Recent Advances in Isoindigo-Inspired Organic Semiconductors

Thienoisoindigo-Based Conjugated Polymers Synthesized by Direct Arylation Polycondensation

A series of thienoisoindigo (TIG)-based conjugated polymers (CPs) with high molecular weights are synthesized by direct arylation polycondensation (DArP) by using TIG derivatives as CBr monomer and multi-halogenated thiophene derivatives, i.e., (E)-1,2-bis(3,4-difluorothien-2-yl)ethene (4FTVT), (E)-1,2-bis(3,4-dichlorothien-2-yl)ethene (4ClTVT), 3,3',4,4'-tetrafluoro-2,2'-bithiophene (4FBT), and 3,3',4,4'-tetrachloro-2,2'-bithiophene (4ClBT), as CH monomers. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations reveal the high selectivity between α-CH bonds in 4FTVT, 4ClTVT, 4FBT, and 4ClBT and β-CH bonds in TIG CBr monomer. All four resulting CPs exhibit low optical bandgaps of ca. 1.20 eV and ambipolar transport characteristics with both electron and hole mobility above 0.1 cm2  V-1  s-1 as elaborated with organic thin-film transistors (OTFTs). The polymer TIG-4FTVT delivers the best device performance. With this polymer, n-channel OTFTs with electron mobility up to 1.67 cm2  V-1  s-1 and p-channel OTFTs with hole mobility up to 0.62 cm2  V-1  s-1 are fabricated by modifying source/drain electrodes with polyethylenimine ethoxylated (PEIE) and MoO3 , respectively, to selectively inject electrons and holes.

Gels of Semiconducting Polymers in Benign Solvents

Gels of semiconducting polymers have many potential applications, including biomedical devices and sensors. Here, we report a self-assembled gel system consisting of isoindigo-based semiconducting polymers with galactose side chains in benign, alcohol-based solvents. Because of the carbohydrate side chains, the modified isoindigo polymers are soluble in alcohols. We obtained thermoreversible gels in 1-propanol using these polymers and di-Fmoc-l-lysine, a molecular gelator. The polymers and molecular gelators have been selected in such a way that they do not have significant physical interactions. The molecular gelator self-assembled to form a fibrous structure that confines the polymer chains in the interstitial spaces of the fibers. The polymer chains formed local aggregations and increased the shear moduli of the gels significantly. Bulky galactose side chains and the less planar nature of the polymer backbone hindered the formation of long-range assembled structures of the polymers. However, the dispersion of polymers throughout the gel samples resulted in a percolated structure in the dried gel films. The bulk electrical conductivity of dried gels confirmed the presence of such percolated structures. Our results demonstrated that carbohydrate-containing conjugated polymers can be combined with molecular gelators to obtain gels in eco-friendly solvents.

De Novo Synthesis of α-Oligo(arylfuran)s and Its Application in OLED as Hole-Transporting Material

Tuning the photophysical properties of π-conjugated oligomers by functionalization of skeleton, to achieve an optically and electronically advantageous building block for organic semiconductor materials is a vital yet challenging task. In this work, a series of structurally well-defined polyaryl-functionalized α-oligofurans, in which aryl groups are introduced precisely into each of the furan units, are rapidly and efficiently synthesized by de novo metal-free synthesis of α-bi(arylfuran) monomers for the first time. This new synthetic strategy nicely circumvents the cumbersome substituent introduction process in the later stage by the preinstallation of the desired aryl groups in the starting material. The characterization of α-oligo(arylfuran)s demonstrates that photoelectric properties of coplanar α-oligo(arylfuran)s can be tuned through varying aryl groups with different electrical properties. These novel α-oligo(arylfuran)s have good hole transport capacity and can function as hole-transporting layers in organic light-emitting diodes, which is indicative of significant breakthrough in the application of α-oligofurans materials in OLEDs. And our findings offer an avenue for the ingenious use of α-oligo(arylfuran)s as p-type organic semiconductors for OLEDs.

Tetracyanobutadiene Bridged Push-Pull Chromophores: Development of New Generation Optoelectronic Materials

This review describes the design strategies used for the synthesis of various tetracyanobutadiene bridged donor-acceptor molecular architectures by a click type [2+2] cycloaddition-retroelectrocyclization (CA-RE) reaction sequence. The photophysical and electrochemical properties of the tetracyanobutadiene bridged molecular architectures based on various moieties including diketopyrrolopyrrole, isoindigo, benzothiadiazole, pyrene, pyrazabole, truxene, boron dipyrromethene (BODIPY), phenothiazine, triphenylamine, thiazole and bisthiazole are summarized. Further, we discuss some important applications of the tetracyanobutadiene bridged derivatives in dye sensitized solar cells, bulk heterojunction solar cells and photothermal cancer therapy.

Acceptor Modulation Strategies for Improving the Electron Transport in High-Performance Organic Field-Effect Transistors

High-performance ambipolar and electronic type semiconducting polymers are essential for fabricating various organic optoelectronic devices and complementary circuits. This review summarizes the strategies of improving the electron transport of semiconducting polymers via acceptor modulation strategies, which include the use of single, dual, triple, multiple, and all acceptors as well as the fusion of multiple identical acceptors to obtain new heterocyclic acceptors. To further improve the electron transport of semiconducting polymers, the introduction of strong electron-withdrawing groups can enhance the electron-withdrawing ability of donors and acceptors, thereby facilitating electron injection and suppressing hole accumulation. In addition, the relationships between the molecular structure, frontier molecular orbital energy levels, thin film morphology, microstructure, processing conditions, and device performances are also comprehensively discussed. Finally, the challenges encountered in this research area are proposed and the future outlook is presented.

Recent progress of ultra-narrow-bandgap polymer donors for NIR-absorbing organic solar cells

Solution-processed near-infrared (NIR)-absorbing organic solar cells (OSCs) have been explored worldwide because of their potential as donor:acceptor bulk heterojunction (BHJ) blends. In addition, NIR-absorbing OSCs have attracted attention as high specialty equipment in next-generation optoelectronic devices, such as semitransparent solar cells and NIR photodetectors, owing to their feasibility for real-time commercial application in industry. With the introduction of NIR-absorbing non-fullerene acceptors (NFAs), the value of OSCs has been increasing while organic donor materials capable of absorbing light in the NIR region have not been actively studied yet compared to NIR-absorbing acceptor materials. Therefore, we present an overall understanding of NIR donors.

Predicting the substituent effects in the optical and electrochemical properties of N,N'-substituted isoindigos

Isoindigo, the structural isomer of the well-known dye indigo, has seen a major revival recently because of the increasing interest of its use as a potential drug core structure and for the development of organic photovoltaic materials. Highly beneficial for diverse applications are its facile synthesis, straightforward functionalisation and the broad absorption band in the visible range. Moreover, its intrinsic electron deficiency renders isoindigo a promising acceptor structure in bulk heterojunction architectures. Here we present new insights into the substituent effects of N-functionalised isoindigos, developing a reliable and fast in silico screening approach of a library of compounds. Using experimental UV-Vis and electrochemical data increased the accuracy of the TD-DFT method employed. This procedure allowed us to accurately predict the optical and electrochemical properties of N-functionalised isoindigos and the elucidation of the relationship between substituent effects and electronic properties.

Columnar Mesomorphism of Board-Shaped Perylene, Diketopyrrolopyrrole, Isoindigo, Indigo, and Quinoxalino-Phenanthrophenazine Dyes

The properties of organic dyes depend as much on their intermolecular interactions as on their molecular structure. While it is generally predictable what supramolecular structure would be ideal for a specific application, the generation of specific supramolecular structures by molecular design and suitable processing methods remains to be a challenge. A versatile approach to different supramolecular structures has been the application of mesomorphism in conjunction with alignment techniques and self-assembly at interfaces. Reviewed here is the columnar mesomorphism of board-shaped dyes perylene, indigo, isoindigo, diketopyrrolopyrrole, and quinoxalinophenanthrophenazine. They generate a larger number of different supramolecular structures than conventional disc-shaped (discotic) mesogens because of their non-circular shape and directional intermolecular interactions. The mesomorphism of all but the perylene derivatives is systematically and comprehensively covered for the first time.

High-performance polymer field-effect transistors: from the perspective of multi-level microstructures

The multi-level microstructure of conjugated polymers is the most critical parameter determining the charge transport property in field-effect transistors (FETs). However, controlling the hierarchical microstructures and the structural evolution remains a significant challenge. In this perspective, we discuss the key aspects of multi-level microstructures of conjugated polymers towards high-performance FETs. We highlight the recent progress in the molecular structures, solution-state aggregation, and polymer crystal structures, representing the multi-level microstructures of conjugated polymers. By tuning polymer hierarchical microstructures, we attempt to provide several guidelines for developing high-performance polymer FETs and polymer electronics.

The Chemistry and Applications of Heteroisoindigo Units as Enabling Links for Semiconducting Materials

ConspectusBecause of their low-temperature processing properties and inherent mechanical flexibility, semiconducting materials are promising candidates for enabling flexible displays, renewable energy, biological sensors, and healthcare. Progress has been made in materials performance by developing judicious materials design strategies. For example, improvements in electron transport have required new electron-deficient aromatics. Among them, isoindigo (IID) is an important functional group utilized in conjugated aromatics, where the structure combines two sets of five-membered electron-withdrawing lactam rings, exhibiting enhanced solubility, excellent chemical and thermal stabilities, broad absorption, and intriguing electron affinity.In the past decade, researchers have mainly focused on IID-based materials. However, the effect of heteroatom modification of the IID core has rarely been systemically investigated. In conventional conjugated polymers, single bonds connect the monomers, leading to energetic disorder and torsion defects, while ladder-type polymers are often intractable because of their fused nature. In this regard, the molecular design of new π scaffolds based on IID is central to the development of high-performance semiconductor polymers. Especially, a complete refresh of molecular design strategies and novel conjugated polymers with unique structures are needed to circumvent the disadvantages of the conventional ladder-type polymers.In this Account, we systematically summarize our recent progress in the design, synthesis, and structure-property relationships of IID- and particularly hetero-IID-based functional materials. More specifically, starting with molecular engineering of hetero-IIDs with variable electronic effects, conjugation lengths, and numbers of heterorings, we discuss the effect of the heteroring on the absorption spectra and energy levels. Additionally, we investigate a series of electron-withdrawing substitution of IIDs and hetero-IIDs and their molecular self-assembly behavior and the device performance. Furthermore, we discuss a series of IID-bis(EDOT) copolymers with hydrophilic ethylene glycol side chains for accumulation-mode organic thin-film electrochemical transistors, in which the relationships among the molecular structure, operational stability, film morphology, and device performance were revealed. Compared with IID polymers, the HOMO levels and optical band gaps of the thiophene and thienothiophene IID copolymers markedly decrease, and these polymers exhibit ambipolar charge transport. When we further expanded the IID core to a thieno[3,2-b][1]benzothiophene isoindigo (TBTI) core, such as in TBTIT, bulk-heterojunction solar cells employing this polymer class as the electron donor achieved good efficiency for additive- and annealing-free device conditions. When we introduced electron-deficient pyridine on the IID core, both the LUMO and HOMO energy levels of the copolymers markedly decreased, which significantly improved the electron mobility. In addition, we compare the correlation between the polymer structures of IID and hetero-IID copolymers with thiophene and benzothiophene as comonomers and their absorption spectra and energy levels. In particular, we evaluate the planarity and the dihedral angle between the repeat units, with systematic analysis by theoretical calculations to support our design concepts. We discuss polymer designs arising from simple aldol condensation, where the rigid backbone conformation has been locked by the double bonds. Our polymers display broad absorption from the visible to the NIR-II region, and more importantly, the high electron affinities of these polymers provide a platform to realize ambient-stable electron transport in solution-processed organic thin-film transistors. These exciting results are expected to open doors to new horizons of semiconducting materials in terms of other charming applications and the design and synthesis of superior materials.

Air-Stable and High-Performance Unipolar n-Type Conjugated Semiconducting Polymers Prepared by a "Strong Acceptor-Weak Donor" Strategy

Unipolar n-type conjugated polymer materials with long-term stable electron transport upon direct exposure to the air atmosphere are very challenging to prepare. In this study, three unipolar n-type donor-acceptor (D-A) conjugated polymer semiconductors (abbreviated as PNVB, PBABDFV, and PBAIDV) were successfully developed through a "strong acceptor-weak donor" strategy. The weak electron donation of the donor units in all three polymers successfully lowered the molecular energy levels by the acceptor units that strongly attracted electrons. Cyclic voltammetry demonstrated that all three polymers had low highest occupied molecular orbital and lowest unoccupied molecular orbital energy levels near -6.0 and -4.0 eV, respectively. These results were consistent with the density functional theory calculations. The as-prepared polymers were then used to manufacture organic field-effect transistor (OFET) devices in bottom-gate/top-contact (BG/TC) configuration without any packaging protection. As expected, all devices exhibited unipolar electron transport properties. PBABDFV-based devices showed excellent field-effect performance and air stability, beneficial for straight-line molecular chain and closest π-π stacking distance to prevent water vapor and oxygen from diffusion into the active layer. This led to a maximum electron mobility (μ_e,max) of 0.79 cm² V^-1 s^-1 under air conditions. In addition, 0.50 cm² V^-1 s^-1 was still maintained after 27 days of storage in ambient environment. The near-ideal transfer curve of the PBABDFV-based OFET device in BG/TC configuration under vacuum was obtained with average mobility reliability factor (r_ave) reaching 88%.

Stereochemistry, Stereodynamics, and Redox and Complexation Behaviors of 2,2'-Diaryl-1,1'-Biazulenes

2,2'-Diaryl-1,1'-biazulenes were synthesized and electronic communication between the azulene subunits was suggested based on redox measurements. The linkage of azulene at the 1-position also appeared to increase the HOMO levels. In addition, cyclic voltammetry measurements of 2-arylazulenes showed a return peak associated with the oxidation, which was not observed for azulene. The stabilization of the single-electron oxidant may be due to the SOMO-HOMO energy inversion phenomenon. X-ray crystallography of the azulene dimers revealed that this species possessed a syn-type structure in which both aryl groups in the 2-positions formed π-stacks. The twisted structure was indicated to be in the (R)- or (S)-configuration for all molecules in the unit cell. Spontaneous resolution was also shown. Furthermore, from the solid circular dichroism (CD) spectral measurements, the relationship between the absolute configuration of the molecules and the CD spectra was determined. A racemization rotational barrier of ca. 27 kcal mol^-1 was calculated. Moreover, the pyridylazulene dimer cyclized upon reaction with PdCl₂ to form a 3 : 3 complex, in which the biazulene units cyclized to give ratios between the (R)- and (S)-forms of either 2 : 1 or 1 : 2.

Synthesis and photophysical studies of an indigo derivative: N-octyl-7,7′-diazaindigo

In this paper, we explore the synthesis, characterization, and photophysical properties of a novel indigo derivative, N-octyl-7,7′-diazaindigo, being the first time that diazaindigos have been studied as photophysically-active chemical entities. Reduction of the neutral “keto-form” to the so-called “leuco-form” changes the global spectroscopic and photophysical behaviors. Both species have been investigated by different photophysical studies, such as analysis of absorption and emission spectra, fluorescence quantum yields (Φ_F) and lifetimes. Finally, to appraise in depth the deactivation of the excited state of the keto form, femtosecond transient absorption (TA) experiments and Density Functional Theory (DFT) and Time Dependent (TD)-DFT calculations were performed. In an organic aprotic solvent (N,N-dimethylformamide), TA experiments showed a fast deactivation channel (τ₁ = 2.9 ps), which was ascribed to solvent reorganization, and a longer decay component (τ₂ = 86 ps) associated with an internal conversion (IC) process to the ground-state, in opposition to the excited state proton transfer (ESPT) mechanism that takes place in the indigo molecules but in protic solvents. A comparative study was also carried out on the parent molecule, 7,7′-diazaindigo, corroborating the previous conclusions obtained for the alkyl derivative. In agreement with experimental observations, DFT and TD-DFT calculations revealed that the deactivation of the S₁ state of the keto form takes place through an internal conversion process.

We report the synthesis, characterization, photophysical properties, and theoretical calculations of a novel indigo derivative, N-octyl-7,7′-diazaindigo.