When Silicon Materials Meet Natural Sources: Opportunities and Challenges for Low-Cost Lithium Storage

The Promising Potential of Gallium Based Liquid Metals for Energy Storage

Energy storage devices play a crucial role in various applications, such as powering electronics, power backup for homes and businesses, and support for the integration of renewable energy sources into electrical grid applications. Electrode materials for energy storage devices are preferred to have a flexible nature, conductive, better capacity, and low-toxicity. Using Gallium based liquid metal alloys, such as Eutectic Gallium-Indium (EGaIn), Eutectic Gallium-Tin (EGaSn), and Eutectic Gallium-Indium-Tin (EGaInSn), as electrode materials play very important role in energy storage devices. These liquid metals have some interesting properties with a self-healing nature, high mechanical stability, compatibility with various materials, fluidity, low young's modulus, high electrical and thermal conductivity. Those properties have made it suitable to be used in various energy storage devices. In this mini review, we have concisely described the advantages and challenges of using liquid metal as electrode materials for various energy storage devices.

A Hybrid Structure to Improve Electrochemical Performance of SiO Anode Materials in Lithium-Ion Battery

The wide utilization of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) prompts extensive research on the anode materials with large capacity and excellent stability. Despite the attractive electrochemical properties of pure Si anodes outperforming other Si-based materials, its unsafety caused by huge volumetric expansion is commonly admitted. Silicon monoxide (SiO) anode is advantageous in mild volume fluctuation, and would be a proper alternative if the low initial columbic efficiency and conductivity can be ameliorated. Herein, a hybrid structure composed of active material SiO particles and carbon nanofibers (SiO/CNFs) is proposed as a solution. CNFs, through electrospun processes, serve as a conductive skeleton for SiO nanoparticles and enable SiO nanoparticles to be uniformly embedded in. As a result, the SiO/CNF electrochemical performance reaches a peak at 20% the mass ratio of SiO, where the retention rate reaches 73.9% after 400 cycles at a current density of 100 mA g-1, and the discharge capacity after stabilization and 100 cycles are 1.47 and 1.84 times higher than that of pure SiO, respectively. A fast lithium-ion transport rate during cycling is also demonstrated as the corresponding diffusion coefficient of the SiO/CNF reaches ~8 × 10-15 cm2 s-1. This SiO/CNF hybrid structure provides a flexible and cost-effective solution for LIBs and sheds light on alternative anode choices for industrial battery assembly.

Synergistic Protecting-Etching Synthesis of Carbon Nanoboxes@Silicon for High-Capacity Lithium-Ion Battery

Silicon (Si) is considered as the most likely choice for the high-capacity lithium-ion batteries owing to its ultrahigh theoretical capacity (4200 mA h g-1) being over 10 times than that of traditional graphite anode materials (372 mA h g-1). However, its widespread application is limited by problems such as a large volume expansion and low electrical conductivity. Herein, we design a hollow nitrogen-doped carbon-coated silicon (Si@Co-HNC) composite in a water-based system via a synergistic protecting-etching strategy of tannic acid. The prepared Si@Co-HNC composite can effectively mitigate the volume change of silicon and improve the electrical conductivity. Moreover, the abundant voids inside the carbon layer and the porous carbon layer accelerate the transport of electrons and lithium ions, resulting in excellent electrochemical performance. The reversible discharge capacity of 1205 mA h g-1 can be retained after 120 cycles at a current density of 0.5 A g-1. In particular, the discharge capacity can be maintained at 1066 mA h g-1 after 300 cycles at a high current density of 1 A g-1. This study provides a new strategy for the design of Si-based anode materials with excellent electrical conductivity and structural stability.

Stress Mitigation of Nanosilicon Anode to Achieve Energy-Dense and Highly-Stable Full Cell

Nanosilicon (nano-Si) anode is subjected to significant stress concentration, which is caused by extrusion deformation of expanded Si nanoparticles with uneven distribution. The low-strength binder and adhesive interface are unable to withstand the stress, resulting in exfoliation and impeding the use of nano-Si anodes. This work aims to mitigate stress in a Si anode with flexible copper (Cu) skeletons that are metallurgically bonded to uniformly distributed Si nanoparticles. It is worth noting that the proposed porous Si-Cu anode exhibits improved high-load cycling performance and promising potential in the full cell, with an energy density of 463 Wh kg-1 at 0.5 C and retention of 81% after 500 cycles at 2 C. Chemo-mechanical simulation and in (ex) situ observation demonstrate that expansion stress is reduced and more evenly distributed in the anode due to uniform distribution of Si nanoparticles, flexible Cu skeletons, and adequate pores. More importantly, the stress is primarily distributed in the flexible Cu skeletons and bonding interface, preventing anode exfoliation, and ensuring efficient lithium ion/electron transference. This work sheds light on the structure construction of an alloy-type anode.

Benchmarking the Effect of Particle Size on Silicon Anode Materials for Lithium-Ion Batteries

High-capacity silicon has been regarded as one of the most promising anodes for high-energy lithium-ion batteries. However, it suffers from severe volume expansion, particle pulverization, and repeated solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) growth, which leads to rapid electrochemical failure, while the particle size also plays key role here and its effects remain elusive. In this paper, through multiple-physical, chemical, and synchrotron-based characterizations, the evolutions of the composition, structure, morphology, and surface chemistry of silicon anodes with the particle size ranging from 50 to 5 µm upon cycling are benchmarked, which greatly link to their electrochemical failure discrepancies. It is found that the nano- and micro-silicon anodes undergo similar crystal to amorphous phase transition, but quite different composition transition upon de-/lithiation; at the same time, the nano- and 1 µm-silicon samples present obviously different mechanochemical behaviors from the 5 µm-silicon sample, such as electrode crack, particle pulverization/crack as well as volume expansion; in addition, the micro-silicon samples possess much thinner SEI layer than the nano-silicon samples upon cycling, and also differences in SEI compositions. It is hoped this comprehensive study and understanding should offer critical insights into the exclusive and customized modification strategies to diverse silicon anodes ranging from nano to microscale.

Thermal conductivity of fivefold twinned silicon-germanium heteronanowires

The thermal transport properties of five-fold twinned (5FT) germanium-silicon (Ge-Si) heteronanowires (h-NWs) with varying cross-sectional areas, germanium (Ge) domain ratios and heterostructural patterns are investigated using homogeneous nonequilibrium molecular dynamics (HNEMD) simulations. The results demonstrate a distinctive behavior in the thermal conductivity (κ) of 5FT-NWs, characterized by a "flipped" trend at a critical cross-sectional area. This behavior is attributed to the hydrodynamic phonon flow, arising from the normal three-phonon scattering process in the low-frequency region. In addition, the composition ratio of 5FT-NWs has a significant impact on reducing the κ of 5FT-NWs and suppressing the hydrodynamic effect. Intriguingly, as the homogeneous element domains are separated, stronger phonon hydrodynamic flows are observed in comparison to the adjacent homogeneous element domains. By analyzing various phonon properties, including phonon dispersion, three-phonon scattering rate, and phonon mean free path, critical insights into the origin of the differential κ in different 5FT-NW structures are provided. The findings deepen the understanding of the thermal transport properties of nanomaterials and hold implications for the design and development of nanoelectronics and thermoelectric devices.

High-performance Si@C anode for lithium-ion batteries enabled by a novel structuring strategy

Si anode has drawn growing attention because of its features of large specific capacity, low electrochemical potential, and high natural abundance. However, it suffers from severe electrochemical irreversibility due to its large volume change during cycling. In spite of the achievement of improved electrochemical performance after compositing with carbon materials, most of the reported Si/C composite anodes lack a simple preparation process. To obtain a promising Si-based anode material, both simple preparation process and improved performance are necessary. Herein, inspired by the structure of shock proof foam, a novel structure of Si-based composite (Si@FeNO@P), consisting of Si nanoparticles embedded within a highly graphitized Fe3C/Fe3O4 hybrid nanoparticle-interspersed foam-like porous carbon matrix, has been constructed using a simple method, consisting of simple mixing, drying, and carbonization processes. Thus, the well-designed composite structure effectively mitigates issues resulting from volumetric change of the Si during cycle and hence improves its performance significantly. The research results confirm outstanding performance of the Si@FeNO@P anode in the aspects of cycle durability, specific capacity, and rate capability, with 1116.1 (250th cycle), 858.1 (500th cycle), and 503.1 (500th cycle) mA h g-1 at 100, 1000, and 5000 mA g-1, respectively. By comparing the performance and structure of Si@FeNO@P with other control samples, it was substantiated that the outstanding performances of the Si@FeNO@P anode depend on the synergistic effects of the well-designed unique carbon matrix, conductive Fe3C, and Fe3O4-in situ derived metallic Fe nanoparticles during cycling. The outstanding electrochemical performance and simple preparation route make the Si@FeNO@P anode promising for lithium-ion battery applications. This work also gives useful insights into the development of high-performance Si-based anodes with simple practical methods.

Recent Progress in Silicon-Based Materials for Performance-Enhanced Lithium-Ion Batteries

Silicon (Si) has been considered to be one of the most promising anode materials for high energy density lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to its high theoretical capacity, low discharge platform, abundant raw materials and environmental friendliness. However, the large volume changes, unstable solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation during cycling and intrinsic low conductivity of Si hinder its practical applications. Various modification strategies have been widely developed to enhance the lithium storage properties of Si-based anodes, including cycling stability and rate capabilities. In this review, recent modification methods to suppress structural collapse and electric conductivity are summarized in terms of structural design, oxide complexing and Si alloys, etc. Moreover, other performance enhancement factors, such as pre-lithiation, surface engineering and binders are briefly discussed. The mechanisms behind the performance enhancement of various Si-based composites characterized by in/ex situ techniques are also reviewed. Finally, we briefly highlight the existing challenges and future development prospects of Si-based anode materials.

Silicon Cutting Waste Derived Silicon Nanosheets with Adjustable Native SiO2 Shell for Highly-Stable Lithiation/Delithiation

Silicon is an excellent candidate for the next generation of ultra-high performance anode materials, with the rapid iteration of the lithium-ion battery industry. High-quality silicon sources are the cornerstone of the development of silicon anodes, and silicon cutting waste (SCW) is one of them while still faces the problems of poor performance and unclear structure-activity relationship. Herein, a simple, efficient, and inexpensive purification method is implemented to reduce impurities in SCW and expose the morphology of nanosheets therein. Furthermore, HF is used to modulate the abundant native O in SCW after thermodynamic and kinetic considerations, realizing the mechanical support for the internal Si in the form of an amorphous SiO₂ shell. Afterward, SCNS@SiO₂ -2.5 with a 1.0 nm thick SiO₂ shell exhibits a reversible capacity of 1583.3 mAh g^-1 after 200 cycles at 0.8 A g^-1 . Ultimately, the molecular dynamics simulations profoundly reveal that the amorphous SiO₂ shell is transformed into the extremely ductile Li_x SiO_y shell to ditch stress and relieve strain during the lithiation/delithiation process.

Recent Progress in Cyclic Aryliodonium Chemistry: Syntheses and Applications

Hypervalent aryliodoumiums are intensively investigated as arylating agents. They are excellent surrogates to aryl halides, and moreover they exhibit better reactivity, which allows the corresponding arylation reactions to be performed under mild conditions. In the past decades, acyclic aryliodoniums are widely explored as arylation agents. However, the unmet need for acyclic aryliodoniums is the improvement of their notoriously low reaction economy because the coproduced aryl iodides during the arylation are often wasted. Cyclic aryliodoniums have their intrinsic advantage in terms of reaction economy, and they have started to receive considerable attention due to their valuable synthetic applications to initiate cascade reactions, which can enable the construction of complex structures, including polycycles with potential pharmaceutical and functional properties. Here, we are summarizing the recent advances made in the research field of cyclic aryliodoniums, including the nascent design of aryliodonium species and their synthetic applications. First, the general preparation of typical diphenyl iodoniums is described, followed by the construction of heterocyclic iodoniums and monoaryl iodoniums. Then, the initiated arylations coupled with subsequent domino reactions are summarized to construct polycycles. Meanwhile, the advances in cyclic aryliodoniums for building biaryls including axial atropisomers are discussed in a systematic manner. Finally, a very recent advance of cyclic aryliodoniums employed as halogen-bonding organocatalysts is described.

Strain Regulating and Kinetics Accelerating of Micro-Sized Silicon Anodes via Dual-Size Hollow Graphitic Carbons Conductive Additives

Micro-sized silicon (µSi) anode features fewer interfacial side reactions and lower costs compared to nanosized silicon, and has higher commercial value when applied as a lithium-ion battery (LIB) anode. However, the high localized stress generated during (de)lithiation causes electrode breakdown and performance deterioration of the µSi anode. In this work, hollow graphitic carbons with tailored dual sizes are employed as conductive additives for the µSi anode to overcome electrode failure. The dual-size hollow graphitic carbons (HGC) additives consist of particles with micrometer size similar to the µSi particles; these additives are used for strain regulation. Additionally, nanometer-size particles similar to commercial carbon black Spheron (SP) are used mainly for kinetics acceleration. In addition to building an efficient conductive network, the dual-size hollow graphitic carbon conductive additive prevents the fracture of the electrode by reducing local stress and alleviating volume expansion. The µSi anode with dual-size hollow graphitic carbons as conductive additives achieves an impressive capacity of 651.4 mAh g^-1 after 500 cycles at a high current density of 2 A g^-1 . These findings suggest that dual-size hollow graphitic carbons are expected to be superior conductive additives for micro-sized alloy anodes similar to µSi.

Isotope doping-induced crossover shift in the thermal conductivity of thin silicon nanowires

Here, using homogeneous nonequilibrium molecular dynamics simulations, we report the thermal transport characteristics of thin Si nanowires (NWs) with varying size and isotope doping ratio. It is identified that crossover in the thermal conductivity (κ) of both isotope doping-free and isotope doped Si-NWs appears at critical sizes, below whichκis enlarged with decreasing size because the hydrodynamic phonon flow predominates, above which, due to the dominant phonon boundary scattering, opposite behavior is observed. With increasing isotope doping, however, the critical size in minimizing theκis moved to small values because the phonon impurity scattering caused by isotope doping is critically involved. Moreover, there is a critical isotope doping (<50%) in the critical size motion, originating from that, above which, the critical size no longer moves due to the persistence of hydrodynamic phonon flow. This study provides new insights into the thermal transport behaviors of quasi-1D structures.

A Low-Cost SiO x /C@Graphite Composite Derived from Oat Husk as an Advanced Anode for High-Performance Lithium-Ion Batteries

Silicon monoxide (SiO _x ), as a promising anode for the next-generation high-power lithium-ion batteries, has some advantages such as higher lithium storage capacity (∼2400 mAh g^-1), suitable working potential, and smaller volume variations during cycling compared with pure silicon. However, its disadvantages such as its inherent low conductivity and high cost impede its extensive applications. Herein, we have developed a low-cost and high-capacity SiO _x /C@graphite (SCG) composite derived from oat husks by a simple argon/hydrogen reduction method. For further practical application, we also investigated the electrochemical performances of SiO _x mixed with different ratios of graphite. As an advanced anode for lithium-ion batteries, the SCG-1 composite exhibits an excellent electrochemical performance in terms of lithium storage capacity (809.5 mAh g^-1 at 0.5 A g^-1 even after the 250th cycle) and high rate capability (479.7 mAh g^-1 at 1 A g^-1 after the 200th cycle). This work may pave the way for developing a low-cost silicon-based anode derived from biomass with a large reversible capacity and long cycle life in lithium-ion batteries.

Construction of SiOx/nitrogen-doped carbon superstructures derived from rice husks for boosted lithium storage

Silicon sub-oxides (SiO_x) are increasingly becoming a prospective anode material for lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Nevertheless, inferior electrical conductivity and drastic volume fluctuation upon cycling significantly hamper the electrochemical performance of SiO_x. In this work, rice husks (RHs)-derived pitaya-like SiO_x/nitrogen-doped carbon (SNC) superstructures have been prepared by a simple electrospray-carbonization approach. SiO_x nanoparticles (NPs) are well-dispersed in a spherical nitrogen-doped carbon (NC) matrix. The carbon frameworks discourage the aggregation of SiO_x NPs, facilitating the kinetics for ion diffusion and charge transfer, and maintaining structural stability upon cycling, thus bringing about improved electrochemical performance. When the optimized SNC superstructures with SiO_x content of 64.3% are utilized as LIBs anodes, a stable specific capacity of 622.8 mA h g^-1 after 100 cycles at 0.1 A g^-1, and an excellent long cycle performance of 190.1 mA h g^-1 after 5000 cycles at 5 A g^-1 are obtained. This effective and universal synthetic strategy for fabricating controllable superstructures offers insights into the development of high-performance LIBs.

Influence of VO2 based structures and smart coatings on weather resistance for boosting the thermochromic properties of smart window applications

Vanadium dioxide (VO₂)-based energy-saving smart films or coatings aroused great interest in scientific research and industry due to the reversible crystalline structural transition of VO₂ from the monoclinic to tetragonal phase around room temperature, which can induce significant changes in transmittance and reflectance in the infrared (IR) range. However, there are still some obstacles for commercial application of VO₂-based films or coatings in our daily life, such as the high phase transition temperature (68 °C), low luminous transmittance, solar modulation ability, and poor environmental stability. Particularly, due to its active nature chemically, VO₂ is prone to gradual oxidation, causing deterioration of optical properties during very long life span of windows. In this review, the recent progress in enhancing the thermochromic properties of VO₂-hybrid materials especially based on environmental stability has been summarized for the first time in terms of structural modifications such as core–shell structures for nanoparticles and nanorods and thin-films with single layer, layer-by-layer, and sandwich-like structures due to their excellent results for improving environmental stability. Moreover, future development trends have also been presented to promote the goal of commercial production of VO₂ smart coatings.

VO₂ based energy saving smart coatings are of great interest in research and industry due to the reversible crystalline structural transition of VO₂ which can induce significant transmittance and reflectance changes in the infrared range.

Key Factors for Binders to Enhance the Electrochemical Performance of Silicon Anodes through Molecular Design

Silicon is considered the most promising candidate for anode material in lithium-ion batteries due to the high theoretical capacity. Unfortunately, the vast volume change and low electric conductivity have limited the application of silicon anodes. In the silicon anode system, the binders are essential for mechanical and conductive integrity. However, there are few reviews to comprehensively introduce binders from the perspective of factors affecting performance and modification methods, which are crucial to the development of binders. In this review, several key factors that have great impact on binders' performance are summarized, including molecular weight, interfacial bonding, and molecular structure. Moreover, some commonly used modification methods for binders are also provided to control these influencing factors and obtain the binders with better performance. Finally, to overcome the existing problems and challenges about binders, several possible development directions of binders are suggested.

Nanoporous Silicon as a Green, High-Tech Educational Tool

Pedagogical tools are needed that link multidisciplinary nanoscience and technology (NST) to multiple state-of-the-art applications, including those requiring new fabrication routes relying on green synthesis. These can both educate and motivate the next generation of entrepreneurial NST scientists to create innovative products whilst protecting the environment and resources. Nanoporous silicon shows promise as such a tool as it can be fabricated from plants and waste materials, but also embodies many key educational concepts and key industrial uses identified for NST. Specific mechanical, thermal, and optical properties become highly tunable through nanoporosity. We also describe exceptional properties for nanostructured silicon like medical biodegradability and efficient light emission that open up new functionality for this semiconductor. Examples of prior lecture courses and potential laboratory projects are provided, based on the author’s experiences in academic chemistry and physics departments in the USA and UK, together with industrial R&D in the medical, food, and consumer-care sectors. Nanoporous silicon-based lessons that engage students in the basics of entrepreneurship can also readily be identified, including idea generation, intellectual property, and clinical translation of nanomaterial products.

A Low-Cost and High-Capacity SiO x /C@graphite Hybrid as an Advanced Anode for High-Power Lithium-Ion Batteries

Silicon suboxide (SiO _x ) is one of the most promising anodes for the next-generation high-power lithium-ion batteries because of its higher lithium storage capacity than current commercial graphite, relatively smaller volume variations than pure silicon, and appropriate working potential. However, the high cost, poor cycling stability, and rate capability hampered its industrial applications due to its complex production process, volume changes during Li⁺ insertion/extraction, and low conductivity. Herein, a low-cost and high-capacity SiO _x /C@graphite (SCG) hybrid was designed and synthesized by a facile one-pot carbonization/hydrogen reduction process of the rice husk and graphite. As an advanced anode for lithium-ion batteries, the SiO _x /C@graphite hybrid delivers a high reversible capacity with significantly enhanced cycling stability (842 mAh g^-1 after 300 cycles at 0.5 A g^-1) and rate capability (562 mAh g^-1 after 300 cycles at 1 A g^-1). The great improvement in performances could be attributed to the positive synergistic effect of SiO _x nanoparticles as lithium storage active materials, the in situ-formed carbon matrix network derived from biomass functioning as an efficient three-dimensional conductive network and spacer to improve the rate capability and buffer the volume changes, and graphite as a conductor to further improve the rate capabilities and cycling stability by increasing the conductivity. The low-cost and high-capacity SCG derived from rice husk synthesized by a facile, scalable synthetic method turns out to be a promising anode for the next-generation high-power lithium-ion batteries.

Interface Heteroatom-doping: Emerging Solutions to Silicon-based Anodes

Silicon-based composites have been recognized as a promising anode material for high-energy lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). However, the intrinsically low conductivity and the huge volume expansion during lithiation/delithiation progresses impede its further practical applications. In the past decades, numerous efforts have been made for surface and interface modification of Si-based anodes. Among these, doping of active materials with heteroatoms is one promising method to endow silicon many unmatched electrochemical properties. In this review, we focus on the effects of heteroatom doping on the interfacial properties of Si-based anodes, and some typical strategies for the interface doping are highlighted. We aim to give some reference for interfacial doping of Si-based anodes in LIBs.