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Perycz M, Dabrowski MJ, Jardanowska-Kotuniak M, Roura AJ, Gielniewski B, Stepniak K, Dramiński M, Ciechomska IA, Kaminska B, Wojtas B. Comprehensive analysis of the REST transcription factor regulatory networks in IDH mutant and IDH wild-type glioma cell lines and tumors. Acta Neuropathol Commun 2024; 12:72. [PMID: 38711090 PMCID: PMC11071216 DOI: 10.1186/s40478-024-01779-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024] Open
Abstract
The RE1-silencing transcription factor (REST) acts either as a repressor or activator of transcription depending on the genomic and cellular context. REST is a key player in brain cell differentiation by inducing chromatin modifications, including DNA methylation, in a proximity of its binding sites. Its dysfunction may contribute to oncogenesis. Mutations in IDH1/2 significantly change the epigenome contributing to blockade of cell differentiation and glioma development. We aimed at defining how REST modulates gene activation and repression in the context of the IDH mutation-related phenotype in gliomas. We studied the effects of REST knockdown, genome wide occurrence of REST binding sites, and DNA methylation of REST motifs in IDH wild type and IDH mutant gliomas. We found that REST target genes, REST binding patterns, and TF motif occurrence proximal to REST binding sites differed in IDH wild-type and mutant gliomas. Among differentially expressed REST targets were genes involved in glial cell differentiation and extracellular matrix organization, some of which were differentially methylated at promoters or gene bodies. REST knockdown differently impacted invasion of the parental or IDH1 mutant glioma cells. The canonical REST-repressed gene targets showed significant correlation with the GBM NPC-like cellular state. Interestingly, results of REST or KAISO silencing suggested the interplay between these TFs in regulation of REST-activated and repressed targets. The identified gene regulatory networks and putative REST cooperativity with other TFs, such as KAISO, show distinct REST target regulatory networks in IDH-WT and IDH-MUT gliomas, without concomitant DNA methylation changes. We conclude that REST could be an important therapeutic target in gliomas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata Perycz
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
- Computational Biology Group, Institute of Computer Science of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Michal J Dabrowski
- Computational Biology Group, Institute of Computer Science of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Marta Jardanowska-Kotuniak
- Computational Biology Group, Institute of Computer Science of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
- Doctoral School of Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Adria-Jaume Roura
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Bartlomiej Gielniewski
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Karolina Stepniak
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Michał Dramiński
- Computational Biology Group, Institute of Computer Science of the Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Iwona A Ciechomska
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Bozena Kaminska
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Bartosz Wojtas
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
- Laboratory of Sequencing, Nencki Institute of Experimental Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
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Nassar A, Kodi T, Satarker S, Gurram PC, Fayaz SM, Nampoothiri M. Astrocytic transcription factors REST, YY1, and putative microRNAs in Parkinson's disease and advanced therapeutic strategies. Gene 2024; 892:147898. [PMID: 37832803 DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2023.147898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2023] [Revised: 07/10/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023]
Abstract
Transcription factors (TF) and microRNAs are regulatory factors in astrocytes and are linked to several Parkinson's disease (PD) progression causes, such as disruption of glutamine transporters in astrocytes and concomitant disrupted glutamine uptake and inflammation. REST, a crucial TF, has been documented as an epigenetic repressor that limits the expression of neuronal genes in non-neural cells. REST activity is significantly linked to its corepressors in astrocytes, specifically histone deacetylases (HDACs), CoREST, and MECP2. Another REST-regulating TF, YY1, has been studied in astrocytes, and its interaction with REST has been investigated. In this review, the molecular processes that support the astrocytic control of REST and YY1 in terms of the regulation of glutamate transporter EAAT2 were addressed in a more detailed and comprehensive manner. Both TFs' function in astrocytes and how astrocyte abnormalities cause PD is still a mystery. Moreover, microRNAs (short non-coding RNAs) are key regulators that have been correlated to the expression and regulation of numerous genes linked to PD. The identification of numerous miRs that are engaged in astrocyte dysfunction that triggers PD has been shown. The term "Gut-brain axis" refers to the two systems' mutual communication. Gut microbial dysbiosis, which mediates an imbalance of the gut-brain axis, might contribute to neurodegenerative illnesses through altered astrocytic regulation. New treatment approaches to modify the gut-brain axis and prevent astrocytic repercussions have also been investigated in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ajmal Nassar
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - Triveni Kodi
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - Sairaj Satarker
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - Prasada Chowdari Gurram
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - S M Fayaz
- Department of Biotechnology, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India.
| | - Madhavan Nampoothiri
- Department of Pharmacology, Manipal College of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, Karnataka, India.
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Nitric Oxide Attenuates Human Cytomegalovirus Infection yet Disrupts Neural Cell Differentiation and Tissue Organization. J Virol 2022; 96:e0012622. [PMID: 35862705 PMCID: PMC9327702 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00126-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a prevalent betaherpesvirus that is asymptomatic in healthy individuals but can cause serious disease in immunocompromised patients. HCMV is also the leading cause of virus-mediated birth defects. Many of these defects manifest within the central nervous system and include microcephaly, sensorineural hearing loss, and cognitive developmental delays. Nitric oxide is a critical effector molecule produced as a component of the innate immune response during infection. Congenitally infected fetal brains show regions of brain damage, including necrotic foci with infiltrating macrophages and microglia, cell types that produce nitric oxide during infection. Using a 3-dimensional cortical organoid model, we demonstrate that nitric oxide inhibits HCMV spread and simultaneously disrupts neural rosette structures, resulting in tissue disorganization. Nitric oxide also attenuates HCMV replication in 2-dimensional cultures of neural progenitor cells (NPCs), a prominent cell type in cortical organoids that differentiate into neurons and glial cells. The multipotency factor SOX2 was decreased during nitric oxide exposure, suggesting that early neural differentiation is affected. Nitric oxide also reduced maximal mitochondrial respiration in both uninfected and infected NPCs. We determined that this reduction likely influences neural differentiation, as neurons (Tuj1+ GFAP- Nestin-) and glial populations (Tuj1- GFAP+ Nestin-) were reduced following differentiation. Our studies indicate a prominent, immunopathogenic role of nitric oxide in promoting developmental defects within the brain despite its antiviral activity during congenital HCMV infection. IMPORTANCE Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is the leading cause of virus-mediated congenital birth defects. Congenitally infected infants can have a variety of symptoms manifesting within the central nervous system. The use of 3-dimensional (3-D) cortical organoids to model infection of the fetal brain has advanced the current understanding of development and allowed broader investigation of the mechanisms behind disease. However, the impact of the innate immune molecule nitric oxide during HCMV infection has not been explored in neural cells or cortical 3-D models. Here, we investigated the effect of nitric oxide on cortical development during HCMV infection. We demonstrate that nitric oxide plays an antiviral role during infection yet results in disorganized cortical tissue. Nitric oxide contributes to differentiation defects of neuron and glial cells from neural progenitor cells despite inhibiting viral replication. Our results indicate that immunopathogenic consequences of nitric oxide during congenital infection promote developmental defects that undermine its antiviral activity.
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Su XJ, Shen BD, Wang K, Song QX, Yang X, Wu DS, Shen HX, Zhu C. Roles of the Neuron-Restrictive Silencer Factor in the Pathophysiological Process of the Central Nervous System. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:834620. [PMID: 35300407 PMCID: PMC8921553 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.834620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The neuron-restrictive silencer factor (NRSF), also known as repressor element 1 (RE-1) silencing transcription factor (REST) or X2 box repressor (XBR), is a zinc finger transcription factor that is widely expressed in neuronal and non-neuronal cells. It is a master regulator of the nervous system, and the function of NRSF is the basis of neuronal differentiation, diversity, plasticity, and survival. NRSF can bind to the neuron-restrictive silencer element (NRSE), recruit some co-repressors, and then inhibit transcription of NRSE downstream genes through epigenetic mechanisms. In neurogenesis, NRSF functions not only as a transcriptional silencer that can mediate the transcriptional inhibition of neuron-specific genes in non-neuronal cells and thus give neuron cells specificity, but also as a transcriptional activator to induce neuronal differentiation. Many studies have confirmed the association between NRSF and brain disorders, such as brain injury and neurodegenerative diseases. Overexpression, underexpression, or mutation may lead to neurological disorders. In tumorigenesis, NRSF functions as an oncogene in neuronal tumors, such as neuroblastomas, medulloblastomas, and pheochromocytomas, stimulating their proliferation, which results in poor prognosis. Additionally, NRSF-mediated selective targets gene repression plays an important role in the development and maintenance of neuropathic pain caused by nerve injury, cancer, and diabetes. At present, several compounds that target NRSF or its co-repressors, such as REST-VP16 and X5050, have been shown to be clinically effective against many brain diseases, such as seizures, implying that NRSF and its co-repressors may be potential and promising therapeutic targets for neural disorders. In the present review, we introduced the biological characteristics of NRSF; reviewed the progress to date in understanding the roles of NRSF in the pathophysiological processes of the nervous system, such as neurogenesis, brain disorders, neural tumorigenesis, and neuropathic pain; and suggested new therapeutic approaches to such brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Jin Su
- Department of Spine Surgery, School of Medicine, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Bei-Duo Shen
- Department of Spine Surgery, School of Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Kun Wang
- Department of Spine Surgery, School of Medicine, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Qing-Xin Song
- Department of Spine Surgery, School of Medicine, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xue Yang
- Department of Spine Surgery, School of Medicine, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - De-Sheng Wu
- Department of Spine Surgery, School of Medicine, Shanghai East Hospital, Tongji University, Shanghai, China
| | - Hong-Xing Shen
- Department of Spine Surgery, School of Medicine, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
| | - Chao Zhu
- Department of Spine Surgery, School of Medicine, Renji Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
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Pajarillo E, Digman A, Nyarko-Danquah I, Son DS, Soliman KFA, Aschner M, Lee E. Astrocytic transcription factor REST upregulates glutamate transporter EAAT2, protecting dopaminergic neurons from manganese-induced excitotoxicity. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:101372. [PMID: 34756885 PMCID: PMC8626589 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic exposure to high levels of manganese (Mn) leads to manganism, a neurological disorder with similar symptoms to those inherent to Parkinson's disease. However, the underlying mechanisms of this pathological condition have yet to be established. Since the human excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) (glutamate transporter 1 in rodents) is predominantly expressed in astrocytes and its dysregulation is involved in Mn-induced excitotoxic neuronal injury, characterization of the mechanisms that mediate the Mn-induced impairment in EAAT2 function is crucial for the development of novel therapeutics against Mn neurotoxicity. Repressor element 1-silencing transcription factor (REST) exerts protective effects in many neurodegenerative diseases. But the effects of REST on EAAT2 expression and ensuing neuroprotection are unknown. Given that the EAAT2 promoter contains REST binding sites, the present study investigated the role of REST in EAAT2 expression at the transcriptional level in astrocytes and Mn-induced neurotoxicity in an astrocyte–neuron coculture system. The results reveal that astrocytic REST positively regulates EAAT2 expression with the recruitment of an epigenetic modifier, cAMP response element-binding protein–binding protein/p300, to its consensus binding sites in the EAAT2 promoter. Moreover, astrocytic overexpression of REST attenuates Mn-induced reduction in EAAT2 expression, leading to attenuation of glutamate-induced neurotoxicity in the astrocyte–neuron coculture system. Our findings demonstrate that astrocytic REST plays a critical role in protection against Mn-induced neurotoxicity by attenuating Mn-induced EAAT2 repression and the ensuing excitotoxic dopaminergic neuronal injury. This indicates that astrocytic REST could be a potential molecular target for the treatment of Mn toxicity and other neurological disorders associated with EAAT2 dysregulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward Pajarillo
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
| | - Alexis Digman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
| | - Ivan Nyarko-Danquah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
| | - Deok-Soo Son
- Department of Biochemistry and Cancer Biology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Karam F A Soliman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA
| | - Michael Aschner
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA; Laboratory of Molecular Nutrition of the Institute for Personalized Medicine, Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia
| | - Eunsook Lee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA.
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Uyeda A, Quan L, Kato Y, Muramatsu N, Tanabe S, Sakai K, Ichinohe N, Kawahara Y, Suzuki T, Muramatsu R. Dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase 1 as a novel regulator of oligodendrocyte differentiation in the central nervous system remyelination. Glia 2021; 69:2591-2604. [PMID: 34270117 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Remyelination is a regenerative process that restores the lost neurological function and partially depends on oligodendrocyte differentiation. Differentiation of oligodendrocytes spontaneously occurs after demyelination, depending on the cell intrinsic mechanisms. By combining a loss-of-function genomic screen with a web-resource-based candidate gene identification approach, we identified that dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase 1 (DDAH1) is a novel regulator of oligodendrocyte differentiation. Silencing DDAH1 in oligodendrocytes prevented the expression of myelin basic protein in mouse oligodendrocyte culture with the change in expression of genes annotated with oligodendrocyte development. DDAH1 inhibition attenuated spontaneous remyelination in a cuprizone-induced demyelinated mouse model. Conversely, increased DDAH1 expression enhanced remyelination capacity in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. These results provide a novel therapeutic option for demyelinating diseases by modulating DDAH1 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akiko Uyeda
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Lili Quan
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yuki Kato
- Department of RNA Biology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Nagaaki Muramatsu
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Medical and Life Science, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Noda, Chiba, Japan
| | - Shogo Tanabe
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuhisa Sakai
- Department of Ultrastructural Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Noritaka Ichinohe
- Department of Ultrastructural Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yukio Kawahara
- Department of RNA Biology and Neuroscience, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Tatsunori Suzuki
- Department of Medical and Life Science, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Tokyo University of Science, Noda, Chiba, Japan
| | - Rieko Muramatsu
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
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Midgley AC, Wei Y, Li Z, Kong D, Zhao Q. Nitric-Oxide-Releasing Biomaterial Regulation of the Stem Cell Microenvironment in Regenerative Medicine. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2020; 32:e1805818. [PMID: 31423672 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201805818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2018] [Revised: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Stem cell therapy has proven to be an attractive solution for the treatment of degenerative diseases or injury. However, poor cell engraftment and survival within injured tissues limits the successful use of stem cell therapy within the clinical setting. Nitric oxide (NO) is an important signaling molecule involved in various physiological processes. Emerging evidence supports NO's diverse roles in modulating stem cell behavior, including survival, migration, differentiation, and paracrine secretion of proregenerative factors. Thus, there has been a shift in research focus to concentrate efforts on the delivery of therapeutic concentration ranges of NO to the target tissue sites. Combinatory therapies utilizing biomaterials that control NO generation and support stem cell delivery can be holistic and synergistic approaches to significantly improve tissue regeneration. Here, the focus is on recent developments of various therapeutic platforms, engineered to both transport NO and to enhance stem-cell-mediated regeneration of damaged tissues. New and emerging revelations of how the stem cell microenvironment can be regulated by NO-releasing biomaterials are also highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam C Midgley
- Rongxiang Xu Center for Regenerative Life Science, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials (Ministry of Education), College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Yongzhen Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials (Ministry of Education), College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Zongjin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials (Ministry of Education), College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Deling Kong
- Rongxiang Xu Center for Regenerative Life Science, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials (Ministry of Education), College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Qiang Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Key Laboratory of Bioactive Materials (Ministry of Education), College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
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Covacu R, Brundin L. Endogenous spinal cord stem cells in multiple sclerosis and its animal model. J Neuroimmunol 2019; 331:4-10. [PMID: 27884460 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2016.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The adult mammalian spinal cord (SC) harbors neural stem cells (NSCs). The SC-NSCs are mostly quiescent during physiological conditions but are quickly activated in traumatic injury models. The SC-NSCs generate mostly glia, but are able to differentiate into neurons when affected by favourable conditions. An example is the inflammatory milieu in the SC of rat EAE, where the SC-NSCs migrate into demyelinated lesions and give rise to both glia and neurons. In MS, cells with progenitor phenotypes accumulate in inflammatory lesions both in brain and SC, but the extent to which these cells contribute to repair remains to be revealed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruxandra Covacu
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Division of Neurology R3:04, Center of Molecular Medicine, L8:04, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Lou Brundin
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Division of Neurology R3:04, Center of Molecular Medicine, L8:04, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Stem Cells as Potential Targets of Polyphenols in Multiple Sclerosis and Alzheimer's Disease. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2018; 2018:1483791. [PMID: 30112360 PMCID: PMC6077677 DOI: 10.1155/2018/1483791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 06/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) and multiple sclerosis are major neurodegenerative diseases, which are characterized by the accumulation of abnormal pathogenic proteins due to oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, impaired autophagy, and pathogens, leading to neurodegeneration and behavioral deficits. Herein, we reviewed the utility of plant polyphenols in regulating proliferation and differentiation of stem cells for inducing brain self-repair in AD and multiple sclerosis. Firstly, we discussed the genetic, physiological, and environmental factors involved in the pathophysiology of both the disorders. Next, we reviewed various stem cell therapies available and how they have proved useful in animal models of AD and multiple sclerosis. Lastly, we discussed how polyphenols utilize the potential of stem cells, either complementing their therapeutic effects or stimulating endogenous and exogenous neurogenesis, against these diseases. We suggest that polyphenols could be a potential candidate for stem cell therapy against neurodegenerative disorders.
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Jin H, Li DY, Chernogubova E, Sun C, Busch A, Eken SM, Saliba-Gustafsson P, Winter H, Winski G, Raaz U, Schellinger IN, Simon N, Hegenloh R, Matic LP, Jagodic M, Ehrenborg E, Pelisek J, Eckstein HH, Hedin U, Backlund A, Maegdefessel L. Local Delivery of miR-21 Stabilizes Fibrous Caps in Vulnerable Atherosclerotic Lesions. Mol Ther 2018; 26:1040-1055. [PMID: 29503197 PMCID: PMC6080193 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2018.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2017] [Revised: 01/08/2018] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
miRNAs are potential regulators of carotid artery stenosis and concordant vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques. Hence, we analyzed miRNA expression in laser captured micro-dissected fibrous caps of either ruptured or stable plaques (n = 10 each), discovering that miR-21 was significantly downregulated in unstable lesions. To functionally evaluate miR-21 in plaque vulnerability, miR-21 and miR-21/apolipoprotein-E double-deficient mice (Apoe-/-miR-21-/-) were assessed. miR-21-/- mice lacked sufficient smooth muscle cell proliferation in response to carotid ligation injury. When exposing Apoe-/-miR-21-/- mice to an inducible plaque rupture model, they presented with more atherothrombotic events (93%) compared with miR-21+/+Apoe-/- mice (57%). We discovered that smooth muscle cell fate in experimentally induced advanced lesions is steered via a REST-miR-21-REST feedback signaling pathway. Furthermore, Apoe-/-miR-21-/- mice presented with more pronounced atherosclerotic lesions, greater foam cell formation, and substantially higher levels of arterial macrophage infiltration. Local delivery of a miR-21 mimic using ultrasound-targeted microbubbles into carotid plaques rescued the vulnerable plaque rupture phenotype. In the present study, we identify miR-21 as a key modulator of pathologic processes in advanced atherosclerosis. Targeted, lesion site-specific overexpression of miR-21 can stabilize vulnerable plaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Jin
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Daniel Y Li
- Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich, Germany
| | | | - Changyan Sun
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Albert Busch
- Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich, Germany
| | - Suzanne M Eken
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Hanna Winter
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Greg Winski
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Uwe Raaz
- University Heart Center, Göttingen, Germany
| | | | - Nancy Simon
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Renate Hegenloh
- Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich, Germany
| | - Ljubica Perisic Matic
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Maja Jagodic
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ewa Ehrenborg
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jaroslav Pelisek
- Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich, Germany
| | - Hans-Henning Eckstein
- Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich, Germany
| | - Ulf Hedin
- Department of Molecular Medicine and Surgery, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Lars Maegdefessel
- Department of Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Technical University Munich, Munich, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Munich, Germany.
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11
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Negative regulation of REST on NR2B in spinal cord contributes to the development of bone cancer pain in mice. Oncotarget 2018; 7:85564-85572. [PMID: 27732941 PMCID: PMC5356758 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.9447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 07/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, C3H/HeNCrlVr mice are implanted with sarcoma NCTC 2472 cells into the intramedullary space of the femur to induce ongoing bone cancer-related pain behaviors. During the progress of the bone cancer pain, the down-regulation in spinal REST (Neuron-restrictive silencer factor, NRSF/REST) with concomitant up-regulation in spinal NR2B (2B subunit of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor, NR2B) protein expression are observed at days 5, 7, 10 and 14 post-inoculation. Immunofluorescence assay shows that almost all of REST and NR2B-positive signals encompass NeuN (neuron-specific nuclear protein, a neuronal marker)-positive signals in spinal cord of sham and tumor-bearing mice. Different from previous researches involved in the main distribution of REST in neural progenitors, the expression of REST in mature neurons in spinal cord of adult mice is observed. Intrathecal administration of AS-ODN of REST at days 0, 2, 4 and 6 post-inoculation further enhances expression of spinal NR2B at day 7 post-inoculation, which suggests the reduced suppression of spinal REST on NR2B during the development of bone cancer pain. In summary, our study provides the evidence that the negative regulation of REST on NR2B in spinal cord takes part in the exacerbation of bone cancer pain.
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Ottoboni L, Merlini A, Martino G. Neural Stem Cell Plasticity: Advantages in Therapy for the Injured Central Nervous System. Front Cell Dev Biol 2017; 5:52. [PMID: 28553634 PMCID: PMC5427132 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2017.00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The physiological and pathological properties of the neural germinal stem cell niche have been well-studied in the past 30 years, mainly in animals and within given limits in humans, and knowledge is available for the cyto-architectonic structure, the cellular components, the timing of development and the energetic maintenance of the niche, as well as for the therapeutic potential and the cross talk between neural and immune cells. In recent years we have gained detailed understanding of the potentiality of neural stem cells (NSCs), although we are only beginning to understand their molecular, metabolic, and epigenetic profile in physiopathology and, further, more can be invested to measure quantitatively the activity of those cells, to model in vitro their therapeutic responses or to predict interactions in silico. Information in this direction has been put forward for other organs but is still limited in the complex and very less accessible context of the brain. A comprehensive understanding of the behavior of endogenous NSCs will help to tune or model them toward a desired response in order to treat complex neurodegenerative diseases. NSCs have the ability to modulate multiple cellular functions and exploiting their plasticity might make them into potent and versatile cellular drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Ottoboni
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, San Raffaele Scientific InstituteMilan, Italy
| | - Arianna Merlini
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, San Raffaele Scientific InstituteMilan, Italy
| | - Gianvito Martino
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, San Raffaele Scientific InstituteMilan, Italy
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Akkermann R, Jadasz JJ, Azim K, Küry P. Taking Advantage of Nature's Gift: Can Endogenous Neural Stem Cells Improve Myelin Regeneration? Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:ijms17111895. [PMID: 27854261 PMCID: PMC5133894 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17111895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Revised: 10/28/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Irreversible functional deficits in multiple sclerosis (MS) are directly correlated to axonal damage and loss. Neurodegeneration results from immune-mediated destruction of myelin sheaths and subsequent axonal demyelination. Importantly, oligodendrocytes, the myelinating glial cells of the central nervous system, can be replaced to some extent to generate new myelin sheaths. This endogenous regeneration capacity has so far mainly been attributed to the activation and recruitment of resident oligodendroglial precursor cells. As this self-repair process is limited and increasingly fails while MS progresses, much interest has evolved regarding the development of remyelination-promoting strategies and the presence of alternative cell types, which can also contribute to the restoration of myelin sheaths. The adult brain comprises at least two neurogenic niches harboring life-long adult neural stem cells (NSCs). An increasing number of investigations are beginning to shed light on these cells under pathological conditions and revealed a significant potential of NSCs to contribute to myelin repair activities. In this review, these emerging investigations are discussed with respect to the importance of stimulating endogenous repair mechanisms from germinal sources. Moreover, we present key findings of NSC-derived oligodendroglial progeny, including a comprehensive overview of factors and mechanisms involved in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer Akkermann
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Janusz Joachim Jadasz
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
| | - Kasum Azim
- Focus Translational Neuroscience, Institute of Physiological Chemistry, University of Mainz, 55122 Mainz, Germany.
| | - Patrick Küry
- Department of Neurology, Medical Faculty, Heinrich-Heine-University, 40225 Düsseldorf, Germany.
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Abstract
Neural stem/progenitor cells (NSCs/NPCs) are present in different locations in the central nervous system. In the subgranular zone (SGZ) there is a constant generation of new neurons under normal conditions. New neurons are also formed from the subventricular zone (SVZ) NSCs, and they migrate anteriorly as neuroblast to the olfactory bulb in rodents, whereas in humans migration is directed toward striatum. Most CNS injuries elicit proliferation and migration of the NSCs toward the injury site, indicating the activation of a regenerative response. However, regeneration from NSC is incomplete, and this could be due to detrimental cues encountered during inflammation. Different CNS diseases and trauma cause activation of the innate and adaptive immune responses that influence the NSCs. Furthermore, NSCs in the brain react differently to inflammatory cues than their counterparts in the spinal cord. In this review, we have summarized the effects of inflammation on NSCs in relation to their origin and briefly described the NSC activity during different neurological diseases or experimental models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruxandra Covacu
- 1 Depatment of Clinical Neuroscience, Neurology, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Lou Brundin
- 1 Depatment of Clinical Neuroscience, Neurology, Karolinska University Hospital and Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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Wang W, Lee Y, Lee CH. Effects of nitric oxide on stem cell therapy. Biotechnol Adv 2015; 33:1685-96. [PMID: 26394194 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Revised: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 09/18/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The use of stem cells as a research tool and a therapeutic vehicle has demonstrated their great potential in the treatment of various diseases. With unveiling of nitric oxide synthase (NOS) universally present at various levels in nearly all types of body tissues, the potential therapeutic implication of nitric oxide (NO) has been magnified, and thus scientists have explored new treatment strategies involved with stem cells and NO against various diseases. As the functionality of NO encompasses cardiovascular, neuronal and immune systems, NO is involved in stem cell differentiation, epigenetic regulation and immune suppression. Stem cells trigger cellular responses to external signals on the basis of both NO specific pathways and concerted action with endogenous compounds including stem cell regulators. As potency and interaction of NO with stem cells generally depend on the concentrations of NO and the presence of the cofactors at the active site, the suitable carriers for NO delivery is integral for exerting maximal efficacy of stem cells. The innovative utilization of NO functionality and involved mechanisms would invariably alter the paradigm of therapeutic application of stem cells. Future prospects in NO-involved stem cell research which promises to enhance drug discovery efforts by opening new era to improve drug efficacy, reduce drug toxicity and understand disease mechanisms and pathways, were also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wuchen Wang
- School of Pharmacy University of Missouri, Kansas City, USA
| | - Yugyung Lee
- School of Computing and Engineering, University of Missouri, Kansas City, USA
| | - Chi H Lee
- School of Pharmacy University of Missouri, Kansas City, USA.
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Ren H, Gao Z, Wu N, Zeng L, Tang X, Chen X, Liu Z, Zhang W, Wang L, Li Z. Expression of REST4 in human gliomas in vivo and influence of pioglitazone on REST in vitro. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 463:504-9. [PMID: 26003726 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.05.058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Accepted: 05/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The repressor element-1 (RE1) silencing transcription factor/neuron-restrictive silencer factor (REST/NRSF) has an irreplaceable role during the differentiation of neurons. REST has multiple splice variants which link to various types of cancer. Previous work had highlighted the role of REST in glioma, where the expression of REST is enhanced. But whether alternative splicing of REST is expressed in glioma has not been described. Here, we show that a specific isoform REST4 is expressed in glioma specimens, and will influence the mRNA level of REST in vivo. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPARγ) agonists have a role of antineoplastic in various tumor cells, which including glioma cells. Moreover, study indicated that PPARγ agonist pioglitazone can promote alternative splicing of REST pre-mRNA. In this study, we selected pioglitazone as a tool drug to explore whether the role of pioglitazone in anti-glioma is mediated by regulating REST expression or promoting alternative splicing of REST in glioma cells. Results show that pioglitazone can inhibit proliferation and induce apoptosis of glioma cell in vitro, which may be mediated by down-regulating REST mRNA level but not by inducing alternative splicing of REST pre-mRNA. Our study firstly reports the expression of REST4 in glioma tissue samples. And we recommend that pioglitazone, which can reduce the expression level of REST, represents a promising drug for therapy of glioma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Ren
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Zhangfeng Gao
- Department of Neurosurgery, Second Xiangya Hospital of Central South University, Changsha 410008, China
| | - Nayiyuan Wu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Liu Zeng
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Xinyue Tang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Xiaoping Chen
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Zhaoqian Liu
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Wei Zhang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Liansheng Wang
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha 410078, China
| | - Zhi Li
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Xiangya Hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China; Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Central South University, Hunan Key Laboratory of Pharmacogenetics, Changsha 410078, China.
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Nitric oxide regulates multiple functions and fate of adult progenitor and stem cells. J Physiol Biochem 2014; 71:141-53. [DOI: 10.1007/s13105-014-0373-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 12/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Carreira BP, Morte MI, Santos AI, Lourenço AS, Ambrósio AF, Carvalho CM, Araújo IM. Nitric oxide from inflammatory origin impairs neural stem cell proliferation by inhibiting epidermal growth factor receptor signaling. Front Cell Neurosci 2014; 8:343. [PMID: 25389386 PMCID: PMC4211408 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2014.00343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2014] [Accepted: 10/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is characterized by activation of microglial cells, followed by production of nitric oxide (NO), which may have different outcomes on neurogenesis, favoring or inhibiting this process. In the present study, we investigated how the inflammatory mediator NO can affect proliferation of neural stem cells (NSCs), and explored possible mechanisms underlying this effect. We investigated which mechanisms are involved in the regulation of NSC proliferation following treatment with an inflammatory stimulus (lipopolysaccharide plus IFN-γ), using a culture system of subventricular zone (SVZ)-derived NSCs mixed with microglia cells obtained from wild-type mice (iNOS(+/+)) or from iNOS knockout mice (iNOS(-/-)). We found an impairment of NSC cell proliferation in iNOS(+/+) mixed cultures, which was not observed in iNOS(-/-) mixed cultures. Furthermore, the increased release of NO by activated iNOS(+/+) microglial cells decreased the activation of the ERK/MAPK signaling pathway, which was concomitant with an enhanced nitration of the EGF receptor. Preventing nitrogen reactive species formation with MnTBAP, a scavenger of peroxynitrite (ONOO(-)), or using the ONOO(-) degradation catalyst FeTMPyP, cell proliferation and ERK signaling were restored to basal levels in iNOS(+/+) mixed cultures. Moreover, exposure to the NO donor NOC-18 (100 μM), for 48 h, inhibited SVZ-derived NSC proliferation. Regarding the antiproliferative effect of NO, we found that NOC-18 caused the impairment of signaling through the ERK/MAPK pathway, which may be related to increased nitration of the EGF receptor in NSC. Using MnTBAP nitration was prevented, maintaining ERK signaling, rescuing NSC proliferation. We show that NO from inflammatory origin leads to a decreased function of the EGF receptor, which compromised proliferation of NSC. We also demonstrated that NO-mediated nitration of the EGF receptor caused a decrease in its phosphorylation, thus preventing regular proliferation signaling through the ERK/MAPK pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno P Carreira
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Maria I Morte
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Ana I Santos
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra Coimbra, Portugal ; Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine, University of Algarve Faro, Portugal ; Centre for Molecular and Structural Biomedicine, CBME/IBB, University of Algarve Faro, Portugal
| | - Ana S Lourenço
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra Coimbra, Portugal ; Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine, University of Algarve Faro, Portugal ; Centre for Molecular and Structural Biomedicine, CBME/IBB, University of Algarve Faro, Portugal
| | - António F Ambrósio
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra Coimbra, Portugal ; Centre of Ophthalmology and Vision Sciences, Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (IBILI), Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Caetana M Carvalho
- Centre for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Inês M Araújo
- Regenerative Medicine Program, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Medicine, University of Algarve Faro, Portugal ; Centre for Molecular and Structural Biomedicine, CBME/IBB, University of Algarve Faro, Portugal
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