC9232624 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-15087-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Well-defined fluid flows are the hallmark feature of microfluidic culture systems and enable precise control over biophysical and biochemical cues at the cellular scale. Microfluidic flow control is generally achieved using displacement-based (e.g., syringe or peristaltic pumps) or pressure-controlled techniques that provide numerous perfusion options, including constant, ramped, and pulsed flows. However, it can be challenging to integrate these large form-factor devices and accompanying peripherals into incubators or other confined environments. In addition, microfluidic culture studies are primarily carried out under constant perfusion conditions and more complex flow capabilities are often unused. Thus, there is a need for a simplified flow control platform that provides standard perfusion capabilities and can be easily integrated into incubated environments. To this end, we introduce a tunable, 3D printed micro pressure regulator (µPR) and show that it can provide robust flow control capabilities when combined with a battery-powered miniature air pump to support microfluidic applications. We detail the design and fabrication of the µPR and: (i) demonstrate a tunable outlet pressure range relevant for microfluidic applications (1-10 kPa), (ii) highlight dynamic control capabilities in a microfluidic network, (iii) and maintain human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) in a multi-compartment culture device under continuous perfusion conditions. We anticipate that our 3D printed fabrication approach and open-access designs will enable customized µPRs that can support a broad range of microfluidic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng-Chun Hsu
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Mehran Mansouri
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Nuzhet N N Ahamed
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Stephen M Larson
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Indranil M Joshi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Adeel Ahmed
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - David A Borkholder
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Vinay V Abhyankar
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA.
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11
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Allahyari Z, Gaborski TR. Engineering cell-substrate interactions on porous membranes for microphysiological systems. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:2080-2089. [PMID: 35593461 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00114d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Microphysiological systems are now widely used to recapitulate physiological and pathological microenvironments in order to study and understand a variety of cellular processes as well as drug delivery and stem cell differentiation. Central to many of these systems are porous membranes that enable tissue barrier formation as well as compartmentalization while still facilitating small molecule diffusion, cellular transmigration and cell-cell communication. The role or impact of porous membranes on the cells cultured upon them has not been widely studied or reviewed. Although many chemical and physical substrate characteristics have been shown to be effective in controlling and directing cellular behavior, the influence of pore characteristics and the ability to engineer porous membranes to influence these responses is not fully understood. In this mini-review, we show that many studies point to a multiphasic cell-substrate response, where increasing pore sizes and pore-pore spacing generally leads to improved cell-substrate interactions. However, the smallest pores in the nano-scale sometimes promote the strongest cell-substrate interactions, while the very largest micron-scale pores hinder cell-substrate interactions. This synopsis provides an insight into the importance of membrane pores in controlling cellular responses, and may help with the design and utilization of porous membranes for induction of desired cell processes in the development of biomimetic platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Allahyari
- Department of Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, 160 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, 160 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
| | - Thomas R Gaborski
- Department of Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, 160 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, USA.
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, 160 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
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12
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Aazmi A, Zhou H, Lv W, Yu M, Xu X, Yang H, Zhang YS, Ma L. Vascularizing the brain in vitro. iScience 2022; 25:104110. [PMID: 35378862 PMCID: PMC8976127 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2022.104110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/01/2022] Open
Abstract
The brain is arguably the most fascinating and complex organ in the human body. Recreating the brain in vitro is an ambition restricted by our limited understanding of its structure and interacting elements. One of these interacting parts, the brain microvasculature, is distinguished by a highly selective barrier known as the blood-brain barrier (BBB), limiting the transport of substances between the blood and the nervous system. Numerous in vitro models have been used to mimic the BBB and constructed by implementing a variety of microfabrication and microfluidic techniques. However, currently available models still cannot accurately imitate the in vivo characteristics of BBB. In this article, we review recent BBB models by analyzing each parameter affecting the accuracy of these models. Furthermore, we propose an investigation of the synergy between BBB models and neuronal tissue biofabrication, which results in more advanced models, including neurovascular unit microfluidic models and vascularized brain organoid-based models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdellah Aazmi
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.,School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Hongzhao Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.,School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Weikang Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.,School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Mengfei Yu
- The Affiliated Stomatologic Hospital, School of Medicine, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310003, China
| | - Xiaobin Xu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 201804, China
| | - Huayong Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.,School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yu Shrike Zhang
- Division of Engineering in Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Liang Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China.,School of Mechanical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
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13
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Mierke CT. Viscoelasticity, Like Forces, Plays a Role in Mechanotransduction. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:789841. [PMID: 35223831 PMCID: PMC8864183 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.789841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Viscoelasticity and its alteration in time and space has turned out to act as a key element in fundamental biological processes in living systems, such as morphogenesis and motility. Based on experimental and theoretical findings it can be proposed that viscoelasticity of cells, spheroids and tissues seems to be a collective characteristic that demands macromolecular, intracellular component and intercellular interactions. A major challenge is to couple the alterations in the macroscopic structural or material characteristics of cells, spheroids and tissues, such as cell and tissue phase transitions, to the microscopic interferences of their elements. Therefore, the biophysical technologies need to be improved, advanced and connected to classical biological assays. In this review, the viscoelastic nature of cytoskeletal, extracellular and cellular networks is presented and discussed. Viscoelasticity is conceptualized as a major contributor to cell migration and invasion and it is discussed whether it can serve as a biomarker for the cells’ migratory capacity in several biological contexts. It can be hypothesized that the statistical mechanics of intra- and extracellular networks may be applied in the future as a powerful tool to explore quantitatively the biomechanical foundation of viscoelasticity over a broad range of time and length scales. Finally, the importance of the cellular viscoelasticity is illustrated in identifying and characterizing multiple disorders, such as cancer, tissue injuries, acute or chronic inflammations or fibrotic diseases.
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14
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Nguyen N, Thurgood P, Sekar NC, Chen S, Pirogova E, Peter K, Baratchi S, Khoshmanesh K. Microfluidic models of the human circulatory system: versatile platforms for exploring mechanobiology and disease modeling. Biophys Rev 2021; 13:769-786. [PMID: 34777617 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-021-00815-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The human circulatory system is a marvelous fluidic system, which is very sensitive to biophysical and biochemical cues. The current animal and cell culture models do not recapitulate the functional properties of the human circulatory system, limiting our ability to fully understand the complex biological processes underlying the dysfunction of this multifaceted system. In this review, we discuss the unique ability of microfluidic systems to recapitulate the biophysical, biochemical, and functional properties of the human circulatory system. We also describe the remarkable capacity of microfluidic technologies for exploring the complex mechanobiology of the cardiovascular system, mechanistic studying of cardiovascular diseases, and screening cardiovascular drugs with the additional benefit of reducing the need for animal models. We also discuss opportunities for further advancement in this exciting field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ngan Nguyen
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Peter Thurgood
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Nadia Chandra Sekar
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Australia
| | - Sheng Chen
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Elena Pirogova
- School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Karlheinz Peter
- Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Australia.,Department of Cardiometabolic Health, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Sara Baratchi
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Australia
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15
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Salminen AT, Tithof J, Izhiman Y, Masters EA, McCloskey MC, Gaborski TR, Kelley DH, Pietropaoli AP, Waugh RE, McGrath JL. Endothelial cell apicobasal polarity coordinates distinct responses to luminally versus abluminally delivered TNF-α in a microvascular mimetic. Integr Biol (Camb) 2021; 12:275-289. [PMID: 33164044 DOI: 10.1093/intbio/zyaa022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Endothelial cells (ECs) are an active component of the immune system and interact directly with inflammatory cytokines. While ECs are known to be polarized cells, the potential role of apicobasal polarity in response to inflammatory mediators has been scarcely studied. Acute inflammation is vital in maintaining healthy tissue in response to infection; however, chronic inflammation can lead to the production of systemic inflammatory cytokines and deregulated leukocyte trafficking, even in the absence of a local infection. Elevated levels of cytokines in circulation underlie the pathogenesis of sepsis, the leading cause of intensive care death. Because ECs constitute a key barrier between circulation (luminal interface) and tissue (abluminal interface), we hypothesize that ECs respond differentially to inflammatory challenge originating in the tissue versus circulation as in local and systemic inflammation, respectively. To begin this investigation, we stimulated ECs abluminally and luminally with the inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) to mimic a key feature of local and systemic inflammation, respectively, in a microvascular mimetic (μSiM-MVM). Polarized IL-8 secretion and polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) transmigration were quantified to characterize the EC response to luminal versus abluminal TNF-α. We observed that ECs uniformly secrete IL-8 in response to abluminal TNF-α and is followed by PMN transmigration. The response to abluminal treatment was coupled with the formation of ICAM-1-rich membrane ruffles on the apical surface of ECs. In contrast, luminally stimulated ECs secreted five times more IL-8 into the luminal compartment than the abluminal compartment and sequestered PMNs on the apical EC surface. Our results identify clear differences in the response of ECs to TNF-α originating from the abluminal versus luminal side of a monolayer for the first time and may provide novel insight into future inflammatory disease intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alec T Salminen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Jeffrey Tithof
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Yara Izhiman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Elysia A Masters
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Molly C McCloskey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Thomas R Gaborski
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Douglas H Kelley
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Anthony P Pietropaoli
- Medicine, Pulmonary Disease and Critical Care, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - Richard E Waugh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
| | - James L McGrath
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA
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16
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Browne S, Gill EL, Schultheiss P, Goswami I, Healy KE. Stem cell-based vascularization of microphysiological systems. Stem Cell Reports 2021; 16:2058-2075. [PMID: 33836144 PMCID: PMC8452487 DOI: 10.1016/j.stemcr.2021.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Microphysiological systems (MPSs) (i.e., tissue or organ chips) exploit microfluidics and 3D cell culture to mimic tissue and organ-level physiology. The advent of human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) technology has accelerated the use of MPSs to study human disease in a range of organ systems. However, in the reduction of system complexity, the intricacies of vasculature are an often-overlooked aspect of MPS design. The growing library of pluripotent stem cell-derived endothelial cell and perivascular cell protocols have great potential to improve the physiological relevance of vasculature within MPS, specifically for in vitro disease modeling. Three strategic categories of vascular MPS are outlined: self-assembled, interface focused, and 3D biofabricated. This review discusses key features and development of the native vasculature, linking that to how hiPSC-derived vascular cells have been generated, the state of the art in vascular MPSs, and opportunities arising from interdisciplinary thinking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shane Browne
- Department of Bioengineering and California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Elisabeth L Gill
- Department of Bioengineering and California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Paula Schultheiss
- Department of Bioengineering and California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Ishan Goswami
- Department of Bioengineering and California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Kevin E Healy
- Department of Bioengineering and California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences (QB3), University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA; Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA.
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17
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Ahmed A, Joshi IM, Larson S, Mansouri M, Gholizadeh S, Allahyari Z, Forouzandeh F, Borkholder DA, Gaborski TR, Abhyankar VV. Microengineered 3D Collagen Gels with Independently Tunable Fiber Anisotropy and Directionality. ADVANCED MATERIALS TECHNOLOGIES 2021; 6:2001186. [PMID: 34150990 PMCID: PMC8211114 DOI: 10.1002/admt.202001186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Cellular processes, including differentiation, proliferation, and migration, have been linked to the alignment (anisotropy) and orientation (directionality) of collagen fibers in the native extracellular matrix (ECM). Given the critical role that biophysical cell-matrix interactions play in regulating biological functions, several microfluidic-based methods have been used to establish 3D collagen gels with defined fiber properties; these gels have helped to establish quantitative relationships between structural ECM cues and observed cell responses. Although existing microfluidic fabrication methods provide excellent definition over collagen fiber anisotropy, they have not demonstrated the independent control over fiber anisotropy and directionality necessary to replicate in vivo collagen architecture. Therefore, to advance collagen microengineering capabilities, we present a user-friendly technology platform that uses controlled fluid flows within a non-uniform microfluidic channel network to create collagen landscapes that can be tuned as a function of extensional strain rate. Herein, we demonstrate capabilities to i) control the degree of fiber anisotropy, ii) create spatial gradients in fiber anisotropy, iii) independently define fiber directionality, and iv) generate multi-material interfaces within a 3D environment. We then address the practical issue of integrating cells into microfluidic systems by using a peel-off template technique to provide direct access to microengineered collagen gels, and demonstrate that cells respond to the defined properties of the landscape. Finally, the platform's modular capability is highlighted by integrating a sub-micrometer thick porous parylene membrane onto the microengineered collagen as a method to define cell-substrate interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adeel Ahmed
- Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Indranil M Joshi
- Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Stephen Larson
- Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Mehran Mansouri
- Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Shayan Gholizadeh
- Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Zahra Allahyari
- Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Farzad Forouzandeh
- Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - David A Borkholder
- Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Thomas R Gaborski
- Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
- Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Vinay V Abhyankar
- Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
- Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
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18
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Madejski GR, Ahmad SD, Musgrave J, Flax J, Madejski JG, Rowley DA, DeLouise LA, Berger AJ, Knox WH, McGrath JL. Silicon Nanomembrane Filtration and Imaging for the Evaluation of Microplastic Entrainment along a Municipal Water Delivery Route. SUSTAINABILITY 2020; 12:10655. [PMID: 36938128 PMCID: PMC10022737 DOI: 10.3390/su122410655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
To better understand the origin of microplastics in municipal drinking water, we evaluated 50 mL water samples from different stages of the City of Rochester's drinking water production and transport route, from Hemlock Lake to the University of Rochester. We directly filtered samples using silicon nitride nanomembrane filters with precisely patterned slit-shaped pores, capturing many of the smallest particulates (<20 μm) that could be absorbed by the human body. We employed machine learning algorithms to quantify the shapes and quantity of debris at different stages of the water transport process, while automatically segregating out fibrous structures from particulate. Particulate concentrations ranged from 13 to 720 particles/mL at different stages of the water transport process and fibrous pollution ranged from 0.4 to 8.3 fibers/mL. A subset of the debris (0.2-8.6%) stained positively with Nile red dye which identifies them as hydrophobic polymers. Further spectroscopic analysis also indicated the presence of many non-plastic particulates, including rust, silicates, and calcium scale. While water leaving the Hemlock Lake facility is mostly devoid of debris, transport through many miles of piping results in the entrainment of a significant amount of debris, including plastics, although in-route reservoirs and end-stage filtration serve to reduce these concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory R. Madejski
- 306 Goergen Hall, Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
- Correspondence: (G.R.M.); (J.L.M.); Tel.: +1-585-460-3113 (G.R.M.); +1-585-273-5489 (J.L.M.)
| | - S. Danial Ahmad
- 306 Goergen Hall, Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Jonathan Musgrave
- 508 Goergen Hall, The Institute of Optics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Jonathan Flax
- 306 Goergen Hall, Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Joseph G. Madejski
- 306 Goergen Hall, Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - David A. Rowley
- Rochester Water Bureau, 7412 Rix Hill Rd, Hemlock, NY 14466, USA
| | - Lisa A. DeLouise
- 306 Goergen Hall, Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
- Department of Dermatology, University of Rochester Medical Center, 601 Elmwood Ave, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
| | - Andrew J. Berger
- 405 Goergen Hall, The Institute of Optics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Wayne H. Knox
- 508 Goergen Hall, The Institute of Optics, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - James L. McGrath
- 306 Goergen Hall, Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
- Correspondence: (G.R.M.); (J.L.M.); Tel.: +1-585-460-3113 (G.R.M.); +1-585-273-5489 (J.L.M.)
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19
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Gholizadeh S, Allahyari Z, Carter R, Delgadillo LF, Blaquiere M, Nouguier-Morin F, Marchi N, Gaborski TR. Robust and Gradient Thickness Porous Membranes for In Vitro Modeling of Physiological Barriers. ADVANCED MATERIALS TECHNOLOGIES 2020; 5:2000474. [PMID: 33709013 PMCID: PMC7942760 DOI: 10.1002/admt.202000474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Porous membranes are fundamental elements for tissue-chip barrier and co-culture models. However, the exaggerated thickness of commonly available membranes may represent a stumbling block impeding a more accurate in vitro modeling. Existing techniques to fabricate membranes such as solvent cast, spin-coating, sputtering and PE-CVD result in uniform thickness films. Here, we developed a robust method to generate ultrathin porous parylene C (UPP) membranes not just with precise thicknesses down to 300 nm, but with variable gradients in thicknesses, while at the same time having porosities up to 25%. We also show surface etching and increased roughness lead to improved cell attachment. Next, we examined the mechanical properties of UPP membranes with varying porosity and thickness and fit our data to previously published models, which can help determine practical upper limits of porosity and lower limits of thickness. Lastly, we validate a straightforward approach allowing the successful integration of the UPP membranes into a prototyped 3D-printed scaffold, demonstrating mechanical robustness and allowing cell adhesion under varying flow conditions. Collectively, our results support the integration and the use of UPP membranes to examine cell-cell interaction in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shayan Gholizadeh
- Department of Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Zahra Allahyari
- Department of Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Robert Carter
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
| | - Luis F Delgadillo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, 14620, USA
| | - Marine Blaquiere
- Cerebrovascular and Glia Research, Institute of Functional Genomics (CNRS UMR5203, INSERM U1191, and University of Montpellier), Montpellier, 34094, France
| | - Frederic Nouguier-Morin
- Cerebrovascular and Glia Research, Institute of Functional Genomics (CNRS UMR5203, INSERM U1191, and University of Montpellier), Montpellier, 34094, France
| | - Nicola Marchi
- Cerebrovascular and Glia Research, Institute of Functional Genomics (CNRS UMR5203, INSERM U1191, and University of Montpellier), Montpellier, 34094, France
| | - Thomas R Gaborski
- Department of Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, 14623, USA
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20
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Salminen AT, Allahyari Z, Gholizadeh S, McCloskey MC, Ajalik R, Cottle RN, Gaborski TR, McGrath JL. In vitro Studies of Transendothelial Migration for Biological and Drug Discovery. FRONTIERS IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY 2020; 2:600616. [PMID: 35047883 PMCID: PMC8757899 DOI: 10.3389/fmedt.2020.600616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Inflammatory diseases and cancer metastases lack concrete pharmaceuticals for their effective treatment despite great strides in advancing our understanding of disease progression. One feature of these disease pathogeneses that remains to be fully explored, both biologically and pharmaceutically, is the passage of cancer and immune cells from the blood to the underlying tissue in the process of extravasation. Regardless of migratory cell type, all steps in extravasation involve molecular interactions that serve as a rich landscape of targets for pharmaceutical inhibition or promotion. Transendothelial migration (TEM), or the migration of the cell through the vascular endothelium, is a particularly promising area of interest as it constitutes the final and most involved step in the extravasation cascade. While in vivo models of cancer metastasis and inflammatory diseases have contributed to our current understanding of TEM, the knowledge surrounding this phenomenon would be significantly lacking without the use of in vitro platforms. In addition to the ease of use, low cost, and high controllability, in vitro platforms permit the use of human cell lines to represent certain features of disease pathology better, as seen in the clinic. These benefits over traditional pre-clinical models for efficacy and toxicity testing are especially important in the modern pursuit of novel drug candidates. Here, we review the cellular and molecular events involved in leukocyte and cancer cell extravasation, with a keen focus on TEM, as discovered by seminal and progressive in vitro platforms. In vitro studies of TEM, specifically, showcase the great experimental progress at the lab bench and highlight the historical success of in vitro platforms for biological discovery. This success shows the potential for applying these platforms for pharmaceutical compound screening. In addition to immune and cancer cell TEM, we discuss the promise of hepatocyte transplantation, a process in which systemically delivered hepatocytes must transmigrate across the liver sinusoidal endothelium to successfully engraft and restore liver function. Lastly, we concisely summarize the evolving field of porous membranes for the study of TEM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alec T. Salminen
- Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Zahra Allahyari
- Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Shayan Gholizadeh
- Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Molly C. McCloskey
- Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Raquel Ajalik
- Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Renee N. Cottle
- Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, United States
| | - Thomas R. Gaborski
- Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
- Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - James L. McGrath
- Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
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21
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Ryan H, Simmons CS. Potential Applications of Microfluidics to Acute Kidney Injury Associated with Viral Infection. Cell Mol Bioeng 2020; 13:305-311. [PMID: 32904757 PMCID: PMC7457440 DOI: 10.1007/s12195-020-00649-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The kidneys are susceptible to adverse effects from many diseases, including several that are not tissue-specific. Acute kidney injury is a common complication of systemic diseases such as diabetes, lupus, and certain infections including the novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). Microfluidic devices are an attractive option for disease modeling, offering the opportunity to utilize human cells, control experimental and environmental conditions, and combine with other on-chip devices. For researchers with expertise in microfluidics, this brief perspective highlights potential applications of such devices to studying SARS-CoV-2-induced kidney injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly Ryan
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, Herbert Wertheim College of Engineering, University of Florida, PO Box 116250, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
| | - Chelsey S. Simmons
- J. Crayton Pruitt Family Department of Biomedical Engineering, Herbert Wertheim College of Engineering, University of Florida, PO Box 116250, Gainesville, FL 32611 USA
- Department of Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Herbert Wertheim College of Engineering, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
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22
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Sabirova A, Pisig F, Rayapuram N, Hirt H, Nunes SP. Nanofabrication of Isoporous Membranes for Cell Fractionation. Sci Rep 2020; 10:6138. [PMID: 32273573 PMCID: PMC7145805 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-62937-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell fractionations and other biological separations frequently require several steps. They could be much more effectively done by filtration, if isoporous membranes would be available with high pore density, and sharp pore size distribution in the micro- and nanoscale. We propose a combination of two scalable methods, photolithography and dry reactive ion etching, to fabricate a series of polyester membranes with isopores of size 0.7 to 50 μm and high pore density with a demonstrated total area of 38.5 cm2. The membranes have pore sizes in the micro- and submicro-range, and pore density 10-fold higher than track-etched analogues, which are the only commercially available isoporous polymeric films. Permeances of 220,000 L m−2 h−1bar−1 were measured with pore size 787 nm. The method does not require organic solvents and can be applied to many homopolymeric materials. The pore reduction from 2 to 0.7 μm was obtained by adding a step of chemical vapor deposition. The isoporous system was successfully demonstrated for the organelle fractionation of Arabidopsis homogenates and could be potentially extended to other biological fractionations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ainur Sabirova
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering (BESE) Division, Advanced Membranes and Porous Materials Center, 23955-6900, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Florencio Pisig
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Nanofabrication Core Laboratory, 23955-6900, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Naganand Rayapuram
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering (BESE) Division, Center for Desert Agriculture, 23955-6900, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Heribert Hirt
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering (BESE) Division, Center for Desert Agriculture, 23955-6900, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia
| | - Suzana P Nunes
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Biological and Environmental Science and Engineering (BESE) Division, Advanced Membranes and Porous Materials Center, 23955-6900, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia.
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23
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Khire TS, Salminen AT, Swamy H, Lucas KS, McCloskey MC, Ajalik RE, Chung HH, Gaborski TR, Waugh RE, Glading AJ, McGrath JL. Microvascular Mimetics for the Study of Leukocyte-Endothelial Interactions. Cell Mol Bioeng 2020; 13:125-139. [PMID: 32175026 DOI: 10.1007/s12195-020-00611-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2019] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction The pathophysiological increase in microvascular permeability plays a well-known role in the onset and progression of diseases like sepsis and atherosclerosis. However, how interactions between neutrophils and the endothelium alter vessel permeability is often debated. Methods In this study, we introduce a microfluidic, silicon-membrane enabled vascular mimetic (μSiM-MVM) for investigating the role of neutrophils in inflammation-associated microvascular permeability. In utilizing optically transparent silicon nanomembrane technology, we build on previous microvascular models by enabling in situ observations of neutrophil-endothelium interactions. To evaluate the effects of neutrophil transmigration on microvascular model permeability, we established and validated electrical (transendothelial electrical resistance and impedance) and small molecule permeability assays that allow for the in situ quantification of temporal changes in endothelium junctional integrity. Results Analysis of neutrophil-expressed β1 integrins revealed a prominent role of neutrophil transmigration and basement membrane interactions in increased microvascular permeability. By utilizing blocking antibodies specific to the β1 subunit, we found that the observed increase in microvascular permeability due to neutrophil transmigration is constrained when neutrophil-basement membrane interactions are blocked. Having demonstrated the value of in situ measurements of small molecule permeability, we then developed and validated a quantitative framework that can be used to interpret barrier permeability for comparisons to conventional Transwell™ values. Conclusions Overall, our results demonstrate the potential of the μSiM-MVM in elucidating mechanisms involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory disease, and provide evidence for a role for neutrophils in inflammation-associated endothelial barrier disruption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tejas S Khire
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
| | - Alec T Salminen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
| | - Harsha Swamy
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
| | - Kilean S Lucas
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
| | - Molly C McCloskey
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
| | - Raquel E Ajalik
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
| | - Henry H Chung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623 USA
| | - Thomas R Gaborski
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623 USA
| | - Richard E Waugh
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
| | - Angela J Glading
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
| | - James L McGrath
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627 USA
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24
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Allahyari Z, Gholizadeh S, Chung HH, Delgadillo LF, Gaborski TR. Micropatterned Poly(ethylene glycol) Islands Disrupt Endothelial Cell-Substrate Interactions Differently from Microporous Membranes. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2019; 6:959-968. [PMID: 32582838 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.9b01584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Porous membranes are ubiquitous in cell co-culture and tissue-on-a-chip studies. These materials are predominantly chosen for their semi-permeable and size exclusion properties to restrict or permit transmigration and cell-cell communication. However, previous studies have shown pore size, spacing and orientation affect cell behavior including extracellular matrix production and migration. The mechanism behind this behavior is not fully understood. In this study, we fabricated micropatterned non-fouling polyethylene glycol (PEG) islands to mimic pore openings in order to decouple the effect of surface discontinuity from potential grip on the vertical contact area provided by pore wall edges. Similar to previous findings on porous membranes, we found that the PEG islands hindered fibronectin fibrillogenesis with cells on patterned substrates producing shorter fibrils. Additionally, cell migration speed over micropatterned PEG islands was greater than unpatterned controls, suggesting that disruption of cell-substrate interactions by PEG islands promoted a more dynamic and migratory behavior, similarly to enhanced cell migration on microporous membranes. Preferred cellular directionality during migration was nearly indistinguishable between substrates with identically patterned PEG islands and previously reported behavior over micropores of the same geometry, further confirming disruption of cell-substrate interactions as a common mechanism behind the cellular responses on these substrates. Interestingly, compared to respective controls, there were differences in cell spreading and a lower increase in migration speed over PEG islands compared prior results on micropores with identical feature size and spacing. This suggests that membrane pores not only disrupt cell-substrate interactions, but also provide additional physical factors that affect cellular response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zahra Allahyari
- Department of Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, 160 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, 160 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
| | - Shayan Gholizadeh
- Department of Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, 160 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, 160 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
| | - Henry H Chung
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, 160 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
| | - Luis F Delgadillo
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, 201 Robert B. Goergen Hall, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
| | - Thomas R Gaborski
- Department of Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, 160 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, 160 Lomb Memorial Drive, Rochester, NY 14623, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, 201 Robert B. Goergen Hall, Rochester, NY 14627, USA
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25
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Dehghani M, Lucas K, Flax J, McGrath J, Gaborski T. Tangential flow microfluidics for the capture and release of nanoparticles and extracellular vesicles on conventional and ultrathin membranes. ADVANCED MATERIALS TECHNOLOGIES 2019; 4:1900539. [PMID: 32395607 PMCID: PMC7212937 DOI: 10.1002/admt.201900539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Membranes have been used extensively for the purification and separation of biological species. A persistent challenge is the purification of species from concentrated feed solutions such as extracellular vesicles (EVs) from biological fluids. We investigated a new method to isolate micro- and nano-scale species termed tangential flow for analyte capture (TFAC), which is an extension of traditional tangential flow filtration (TFF). Initially, EV purification from plasma on ultrathin nanomembranes was compared between both normal flow filtration (NFF) and TFAC. NFF resulted in rapid formation of a protein cake which completely obscured any captured EVs and also prevented further transport across the membrane. On the other hand, TFAC showed capture of CD63 positive small EVs (sEVs) with minimal contamination. We explored the use of TFAC to capture target species over membrane pores, wash and then release in a physical process that does not rely upon affinity or chemical interactions. This process of TFAC was studied with model particles on both ultrathin nanomembranes and conventional thickness membranes (polycarbonate track-etch). Successful capture and release of model particles was observed using both membranes. Ultrathin nanomembranes showed higher efficiency of capture and release with significantly lower pressures indicating that ultrathin nanomembranes are well-suited for TFAC of delicate nanoscale particles such as EVs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi Dehghani
- Department of Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Kilean Lucas
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Jonathan Flax
- Department of Urology, University of Rochester Medical School, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - James McGrath
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
| | - Thomas Gaborski
- Department of Microsystems Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, United States
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY, United States
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26
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Masters EA, Salminen AT, Begolo S, Luke EN, Barrett SC, Overby CT, Gill AL, de Mesy Bentley KL, Awad HA, Gill SR, Schwarz EM, McGrath JL. An in vitro platform for elucidating the molecular genetics of S. aureus invasion of the osteocyte lacuno-canalicular network during chronic osteomyelitis. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2019; 21:102039. [PMID: 31247310 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2019.102039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Staphylococcus aureus osteomyelitis is a devasting disease that often leads to amputation. Recent findings have shown that S. aureus is capable of invading the osteocyte lacuno-canalicular network (OLCN) of cortical bone during chronic osteomyelitis. Normally a 1 μm non-motile cocci, S. aureus deforms smaller than 0.5 μm in the sub-micron channels of the OLCN. Here we present the μSiM-CA (Microfluidic - Silicon Membrane - Canalicular Array) as an in vitro screening platform for the genetic mechanisms of S. aureus invasion. The μSiM-CA platform features an ultrathin silicon membrane with defined pores that mimic the openings of canaliculi. While we anticipated that S. aureus lacking the accessory gene regulator (agr) quorum-sensing system would not be capable of invading the OLCN, we found no differences in propagation compared to wild type in the μSiM-CA. However the μSiM-CA proved predictive as we also found that the agr mutant strain invaded the OLCN of murine tibiae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elysia A Masters
- Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
| | - Alec T Salminen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
| | | | - Emma N Luke
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
| | - Sydney C Barrett
- Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
| | - Clyde T Overby
- Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
| | - Ann Lindley Gill
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
| | - Karen L de Mesy Bentley
- Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY; Department of Orthopaedics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
| | - Hani A Awad
- Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
| | - Steven R Gill
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
| | - Edward M Schwarz
- Center for Musculoskeletal Research, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY; Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY; Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY; Department of Orthopaedics, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
| | - James L McGrath
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY.
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