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Metcalf JS, Banack SA, Wyatt PB, Nunn PB, Cox PA. A Direct Analysis of β- N-methylamino-l-alanine Enantiomers and Isomers and Its Application to Cyanobacteria and Marine Mollusks. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:639. [PMID: 37999501 PMCID: PMC10674937 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15110639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 10/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Of the wide variety of toxic compounds produced by cyanobacteria, the neurotoxic amino acid β-N-methylamino-l-alanine (BMAA) has attracted attention as a result of its association with chronic human neurodegenerative diseases such as ALS and Alzheimer's. Consequently, specific detection methods are required to assess the presence of BMAA and its isomers in environmental and clinical materials, including cyanobacteria and mollusks. Although the separation of isomers such as β-amino-N-methylalanine (BAMA), N-(2-aminoethyl)glycine (AEG) and 2,4-diaminobutyric acid (DAB) from BMAA has been demonstrated during routine analysis, a further compounding factor is the potential presence of enantiomers for some of these isomers. Current analytical methods for BMAA mostly do not discriminate between enantiomers, and the chiral configuration of BMAA in cyanobacteria is still largely unexplored. To understand the potential for the occurrence of D-BMAA in cyanobacteria, a chiral UPLC-MS/MS method was developed to separate BMAA enantiomers and isomers and to determine the enantiomeric configuration of endogenous free BMAA in a marine Lyngbya mat and two mussel reference materials. After extraction, purification and derivatization with N-(4-nitrophenoxycarbonyl)-l-phenylalanine 2-methoxyethyl ester ((S)-NIFE), both L- and D-BMAA were identified as free amino acids in cyanobacterial materials, whereas only L-BMAA was identified in mussel tissues. The finding of D-BMAA in biological environmental materials raises questions concerning the source and role of BMAA enantiomers in neurological disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- James S. Metcalf
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Box 3464, Jackson, WY 83001, USA; (S.A.B.); (P.A.C.)
- Department of Biological Sciences, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, OH 43403, USA
| | - Sandra Anne Banack
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Box 3464, Jackson, WY 83001, USA; (S.A.B.); (P.A.C.)
| | - Peter B. Wyatt
- The School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK; (P.B.W.); (P.B.N.)
| | - Peter B. Nunn
- The School of Physical and Chemical Sciences, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK; (P.B.W.); (P.B.N.)
| | - Paul A. Cox
- Brain Chemistry Labs, Box 3464, Jackson, WY 83001, USA; (S.A.B.); (P.A.C.)
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Bownik A, Adamczuk M, Skowrońska BP. Effects of cyanobacterial metabolites: Aeruginosin 98A, microginin-FR1, anabaenopeptin-A, cylindrospermopsin in binary and quadruple mixtures on the survival and oxidative stress biomarkers of Daphnia magna. Toxicon 2023; 229:107137. [PMID: 37121403 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The aim of our study was to determine the effects of aeruginosin 98 A (ARE-A), microginin-FR1 (MG-FR1), anabaenopeptin-A (ANA-A) cylindrospermopsin (CYL) and their binary and quadruple mixtures on the survival and the levels of oxidative stress biomarkers in Daphnia magna: total glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT), dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA). The biochemical indicators were measured with ELISA kits and the interactive effects were determined by isobole and polygonal analysis with Compusyn® computer software. The study revealed that oligopeptides did not decrease daphnid survival, only CYL inhibited this parameter, with synergistic effects when it was used as a component. The single metabolites at the two highest concentrations and all the binary and quadruple mixtures at all concentrations diminished GSH level, however both in the binary and in the quadruple mixtures most of the interactions between the metabolites were antagonistic. Nearly additive effects were found only in AER-A + CYL and MG-FR1+CYL. On the other hand, CAT activity was slightly increased in daphnids exposed to the binary mixtures with antagonistic interactions, however nearly addivive effects were found in animals exposed to the mixture of AER-A + ANA-A and synergistic in the quadruple mixture. SOD was elevated in daphnids exposed to single AER-A and MG-FR1, however it was diminished in the animals exposed to ANA-A and CYL. Binary mixtures in which CYL was present as a component decreased the level of this enzyme with nearly additive interactions in ANA-A + CYL. The quadruple mixture increased SOD level, with antagonistic interactions. Both single cyanobacterial metabolites, their binary and quadruple mixtures induced lipid peroxidation measured by MDA level and most of interactions in the binary mixtures were synergistic. The study suggested that antioxidative system of Daphnia magna responded to the tested metabolites and the real exposure to mixtures of these products may lead to various interactive effects with varied total toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Bownik
- Department of Hydrobiology and Protection of Ecosystems, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Dobrzańskiego 37, 20-262, Lublin, Poland.
| | - Małgorzata Adamczuk
- Department of Hydrobiology and Protection of Ecosystems, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Dobrzańskiego 37, 20-262, Lublin, Poland
| | - Barbara Pawlik Skowrońska
- Department of Hydrobiology and Protection of Ecosystems, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Dobrzańskiego 37, 20-262, Lublin, Poland
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Hercog K, Štampar M, Štern A, Filipič M, Žegura B. Application of advanced HepG2 3D cell model for studying genotoxic activity of cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 265:114965. [PMID: 32559695 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is an emerging cyanotoxin increasingly being found in freshwater cyanobacterial blooms worldwide. Humans and animals are exposed to CYN through the consumption of contaminated water and food as well as occupational and recreational water activities; therefore, it represents a potential health threat. It exhibits genotoxic effects in metabolically active test systems, thus it is considered as pro-genotoxic. In the present study, the advanced 3D cell model developed from human hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG2) cells was used for the evaluation of CYN cyto-/genotoxic activity. Spheroids were formed by forced floating method and were cultured for three days under static conditions prior to exposure to CYN (0.125, 0.25 and 0.5 μg/mL) for 72 h. CYN influence on spheroid growth was measured daily and cell survival was determined by MTS assay and live/dead staining. The influence on cell proliferation, cell cycle alterations and induction of DNA damage (γH2AX) was determined using flow cytometry. Further, the expression of selected genes (qPCR) involved in the metabolism of xenobiotics, proliferation, DNA damage response, apoptosis and oxidative stress was studied. Results revealed that CYN dose-dependently reduced the size of spheroids and affected cell division by arresting HepG2 cells in G1 phase of the cell cycle. No induction of DNA double strand breaks compared to control was determined at applied conditions. The analysis of gene expression revealed that CYN significantly deregulated genes encoding phase I (CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CYP3A4, ALDH3A) and II (NAT1, NAT2, SULT1B1, SULT1C2, UGT1A1, UGT2B7) enzymes as well as genes involved in cell proliferation (PCNA, TOP2α), apoptosis (BBC3) and DNA damage response (GADD45a, CDKN1A, ERCC4). The advanced 3D HepG2 cell model due to its more complex structure and improved cellular interactions provides more physiologically relevant information and more predictive data for human exposure, and can thus contribute to more reliable genotoxicity assessment of chemicals including cyanotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara Hercog
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Martina Štampar
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Alja Štern
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Metka Filipič
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Bojana Žegura
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
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Su X, Sutarlie L, Loh XJ. Sensors, Biosensors, and Analytical Technologies for Aquaculture Water Quality. RESEARCH (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2020; 2020:8272705. [PMID: 32149280 PMCID: PMC7048950 DOI: 10.34133/2020/8272705] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In aquaculture industry, fish, shellfish, and aquatic plants are cultivated in fresh, salt, or brackish waters. The increasing demand of aquatic products has stimulated the rapid growth of aquaculture industries. How to effectively monitor and control water quality is one of the key concerns for aquaculture industry to ensure high productivity and high quality. There are four major categories of water quality concerns that affect aquaculture cultivations, namely, (1) physical parameters, e.g., pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and salinity, (2) organic contaminants, (3) biochemical hazards, e.g., cyanotoxins, and (4) biological contaminants, i.e., pathogens. While the physical parameters are affected by climate changes, the latter three are considered as environmental factors. In this review, we provide a comprehensive summary of sensors, biosensors, and analytical technologies available for monitoring aquaculture water quality. They include low-cost commercial sensors and sensor network setups for physical parameters. They also include chromatography, mass spectrometry, biochemistry, and molecular methods (e.g., immunoassays and polymerase chain reaction assays), culture-based method, and biophysical technologies (e.g., biosensors and nanosensors) for environmental contamination factors. According to the different levels of sophistication of various analytical techniques and the information they can provide (either fine fingerprint, highly accurate quantification, semiquantification, qualitative detection, or fast screening), we will comment on how they may be used as complementary tools, as well as their potential and gaps toward current demand of real-time, online, and/or onsite detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodi Su
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 2 Fusionopolis Way. Innovis #08-03, Singapore 138634
- Department of Chemistry, National University of Singapore, Block S8, Level 3, 3 Science Drive 3, Singapore 117543
| | - Laura Sutarlie
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 2 Fusionopolis Way. Innovis #08-03, Singapore 138634
| | - Xian Jun Loh
- Institute of Materials Research and Engineering, Agency for Science, Technology and Research, 2 Fusionopolis Way. Innovis #08-03, Singapore 138634
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Huguet A, Lanceleur R, Quenault H, Le Hégarat L, Fessard V. Identification of key pathways involved in the toxic response of the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin in human hepatic HepaRG cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2019; 58:69-77. [PMID: 30905859 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2019.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The hepatotoxin cylindrospermopsin (CYN) has been involved in cases of poisoning in humans following ingestion. As its liver toxicity process is complex, we studied the transcriptomic profile of HepaRG cells exposed to CYN. The affected pathways were confirmed through the expression of key genes and the investigation of toxicity markers. In addition, CYP450 activities and cell redox homeostasis were investigated following acute and repeated exposure. CYN induced the down-regulation of genes involved in xenobiotic metabolism and cell cycle progression. There was cell cycle disturbance characterised by an accumulation of G1/S and G2/M cells and an increase in phospho-H3-positive cells. This was linked to the induction of DNA damage demonstrated by an increase in γH2AX-positive cells as well as an accumulation of sub-G1 cells indicating apoptosis but not involving caspase-3. While glutathione (GSH) content sharply decreased following acute exposure to CYN, it increased following repeated exposure, reflecting an adaptive response of cell redox homeostasis. However, our data also suggested that CYN induced the down-regulation of phase I and II metabolism gene products, and CYP450 activities were affected following both acute and repeated exposure to CYN. Our study indicated that repeated exposure of liver cells to low concentrations of CYN may affect their detoxification capacities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Huguet
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Fougères Laboratory, Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, 10B rue Claude Bourgelat, 35306 Fougères, France.
| | - Rachelle Lanceleur
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Fougères Laboratory, Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, 10B rue Claude Bourgelat, 35306 Fougères, France
| | - Hélène Quenault
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Viral Genetic and Biosecurity Unit, 22440 Ploufragan, France
| | - Ludovic Le Hégarat
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Fougères Laboratory, Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, 10B rue Claude Bourgelat, 35306 Fougères, France
| | - Valérie Fessard
- French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), Fougères Laboratory, Toxicology of Contaminants Unit, 10B rue Claude Bourgelat, 35306 Fougères, France
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Pereira AL, Santos C, Azevedo J, Martins TP, Castelo-Branco R, Ramos V, Vasconcelos V, Campos A. Effects of two toxic cyanobacterial crude extracts containing microcystin-LR and cylindrospermopsin on the growth and photosynthetic capacity of the microalga Parachlorella kessleri. ALGAL RES 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2018.07.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Hercog K, Maisanaba S, Filipič M, Jos Á, Cameán AM, Žegura B. Genotoxic potential of the binary mixture of cyanotoxins microcystin-LR and cylindrospermopsin. CHEMOSPHERE 2017; 189:319-329. [PMID: 28942258 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.09.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2017] [Revised: 09/09/2017] [Accepted: 09/15/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Increased eutrophication of water bodies promotes cyanobacterial blooming that is hazardous due to the production of various bioactive compounds. Microcystin-LR (MCLR) is among the most widespread cyanotoxins classified as possible human carcinogen, while cylindrospermopsin (CYN) has only recently been recognized as health concern. Both cyanotoxins are genotoxic; however, the mechanisms of their action differ. They are ubiquitously present in water environment and are often detected together. Therefore, we studied genotoxic potential of the binary mixture of these cyanotoxins. Human hepatoma cells (HepG2) were exposed to a single dose of MCLR (1 μg/mL), graded doses of CYN (0.01-0.5 μg/mL), and their combinations. Comet and Cytokinesis block micronucleus assays were used to detect induction of DNA strand breaks (sb) and genomic instability, respectively, along with the transcriptional analyses of the expression of selected genes involved in xenobiotic metabolism, immediate/early cell response and DNA-damage response. MCLR induced DNA sb that were only transiently present after 4 h exposure, whereas CYN, after 24 h exposure, induced DNA sb and genomic instability. The MCLR/CYN mixture induced DNA sb after 24 h exposure, but to lesser extent as CYN alone. On the other hand, induction of genomic instability by the MCLR/CYN mixture was comparable to that induced by CYN alone. In addition, patterns of changes in the expression of selected genes induced by the MCLR/CYN mixture were not significantly different from those induced by CYN alone. Our results indicate that CYN exerts higher genotoxic potential than MCLR and that genotoxic potential of the MCLR/CYN mixture is comparable to that of CYN alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klara Hercog
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Slovenia; Jozef Stefan International Postgraduate School, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Sara Maisanaba
- Area of Toxicology, Department of Nutrition and Bromatology, Toxicology and Legal Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Spain
| | - Metka Filipič
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Slovenia
| | - Ángeles Jos
- Area of Toxicology, Department of Nutrition and Bromatology, Toxicology and Legal Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Spain
| | - Ana M Cameán
- Area of Toxicology, Department of Nutrition and Bromatology, Toxicology and Legal Medicine, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, Spain
| | - Bojana Žegura
- Department of Genetic Toxicology and Cancer Biology, National Institute of Biology, Slovenia.
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Gaget V, Lau M, Sendall B, Froscio S, Humpage AR. Cyanotoxins: Which detection technique for an optimum risk assessment? WATER RESEARCH 2017; 118:227-238. [PMID: 28433693 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2017] [Revised: 04/04/2017] [Accepted: 04/08/2017] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The presence of toxigenic cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) in drinking water reservoirs poses a risk to human and animal health worldwide. Guidelines and health alert levels have been issued in the Australian Drinking Water Guidelines for three major toxins, which are therefore the subject of routine monitoring: microcystin, cylindrospermopsin and saxitoxin. While it is agreed that these toxic compounds should be monitored closely, the routine surveillance of these bioactive chemicals can be done in various ways and deciding which technique to use can therefore be challenging. This study compared several assays available for the detection of these toxins and their producers in environmental samples: microscopy (for identification and enumeration of cyanobacteria), ELISA (Enzyme-Linked ImmunoSorbant Assay), PPIA (Protein phosphatase inhibition assay), PSI (Protein synthesis inhibition), chemical analysis and PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction). Results showed that there was generally a good correlation between the presence of potentially toxigenic cyanobacteria and the detection of the toxin by ELISA. Nevertheless data suggest that cell numbers and toxin concentrations measured in bioassays do not necessarily correlate and that enumeration of potentially toxic cyanobacteria by microscopy, while commonly used for monitoring and risk assessment, is not the best indicator of real toxin exposure. The concentrations of saxitoxins quantified by ELISA were significantly different than those measured by LC-MS, while results were comparable in both assays for microcystin and cylindrospermopsin. The evaluation of these analytical methods led to the conclusion that there is no "gold standard" technique for the detection of the aforementioned cyanotoxins but that the choice of detection assay depends on cost, practicality, reliability and comparability of results and essentially on the question to be answered, notably on toxin exposure potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginie Gaget
- South Australia Water Corporation, Australian Water Quality Centre, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia.
| | - Melody Lau
- South Australia Water Corporation, Australian Water Quality Centre, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Barbara Sendall
- Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services, 39 Kessels Road, Coopers Plains, QLD 4108, Australia
| | - Suzanne Froscio
- South Australia Water Corporation, Australian Water Quality Centre, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Andrew R Humpage
- South Australia Water Corporation, Australian Water Quality Centre, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
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Pinheiro C, Azevedo J, Campos A, Vasconcelos V, Loureiro S. The interactive effects of microcystin-LR and cylindrospermopsin on the growth rate of the freshwater algae Chlorella vulgaris. ECOTOXICOLOGY (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2016; 25:745-758. [PMID: 26910533 DOI: 10.1007/s10646-016-1633-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Microcystin-LR (MC-LR) and cylindrospermopsin (CYN) are the most representative cyanobacterial cyanotoxins. They have been simultaneously detected in aquatic systems, but their combined ecotoxicological effects to aquatic organisms, especially microalgae, is unknown. In this study, we examined the effects of these cyanotoxins individually and as a binary mixture on the growth rate of the freshwater algae Chlorella vulgaris. Using the MIXTOX tool, the reference model concentration addition (CA) was selected to evaluate the combined effects of MC-LR and CYN on the growth of the freshwater green algae due to its conservative prediction of mixture effect for putative similar or dissimilar acting chemicals. Deviations from the CA model such as synergism/antagonism, dose-ratio and dose-level dependency were also assessed. In single exposures, our results demonstrated that MC-LR and CYN had different impacts on the growth rates of C. vulgaris at the highest tested concentrations, being CYN the most toxic. In the mixture exposure trial, MC-LR and CYN showed a synergistic deviation from the conceptual model CA as the best descriptive model. MC-LR individually was not toxic even at high concentrations (37 mg L(-1)); however, the presence of MC-LR at much lower concentrations (0.4-16.7 mg L(-1)) increased the CYN toxicity. From these results, the combined exposure of MC-LR and CYN should be considered for risk assessment of mixtures as the toxicity may be underestimated when looking only at the single cyanotoxins and not their combination. This study also represents an important step to understand the interactions among MC-LR and CYN detected previously in aquatic systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Pinheiro
- Departamento de Biologia & CESAM, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal.
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, CIIMAR/CIMAR, Rua dos Bragas 289, 4050-123, Porto, Portugal.
| | - Joana Azevedo
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, CIIMAR/CIMAR, Rua dos Bragas 289, 4050-123, Porto, Portugal
- Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde do Porto, Rua Valente Perfeito, 322, 440-330, Vila Nova de Gaia, Portugal
| | - Alexandre Campos
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, CIIMAR/CIMAR, Rua dos Bragas 289, 4050-123, Porto, Portugal
| | - Vítor Vasconcelos
- Centro Interdisciplinar de Investigação Marinha e Ambiental, CIIMAR/CIMAR, Rua dos Bragas 289, 4050-123, Porto, Portugal
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4069-007, Porto, Portugal
| | - Susana Loureiro
- Departamento de Biologia & CESAM, Universidade de Aveiro, 3810-193, Aveiro, Portugal
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Kittler K, Hurtaud-Pessel D, Maul R, Kolrep F, Fessard V. In vitro metabolism of the cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin in HepaRG cells and liver tissue fractions. Toxicon 2016; 110:47-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2015] [Revised: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Bioaccessibility and changes on cylindrospermopsin concentration in edible mussels with storage and processing time. Food Control 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Flores-Rojas NC, Esterhuizen-Londt M, Pflugmacher S. Antioxidative stress responses in the floating macrophyte Lemna minor L. with cylindrospermopsin exposure. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2015; 169:188-195. [PMID: 26554524 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2015.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2015] [Revised: 10/25/2015] [Accepted: 11/01/2015] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Cylindrospermopsin toxicity and oxidative stress have been examined in aquatic animals, however, only a few studies with aquatic plants have been conducted focusing on the potential for bioaccumulation of cylindrospermopsin. The oxidative stress effects caused by cylindrospermopsin on macrophytes have not yet been specifically studied. The oxidative stress response of Lemna minor L. with exposure to cylindrospermopsin, was therefore tested in this study. The hydrogen peroxide concentration together with the activities of the antioxidant enzymes (catalase, peroxidase, glutathione reductase and glutathione S-transferase) were determined after 24h (hours) of exposure to varying concentrations (0.025, 0.25, 2.5 and 25μg/L) of cylindrospermopsin. Responses with longer exposure periods (48, 96, 168h) were tested only with exposure to 2.5 and 25μg/L cylindrospermopsin. Additionally, the content of the carotenoids was determined as a possible non-enzymatic antioxidant defence mechanism against cylindrospermopsin. The levels of hydrogen peroxide increased after 24h even at the lowest cylindrospermopsin exposure concentrations. Catalase showed the most representative antioxidant response observed after 24h and maintained its activity throughout the experiment. Catalase activity corresponded with the contents of hydrogen peroxide at 2.5 and 25μg/L cylindrospermopsin. The data suggest that glutathione S-transferase, glutathione reductase and the carotenoid content act together with catalase but are more sensitive to higher concentrations of cylindrospermopsin and after a longer exposure period (168h). The results indicate that cylindrospermopsin promotes oxidative stress in L. minor at concentrations of 2.5 and 25μg/L. However, L. minor has sufficient defence mechanisms in place against this cyanobacterial toxin. Even though L. minor exhibits the potential to managing and control cylindrospermopsin contamination in aquatic systems, further studies in tolerance limits to cylindrospermopsin, uptake and experiments with prolonged exposure periods of more than 7 days are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nelida Cecilia Flores-Rojas
- Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Ecotoxicological Impact Research and Ecotoxicology, Ernst-Reuter-Platz 1, 10587 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Maranda Esterhuizen-Londt
- Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Ecotoxicological Impact Research and Ecotoxicology, Ernst-Reuter-Platz 1, 10587 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Stephan Pflugmacher
- Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Ecotoxicological Impact Research and Ecotoxicology, Ernst-Reuter-Platz 1, 10587 Berlin, Germany.
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Rodriguez I, Rodriguez C, Alfonso A, Otero P, Meyer T, Breitenbach U, Botana LM. Toxin profile in samples collected in fresh and brackish water in Germany. Toxicon 2015; 91:35-44. [PMID: 25448386 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2014.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2014] [Revised: 10/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/22/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The simultaneous detection of cyanotoxins is an important issue in order to prevent intoxications. In the present paper an Ultra Performance liquid Chromatography tandem mass spectrometry UPLC-MS/MS method was developed in order to simultaneously identify and quantify cylindrospermopsin (CYN), several microcystins (MC-LR, MC-RR, MC-YR) and some anatoxin-a (ATX-a) analogues. By using this new method all these toxins can be quickly separate. In addition the amino acid phenylalanine (Phe) can also be separate and therefore misidentifications with ATX-a can be avoided. By using this new method the presence of these toxins was studied in samples collected in several German localizations within the sampling program of the European Project μAqua (Universal microarrays for the evaluation of fresh-water quality based on detection of pathogens and their toxins). In these conditions, several ATX-a analogues, Phe, MC-LR and MC-RR were reported in samples collected.
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15
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Biosynthesis of 15N-labeled cylindrospermopsin and its application as internal standard in stable isotope dilution analysis. Anal Bioanal Chem 2014; 406:5765-74. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-014-8026-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2014] [Revised: 07/07/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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16
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Huguet A, Hatton A, Villot R, Quenault H, Blanchard Y, Fessard V. Modulation of chromatin remodelling induced by the freshwater cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin in human intestinal caco-2 cells. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99121. [PMID: 24921660 PMCID: PMC4055761 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2014] [Accepted: 05/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is a cyanotoxin that has been recognised as an emerging potential public health risk. Although CYN toxicity has been demonstrated, the mechanisms involved have not been fully characterised. To identify some key pathways related to this toxicity, we studied the transcriptomic profile of human intestinal Caco-2 cells exposed to a sub-toxic concentration of CYN (1.6 µM for 24hrs) using a non-targeted approach. CYN was shown to modulate different biological functions which were related to growth arrest (with down-regulation of cdkn1a and uhrf1 genes), and DNA recombination and repair (with up-regulation of aptx and pms2 genes). Our main results reported an increased expression of some histone-modifying enzymes (histone acetyl and methyltransferases MYST1, KAT5 and EHMT2) involved in chromatin remodelling, which is essential for initiating transcription. We also detected greater levels of acetylated histone H2A (Lys5) and dimethylated histone H3 (Lys4), two products of these enzymes. In conclusion, CYN overexpressed proteins involved in DNA damage repair and transcription, including modifications of nucleosomal histones. Our results highlighted some new cell processes induced by CYN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoine Huguet
- Contaminant Toxicology Unit, Fougères Laboratory, Anses, Fougères Cedex, France
- * E-mail:
| | - Aurélie Hatton
- Contaminant Toxicology Unit, Fougères Laboratory, Anses, Fougères Cedex, France
| | - Romain Villot
- Contaminant Toxicology Unit, Fougères Laboratory, Anses, Fougères Cedex, France
| | - Hélène Quenault
- Viral Genetics and Bio-security Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Anses, Site des Croix, Ploufragan, France
| | - Yannick Blanchard
- Viral Genetics and Bio-security Unit, Ploufragan-Plouzané Laboratory, Anses, Site des Croix, Ploufragan, France
| | - Valérie Fessard
- Contaminant Toxicology Unit, Fougères Laboratory, Anses, Fougères Cedex, France
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17
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Corbel S, Mougin C, Bouaïcha N. Cyanobacterial toxins: modes of actions, fate in aquatic and soil ecosystems, phytotoxicity and bioaccumulation in agricultural crops. CHEMOSPHERE 2014; 96:1-15. [PMID: 24012139 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.07.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 187] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Revised: 07/15/2013] [Accepted: 07/23/2013] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The occurrence of harmful cyanobacterial blooms in surface waters is often accompanied by the production of a variety of cyanotoxins. These toxins are designed to target in humans and animals specific organs on which they act: hepatotoxins (liver), neurotoxins (nervous system), cytotoxic alkaloids, and dermatotoxins (skin), but they often have important side effects too. When introduced into the soil ecosystem by spray irrigation of crops they may affect the same molecular pathways in plants having identical or similar target organs, tissues, cells or biomolecules. There are also several indications that terrestrial plants, including food crop plants, can bioaccumulate cyanotoxins and present, therefore, potential health hazards for human and animals. The number of publications concerned with phytotoxic effects of cyanotoxins on agricultural plants has increased recently. In this review, we first examine different cyanotoxins and their modes of actions in humans and mammals and occurrence of target biomolecules in vegetable organisms. Then we present environmental concentrations of cyanotoxins in freshwaters and their fate in aquatic and soil ecosystems. Finally, we highlight bioaccumulation of cyanotoxins in plants used for feed and food and its consequences on animals and human health. Overall, our review shows that the information on the effects of cyanotoxins on non-target organisms in the terrestrial environment is particularly scarce, and that there are still serious gaps in the knowledge about the fate in the soil ecosystems and phytotoxicity of these toxins.
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Sieroslawska A, Rymuszka A. Effects of cylindrospermopsin on a common carp leucocyte cell line. J Appl Toxicol 2014; 35:83-9. [PMID: 24477983 DOI: 10.1002/jat.2990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Revised: 12/29/2013] [Accepted: 12/29/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is a cytotoxin produced by different cyanobacterial species, increasingly detected in water reservoirs worldwide. There is very little information available concerning the effects of the toxin on fish immune cells. The aim of the study was to elucidate the potential impact of cylindrospermopsin on the selected parameters of a common carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) leucocyte cell line (CLC). The cells were incubated with the cyanotoxin at concentrations of 10, 1 or 0.1 µg ml(-1) for up to 48 h. Cell viability and proliferation, apoptosis/necrosis induction, cell morphology and phagocytic activity were determined. The two higher toxin concentrations occurred to be evidently cytotoxic in a time-dependent manner and influenced all studied parameters. The lowest used concentration had no effects on cell viability and cell number; however, a strong reduction of bacteria uptake after 24-h exposure was detected. The obtained results indicate that cylindrospermopsin may interfere with the basic functions of fish phagocytic cells and as a consequence influence the fish immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Sieroslawska
- Department of Physiology and Ecotoxicology, The John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin, Konstantynów 1 I, 20-708, Lublin, Poland
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19
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de la Cruz AA, Hiskia A, Kaloudis T, Chernoff N, Hill D, Antoniou MG, He X, Loftin K, O'Shea K, Zhao C, Pelaez M, Han C, Lynch TJ, Dionysiou DD. A review on cylindrospermopsin: the global occurrence, detection, toxicity and degradation of a potent cyanotoxin. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2013; 15:1979-2003. [PMID: 24056894 DOI: 10.1039/c3em00353a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Cylindrospermopsin is an important cyanobacterial toxin found in water bodies worldwide. The ever-increasing and global occurrence of massive and prolonged blooms of cylindrospermopsin-producing cyanobacteria poses a potential threat to both human and ecosystem health. Its toxicity is associated with metabolic activation and may involve mechanisms that adversely affect a wide variety of targets in an organism. Cylindrospermopsin has been shown to be cytotoxic, dermatotoxic, genotoxic, hepatotoxic in vivo, developmentally toxic, and may be carcinogenic. Human exposure may occur through drinking water, during recreational activities and by consuming foods in which the toxin may have bioaccumulated. Drinking water shortages of sufficient quality coupled with growing human pressures and climate variability and change necessitate an integrated and sustainable water management program. This review presents an overview of the importance of cylindrospermopsin, its detection, toxicity, worldwide distribution, and lastly, its chemical and biological degradation and removal by natural processes and drinking water treatment processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Armah A de la Cruz
- Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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20
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Štraser A, Filipič M, Žegura B. Cylindrospermopsin induced transcriptional responses in human hepatoma HepG2 cells. Toxicol In Vitro 2013; 27:1809-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2013.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2012] [Revised: 05/08/2013] [Accepted: 05/14/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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21
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Vasas G, Surányi G, Bácsi I, M-Hamvas M, Máthé C, Gonda S, Borbely G. Alteration of Cylindrospermopsin Content of <i>Aphanizomenon ovalisporum</i> (Cyanobacteria, Nostocales) due to Step-Down from Combined Nitrogen to Dinitrogen. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.4236/aim.2013.38075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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22
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Gutiérrez-Praena D, Jos Á, Pichardo S, Moreno IM, Cameán AM. Presence and bioaccumulation of microcystins and cylindrospermopsin in food and the effectiveness of some cooking techniques at decreasing their concentrations: a review. Food Chem Toxicol 2012. [PMID: 23200893 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2012.10.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Microcystins (MCs) and cylindrospermopsin (CYN) are among the cyanotoxins which occur naturally, produced by different cyanobacteria species when they grow or proliferate under favorable environmental conditions. From a toxicological point of view, their relevance is due to the deleterious effects that they have been reported to induce in a wide range of organisms, including humans. Cyanotoxins intake from contaminated water and food is an important source of human exposure. Various edible aquatic organisms, plants, and food supplements based on algae, can bioaccumulate these toxins. A thorough review of the scientific data available on this topic is provided, the studies on MCs being much more numerous than those focused on CYN. The scientific literature suggests that these cyanotoxins can be accumulated at concentrations higher than their respective recommended tolerable daily intake (TDI). Finally, the influence of different cooking procedures on their levels in food has been considered. In this regard, again studies on the matter dealing with CYN have been not yet raised. MCs contents have been reported to be reduced in muscle of fish after boiling, or cooking in a microwave-oven, although the effect of other traditional cooking processes such as frying, roasting or grilling have not been demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Gutiérrez-Praena
- Nutrición y Bromatología, Toxicología y Medicina Legal Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sevilla, C/Profesor García González 2, 41012 Sevilla, Spain
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23
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Ho L, Tang T, Hoefel D, Vigneswaran B. Determination of rate constants and half-lives for the simultaneous biodegradation of several cyanobacterial metabolites in Australian source waters. WATER RESEARCH 2012; 46:5735-5746. [PMID: 22921397 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2012.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2012] [Revised: 08/01/2012] [Accepted: 08/05/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The fate of five cyanobacterial metabolites was assessed in water sourced from Lake Burragorang (Warragamba Dam) in New South Wales, Australia. All of the studied metabolites were shown to be biodegradable in this water source. For some metabolites, biodegradation was influenced by factors, including temperature, location (within the water body) and seasonal variations. The biodegradation of the metabolites was shown to follow pseudo-first-order kinetics with rate constants ranging from 8.0 × 10(-4) to 1.3 × 10(-2) h(-1). Half-lives of the metabolites were also estimated and ranged from 2.2 to 36.1 d. The order of ease of biodegradability in this water source followed the trend: microcystin-LR ≥ cylindrospermopsin > saxitoxins > geosmin ≥ 2-methylisoborneol. The lack of detection of the mlrA gene during microcystin biodegradation suggests that these toxins may be degraded via a different pathway. While no metabolite-degrading organisms were isolated in this study, the inoculation of previously isolated geosmin- and microcystin-degrading bacteria into Lake Burragorang water resulted in efficient biodegradation of the respective metabolites. For example, microcystin-degrading isolate TT25 was able to degrade three microcystin variants to concentrations below analytical detection within 24 h, suggesting that inoculation of such bacteria has the potential to enhance biodegradation in Lake Burragorang.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Ho
- South Australian Water Corporation, Australian Water Quality Centre, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia; School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia.
| | - Tim Tang
- South Australian Water Corporation, Australian Water Quality Centre, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia
| | - Daniel Hoefel
- South Australian Water Corporation, Australian Water Quality Centre, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia; School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide, SA 5005, Australia
| | - Bala Vigneswaran
- Sydney Catchment Authority, Level 4, 2-6 Station Street, Penrith, NSW 2750, Australia
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Kaplan A, Harel M, Kaplan-Levy RN, Hadas O, Sukenik A, Dittmann E. The languages spoken in the water body (or the biological role of cyanobacterial toxins). Front Microbiol 2012; 3:138. [PMID: 22529842 PMCID: PMC3328848 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2012.00138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2012] [Accepted: 03/23/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although intensification of toxic cyanobacterial blooms over the last decade is a matter of growing concern due to bloom impact on water quality, the biological role of most of the toxins produced is not known. In this critical review we focus primarily on the biological role of two toxins, microcystins and cylindrospermopsin, in inter- and intra-species communication and in nutrient acquisition. We examine the experimental evidence supporting some of the dogmas in the field and raise several open questions to be dealt with in future research. We do not discuss the health and environmental implications of toxin presence in the water body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron Kaplan
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem Jerusalem, Israel.
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25
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Gutiérrez-Praena D, Pichardo S, Jos A, Moreno FJ, Cameán AM. Biochemical and pathological toxic effects induced by the cyanotoxin Cylindrospermopsin on the human cell line Caco-2. WATER RESEARCH 2012; 46:1566-1575. [PMID: 22227240 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.12.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2011] [Revised: 12/13/2011] [Accepted: 12/19/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Cylindrospermopsin (CYN), a cyanotoxin produced by several freshwater cyanobacteria, causes human intoxications and animal mortalities. The present study focuses on the cytotoxic effects of CYN on Caco-2 cells at 24 and 48 h. The basal cytotoxicity endpoints studied were total protein content (TP), neutral red uptake (NR) and reduction of the tetrazolium salt (MTS). The effect of non-cytotoxic concentrations of CYN on the generation of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (GCS) activity and glutathione (GSH) content was also studied and the morphological alterations in the Caco-2 cells subsequent to CYN exposure were recorded. The most sensitive endpoint - the reduction of MTS - showed that the viability of Caco-2 cells after exposure to the highest concentration assayed (40 μg/mL CYN) was reduced by about 90%. Intracellular ROS production increased only when exposed to a concentration of 1.25 μg/mL CYN, while GSH content and GCS activity increased when exposed to 2.5 μg/mL CYN. The main insights provided by the present study are the ultrastructural alterations, which reveal lipid degeneration, mitochondrial damage and nucleolar segregation with altered nuclei. Therefore, it has been demonstrated that CYN can induce toxic effects in Caco-2 cells in a time-concentration dependent manner. Moreover, unlike the cytotoxic and biochemical alterations, which were only evident at higher concentrations, morphological damage at the ultrastructural level was noticeable even at the lowest concentration used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Gutiérrez-Praena
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, Profesor García González n°2, 41012 Seville, Spain
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26
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Ho L, Sawade E, Newcombe G. Biological treatment options for cyanobacteria metabolite removal--a review. WATER RESEARCH 2012; 46:1536-1548. [PMID: 22133838 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2011] [Revised: 10/25/2011] [Accepted: 11/04/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The treatment of cyanobacterial metabolites can consume many resources for water authorities which can be problematic especially with the recent shift away from chemical- and energy-intensive processes towards carbon and climate neutrality. In recent times, there has been a renaissance in biological treatment, in particular, biological filtration processes, for cyanobacteria metabolite removal. This in part, is due to the advances in molecular microbiology which has assisted in further understanding the biodegradation processes of specific cyanobacteria metabolites. However, there is currently no concise portfolio which captures all the pertinent information for the biological treatment of a range of cyanobacterial metabolites. This review encapsulates all the relevant information to date in one document and provides insights into how biological treatment options can be implemented in treatment plants for optimum cyanobacterial metabolite removal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Ho
- Australian Water Quality Centre, South Australian Water Corporation, 250 Victoria Square, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia.
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27
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Gutiérrez-Praena D, Jos A, Pichardo S, Moyano R, Blanco A, Monterde JG, Cameán AM. Time-dependent histopathological changes induced in Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) after acute exposure to pure cylindrospermopsin by oral and intraperitoneal route. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2012; 76:102-13. [PMID: 22019311 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2011.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2011] [Revised: 09/30/2011] [Accepted: 10/06/2011] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Although fish and aquatic organisms can be in contact with the cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin (CYN), toxicological studies are practically nonexistent. CYN has a late and progressive acute toxicity in rodents, but no data have been reported in fish. In this work, tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) were exposed for the first time to an acute dose of CYN (200 μg/kg fish) by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection, and the effects were compared with the oral route (gavage). In both cases, fish were sacrificed after 24 h or 5 days of the toxin administration. CYN induced multiorganic damage, being the liver and kidney the main targets of toxicity. The histological findings were more pronounced after i.p. administration (in the liver, kidney, heart, gills) with the exception of the gastrointestinal tract. The time of sacrifice influenced the degree of histological damage in all organs studied, and was more severe after 5 d in comparison to 24 h. Moreover, CYN induced an increase in the average nuclear diameter of hepatocytes in the liver, and decreased cross sections of proximal and distal convoluted tubules in the kidney. The changes in these parameters were also more severe by i.p. route, and with the time of sacrifice, supporting the histopathological results obtained in these organs. Thus, both parameters could be useful for quantifying the extent of the damage in fish after CYN exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Gutiérrez-Praena
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, Profesor García González 2, 41012 Seville, Spain
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Cylindrospermopsin induced DNA damage and alteration in the expression of genes involved in the response to DNA damage, apoptosis and oxidative stress. Toxicon 2011; 58:471-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2011.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2011] [Revised: 08/04/2011] [Accepted: 08/09/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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29
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Prieto A, Campos A, Cameán A, Vasconcelos V. Effects on growth and oxidative stress status of rice plants (Oryza sativa) exposed to two extracts of toxin-producing cyanobacteria (Aphanizomenon ovalisporum and Microcystis aeruginosa). ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2011; 74:1973-1980. [PMID: 21723604 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2011.06.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2011] [Revised: 06/09/2011] [Accepted: 06/15/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Toxic cyanobacteria are considered emerging world threats, being responsible for the degradation of the aquatic ecosystems. Aphanizomenon ovalisporum produces the toxin Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) being a concern in fresh water habitats. This work aims to increase our knowledge on the effects of this toxic cyanobacterium in plants by studying the alterations in growth parameters and oxidative stress status of rice (Oriza sativa) exposed to the cyanobacteria cell extracts containing CYN. Significant increases in glutathione S-transferase (GST) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activities were detected in the different experiments performed. The roots showed to be more sensitive than leaves regarding the enzyme activities. A reduction in the leaf tissue fresh weight was observed after 9 days of plant treatment suggesting a major physiological stress. The exposure of rice plants to a mixture of A. ovalisporum and Microcystis aeruginosa cell extracts containing CYN and microcystins including microcystin-LR, resulted in a significant increase in the GST and GPx activities, suggesting a synergistic effect of both extracts. Together these results point out the negative effects of cyanotoxins on plant growth and oxidative status, induced by A. ovalisporum cell extracts, raising also concerns in the accumulation of CYN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Prieto
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
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30
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Gutiérrez-Praena D, Jos A, Pichardo S, Cameán AM. Oxidative stress responses in tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) exposed to a single dose of pure cylindrospermopsin under laboratory conditions: influence of exposure route and time of sacrifice. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2011; 105:100-106. [PMID: 21703978 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2011.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2011] [Revised: 05/17/2011] [Accepted: 05/27/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is a toxin produced by various cyanobacterial species that are increasingly being found in freshwater systems. Although CYN can have toxic effects in humans, domestic animals and wildlife, it has been subject to very little investigation (particularly in fish). It has been reported to deplete the cellular glutathione content but the role of oxidative stress in the pathogenicity of CYN in fish is unknown. For this reason tilapia fish were exposed to 200 μg/kg pure CYN through two different exposure routes-gavage and intraperitoneal injection-and sacrificed after 24 h and 5 days. The results showed an increase in NADPH oxidase activity (a biomarker of reactive oxygen species formation), lipid peroxidation (LPO) and protein oxidation; no changes in DNA oxidation; and a reduction in glutathione levels (GSH) and γ-glutamylcysteine synthetase (GCS) activity, the limiting enzyme in glutathione synthesis. The time of sacrifice had a bigger influence on the results than the exposure route because after 5 days some of the biomarkers assayed had recovered their pre-intoxication levels, which was not the case after 24 h.
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31
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Bernard C, Froscio S, Campbell R, Monis P, Humpage A, Fabbro L. Novel toxic effects associated with a tropical Limnothrix/Geitlerinema-like cyanobacterium. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2011; 26:260-270. [PMID: 19950362 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The presence of a toxic strain of a fine filamentous cyanobacterium belonging to the Oscillatorialean family Pseudanabaenacea was detected during a survey of cyanobacterial taxa associated with the presence of cylindrospermopsin in dams in Central Queensland (Australia). The strain, AC0243, was isolated and cultured, its genomic DNA extracted and 16S RNA gene sequenced. Phylogenetic analysis placed AC0243 with Limnothrix species, although this genus appears polyphyletic. Moreover, not all morphological characters are consistent with this genus but more closely fit the description of Geitlerinema unigranulatum (R.N. Singh) Komárek and Azevedo. The potential toxic effects of AC0243 extract were assessed chemically and biologically. Cell free protein synthesis was inhibited by the extract. Exposure of Vero cells to the extract resulted in a significant reduction in cellular ATP levels following 24-72 h incubation. The presence of cylindrospermopsin was excluded based on the nature of responses obtained in cell and cell-free assays; in addition, (i) it could not be detected by HPLC, LC-MS, or immunological assay, and (ii) no genes currently associated with the production of cylindrospermopsin were found in the genome. Other known cyanobacterial toxins were not detected. The apparent novelty of this toxin is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Bernard
- Centre for Environmental Management, CQ University, Rockhampton, Queensland, Australia
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32
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Štraser A, Filipič M, Žegura B. Genotoxic effects of the cyanobacterial hepatotoxin cylindrospermopsin in the HepG2 cell line. Arch Toxicol 2011; 85:1617-26. [DOI: 10.1007/s00204-011-0716-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2011] [Accepted: 05/09/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Ho L, Lambling P, Bustamante H, Duker P, Newcombe G. Application of powdered activated carbon for the adsorption of cylindrospermopsin and microcystin toxins from drinking water supplies. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:2954-2964. [PMID: 21459402 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2011.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2010] [Revised: 03/08/2011] [Accepted: 03/09/2011] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) and microcystin are two potent toxins that can be produced by cyanobacteria in drinking water supplies. This study investigated the application of powdered activated carbon (PAC) for the removal of these toxins under conditions that could be experienced in a water treatment plant. Two different PACs were evaluated for their ability to remove CYN and four microcystin variants from various drinking water supplies. The removal of natural organic material by the PACs was also determined by measuring the levels of dissolved organic carbon and UV absorbance (at 254 nm). The PACs effectively removed CYN and the microcystins from each of the waters studied, with one of the PACs shown to be more effective, possibly due to its smaller particle diameter. No difference in removal of the toxins was observed using PAC contact times of 30, 45 and 60 min. Furthermore, the effect of water quality on the removal of the toxins was minimal. The microcystin variants were adsorbed in the order: MCRR > MCYR > MCLR > MCLA. CYN was found to be adsorbed similarly to MCRR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Ho
- Australian Water Quality Centre, SA Water Corporation, Adelaide, SA, Australia.
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Puerto M, Campos A, Prieto A, Cameán A, de Almeida AM, Coelho AV, Vasconcelos V. Differential protein expression in two bivalve species; Mytilus galloprovincialis and Corbicula fluminea; exposed to Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii cells. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2011; 101:109-116. [PMID: 20970860 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2010.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2010] [Revised: 09/10/2010] [Accepted: 09/18/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
The cyanobacteria Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii is considered a threat to aquatic organisms due to the production of the toxin cylindrospermopsin (CYN). Despite the numerous reports evidencing the toxic effects of C. raciborskii cells and CYN in different species, not much is known regarding the toxicity mechanisms associated with this toxin and the cyanobacteria. In this work, a proteomics approach based in the two-dimensional gel electrophoresis and mass spectrometry was used to study the effects of the exposure of two bivalve species, Mytilus galloprovincialis and Corbicula fluminea, to CYN producing (CYN+) and non-producing (CYN-) C. raciborskii cells. Additionally the activities of glutathione S-transferase (GST) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) were determined. Alterations in actin and tubulin isoforms were detected in gills of both bivalve species and digestive gland of M. galloprovincialis when exposed to CYN- and CYN+ cells. Moreover, GST and GPx activities changed in gills and digestive tract of bivalves exposed to both C. raciborskii freeze dried cells, in comparison to control animals exposed to the green alga Chlorella vulgaris. These results suggest the induction of physiological stress and tissue injury in bivalves by C. raciborskii. This condition is supported by the changes observed in GPx and GST activities which indicate alterations in the oxidative stress defense mechanisms. The results also evidence the capacity of CYN non-producing C. raciborskii to induce biochemical responses and therefore its toxicity potential to bivalves. The heat shock protein 60 (HSP60), extrapallial (EP) fluid protein and triosephosphate isomerase homologous proteins from gills of M. galloprovincialis were down-regulated specifically with the presence of CYN+ C. raciborskii cells. The presence of CYN may lead to additional toxic effects in M. galloprovincialis. This work demonstrates that proteomics is a powerful approach to characterize the biochemical effects of C. raciborskii and to investigate the physiological condition of the exposed organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Puerto
- Area of Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Seville, Seville, Spain
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M Evans
- School of Chemistry, Bangor University, Bangor, Gwynedd, UK
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Chernoff N, Rogers EH, Zehr RD, Gage MI, Malarkey DE, Bradfield CA, Liu Y, Schmid JE, Jaskot RH, Richards JH, Wood CR, Rosen MB. Toxicity and recovery in the pregnant mouse after gestational exposure to the cyanobacterial toxin, cylindrospermopsin. J Appl Toxicol 2010; 31:242-54. [PMID: 20936652 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2010] [Revised: 07/20/2010] [Accepted: 07/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is a tricyclic alkaloid toxin produced by fresh water cyanobacterial species worldwide. CYN has been responsible for both livestock and human poisoning after oral exposure. This study investigated the toxicity of CYN to pregnant mice exposed during different segments of gestation. The course of recovery and individual responses to the toxin were evaluated. Adverse effects of CYN were monitored up to 7 weeks post-dosing by clinical examination, histopathology, biochemistry and gene expression. Exposure on gestational days (GD) 8-12 induced significantly more lethality than GD13-17 exposure. Periorbital, gastrointestinal and distal tail hemorrhages were seen in both groups. Serum markers indicative of hepatic injury (alanine amino transferase, aspartate amino transferase and sorbitol dehydrogenase) were increased in both groups; markers of renal dysfunction (blood urea nitrogen and creatinine) were elevated in the GD8-12 animals. Histopathology was observed in the liver (centrilobular necrosis) and kidney (interstitial inflammation) in groups exhibiting abnormal serum markers. The expression profiles of genes involved in ribosomal biogenesis, xenobiotic and lipid metabolism, inflammatory response and oxidative stress were altered 24 h after the final dose. One week after dosing, gross, histological and serum parameters had returned to normal, although increased liver/body weight ratio and one instance of gastrointestinal bleeding was found in the GD13-17 group. Gene expression changes persisted up to 2 weeks post-dosing and returned to normal by 4 weeks. Responses of individual animals to CYN exposure indicated highly significant inter-animal variability within the treated groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Chernoff
- US EPA, ORD, National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA.
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Maire MA, Bazin E, Fessard V, Rast C, Humpage A, Vasseur P. Morphological cell transformation of Syrian hamster embryo (SHE) cells by the cyanotoxin, cylindrospermopsin. Toxicon 2010; 55:1317-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2010.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2009] [Revised: 01/20/2010] [Accepted: 01/27/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Metcalf JS, Codd GA. Cyanobacteria, neurotoxins and water resources: are there implications for human neurodegenerative disease? ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2010; 10 Suppl 2:74-8. [PMID: 19929737 DOI: 10.3109/17482960903272942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria are cosmopolitan microbes that inhabit marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments. Under favourable conditions in waterbodies, they can form massive populations (blooms and scums), which present hazards to human and animal health. Such cyanobacteria often contain a variety of toxic substances (cyanotoxins) that can exist as both cell-associated and free forms in the surrounding water. Some cyanotoxins are highly neurotoxic and act through a variety of mechanisms. Recent findings of the production of the neurotoxin beta-N-methylamino-L-alanine (BMAA) by cyanobacteria in aquatic environments, and of BMAA in brain and cerebrospinal fluid samples of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease victims, raises the possibility that people may be exposed to waterborne BMAA of cyanobacterial origin and that this may contribute to human neurodegenerative disease. An understanding of the risks presented by waterborne BMAA and of available mitigation strategies to reduce this potential exposure is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- James S Metcalf
- Division of Molecular Microbiology, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, UK.
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Messineo V, Melchiorre S, Di Corcia A, Gallo P, Bruno M. Seasonal succession of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and Aphanizomenon ovalisporum blooms with cylindrospermopsin occurrence in the volcanic Lake Albano, Central Italy. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2010; 25:18-27. [PMID: 19161233 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin is rapidly spreading in the European temperate Countries. Cylindrospermopsin was detected for the first time in Italy in 2004; in this study, the presence of this toxin in Albano Lake (Central Italy) has been correlated to the cyanobacterial species Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and Aphanizomenon ovalisporum and their population dynamics. In 2004, these two species succeeded in the lake during spring, summer, and early autumn without overlapping, causing superficial blooms. Cylindrospermopsin was detected in lake samples by LC-MS/MS and ELISA immunoassay, showing extracellular superficial values ranging from 2.6 to 126 microg/L, and water column values ranging from 0.41 to 18.4 microg/L. Twenty-six of 30 positive water samples (86%) exceeded the recommended limit of 1 microg/L. Intracellular values up to 42.3 microg/g were measured. Moreover, cylindrospermopsin was detected in tissues from two Salmo trutta trouts (up to 2.7 ng/g) and in a well for drinking water supply (1.6 microg/L). For the first time, two cyanobacterial species producing cylindrospermopsin were detected in the same lake in Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valentina Messineo
- Department of Environment and Primary Prevention, National Institute of Health, viale Regina Elena, 299-00161, Rome, Italy
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Froscio S, Cannon E, Lau H, Humpage A. Limited uptake of the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin by Vero cells. Toxicon 2009; 54:862-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2009.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2009] [Revised: 06/15/2009] [Accepted: 06/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Gallo P, Fabbrocino S, Cerulo MG, Ferranti P, Bruno M, Serpe L. Determination of cylindrospermopsin in freshwaters and fish tissue by liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ion trap mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2009; 23:3279-3284. [PMID: 19757453 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.4243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is a toxic alkaloid-like compound produced by some strains of cyanobacteria, procariotic organisms occurring in water blooms, observed worldwide in eutrophic lakes and drinking water reservoirs. Methods for determination of CYN in freshwater and fish muscle by liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ion trap mass spectrometry are herein described. The performances of both methods are reported; ion trap LC/ESI-MS/MS resulted highly selective and reliable in unambiguous identification of CYN, based on monitoring the precursor ion and three product ions. The methods developed showed satisfactory mean recoveries (higher than 63.6%) and relative standard deviations, ranging from 5.8 to 9.8%. The limits of quantification at 0.10 ng/mL in freshwaters and 1.0 ng/g in fish muscle, respectively, allow for determination of CYN also in early contamination stages. Ion trap LC/ESI-MS/MS was successfully applied to the identification and quantification of CYN in water and cyanobacteria extracts from Lake Averno, near Naples, representing the first case of contamination described in southern Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasquale Gallo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale del Mezzogiorno, Via Salute 2, 80055 Portici (NA), Italy.
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Berry JP, Gibbs PDL, Schmale MC, Saker ML. Toxicity of cylindrospermopsin, and other apparent metabolites from Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and Aphanizomenon ovalisporum, to the zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo. Toxicon 2008; 53:289-99. [PMID: 19087885 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2008.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2008] [Revised: 10/21/2008] [Accepted: 11/24/2008] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Cyanobacteria produce a diverse array of toxic or otherwise bioactive compounds that pose growing threats to human and environmental health. We utilized the zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryo, as a model of vertebrate development, to investigate the inhibition of development pathways (i.e. developmental toxicity) by the cyanobacterial toxin, cylindrospermopsin (CYN), as well as extracts from various isolates of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii and Aphanizomenon ovalisporum. CYN was toxic only when injected directly into embryos, but not by direct immersion at doses up to 50mug/ml. Despite the dose dependency of toxicity observed following injection of CYN, no consistent patterns of developmental defects were observed, suggesting that toxic effects of CYN may not target specific developmental pathways. In contrast, direct immersion of embryos in all of the extracts resulted in both increased mortality and reproducible, consistent, developmental dysfunctions. Interestingly, there was no correlation of developmental toxicity observed for these extracts with the presence of CYN or with previously reported toxicity for these strains. These results suggest that CYN is lethal to zebrafish embryos, but apparently inhibits no specific developmental pathways, whereas other apparent metabolites from C. raciborskii and A. ovalisporum seem to reproducibly inhibit development in the zebrafish model. Continued investigation of these apparent, unknown metabolites is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Berry
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 354 Marine Science Building, Florida International University, 3000 NE 151st Street, North Miami, FL 33181, USA.
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Ho L, Slyman N, Kaeding U, Newcombe G. Optimizing PAC and chlorination practices for cylindrospermopsin removal. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/j.1551-8833.2008.tb09776.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Funari E, Testai E. Human Health Risk Assessment Related to Cyanotoxins Exposure. Crit Rev Toxicol 2008; 38:97-125. [DOI: 10.1080/10408440701749454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 267] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Smith MJ, Shaw GR, Eaglesham GK, Ho L, Brookes JD. Elucidating the factors influencing the biodegradation of cylindrospermopsin in drinking water sources. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2008; 23:413-421. [PMID: 18214886 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The cyanotoxin cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is produced by several species of cyanobacteria and can be persistent in drinking waters supplies, which is of major concern to water authorities because of its potential to severely compromise human health. Consequently, there is a need to fully understand the persistence of CYN in water supplies, in particular, to determine whether this toxin is readily degraded by endemic aquatic organisms. This study provides insights into the environmental factors that can influence the biodegradation of this toxin in Australian drinking water supplies. Biodegradation of CYN was only evident in water supplies that had a history of toxic Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii blooms. In addition, lag periods were evident prior to the onset of biodegradation; however, repeated exposure of the endemic organisms to CYN resulted in substantial decreases in the lag periods. Furthermore, the concentration of CYN was shown to influence biodegradation with a near linear relationship (R(2) of 0.9549) existing between the biodegradation rate and the initial CYN concentration. Temperature was also shown to affect the biodegradation of CYN, which is important since CYN is now being detected in more temperate climates. The presence of copper-based algicides inhibited CYN degradation, which has significant implications since copper-based algicides are commonly used to control cyanobacterial growth in water bodies. The results from this study indicate that the biodegradation of CYN in natural water bodies is a complex process that can be influenced by many environmental factors, some of which include CYN concentration, temperature, and the presence of copper-based algicides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maree J Smith
- Port Macquarie Hastings Council, PO Box 84, Port Macquarie, New South Wales 2444, Australia
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46
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Pegram RA, Nichols T, Etheridge S, Humpage A, LeBlanc S, Love A, Neilan B, Pflugmacher S, Runnegar M, Thacker R. Cyanotoxins Workgroup report. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2008; 619:317-81. [PMID: 18461775 DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-75865-7_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Toxin types, toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2008; 619:383-415. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-75865-7_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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Rasmussen JP, Cursaro M, Froscio SM, Saint CP. An examination of the antibiotic effects of cylindrospermopsin on common gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria and the protozoan Naegleria lovaniensis. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2008; 23:36-43. [PMID: 18214928 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
The importance of the toxin cylindrospermopsin to the function and fitness of the cyanobacteria that produce it remains a matter of conjecture. Given that the structure of cylindrospermopsin has commonalities with other antibacterial protein synthesis inhibitors, such as streptomycin, authors tested the possibility that the toxin might act as an antibacterial compound that can kill competing microbes. Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa were tested by the minimal inhibitory concentration method and significant antibacterial activity was only observed at a cylindrospermopsin concentration of 300 microg mL(-1) after exposure for 5 days. No effect on log phase growth of E. coli was observed for this same toxin concentration. Protein synthesis was inhibited by cylindrospermopsin in E. coli 70S extracts, reduced by 25% compared with controls when treated with 41.5 microg mL(-1) of the toxin; however, a much greater reduction of 97% was observed for chloramphenicol in the same experiment. Naegleria lovaniensis, a phagotrophic protozoan, was more susceptible to cylindrospermopsin, with a decrease in the number of N. lovaniensis plaques after 24-h treatment with 5-50 microg mL(-1) of toxin and an LC(50) of approximately 60 microg mL(-1). Given these results, cylindrospermopsin is clearly not antibacterial at concentrations found in environmental waters, nor will it adversely affect N. lovaniensis at these concentrations. For organisms that are able to ingest cylindrospermopsin-producing cells, the response of N. lovaniensis to the toxin suggests that only a few ingested cells would be enough to kill predatory organisms with similar susceptibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Paul Rasmussen
- Cooperative Research Centre for Water Quality and Treatment, Australian Water Quality Centre, SA Water, Private Bag 3, Salisbury, SA, Australia
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Shalev-Malul G, Lieman-Hurwitz J, Viner-Mozzini Y, Sukenik A, Gaathon A, Lebendiker M, Kaplan A. An AbrB-like protein might be involved in the regulation of cylindrospermopsin production by Aphanizomenon ovalisporum. Environ Microbiol 2007; 10:988-99. [PMID: 18093160 DOI: 10.1111/j.1462-2920.2007.01519.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Certain filamentous cyanobacteria, including Aphanizomenon ovalisporum, are potentially toxic owing to the formation of the hepatotoxin cylindrospermopsin. We previously identified a gene cluster in A. ovalisporum likely to be involved in cylindrospermopsin biosynthesis, including amidinotransferase (aoaA) and polyketide-synthase (aoaC), transcribed on the reverse strands. Analysis of the genomic region between aoaA and aoaC identified two transcription start points for each of these genes, differentially expressed under nitrogen and light stress conditions. The transcript abundances of these genes and the cylindrospermopsin level were both affected by nitrogen availability and light intensity. Gel shift assays and DNA affinity columns isolated a protein that specifically binds to a 150 bp DNA fragment from the region between aoaA and aoaC, and MS/MS analyses identified similarity to AbrB in other cyanobacteria and in Bacillus sp. Comparison of the native AbrB isolated from A. ovalisporum with that obtained after cloning and overexpression of abrB in Escherichia coli identified specific post-translational modifications in the native cyanobacterial protein. These modifications, which are missing in the protein expressed in E. coli, include N-acetylation and methylation of specific residues. We discuss the possible role of these modifications in the regulation of cylindrospermopsin production in Aphanizomenon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gali Shalev-Malul
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel
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50
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Bain P, Shaw G, Patel B. Induction of p53-regulated gene expression in human cell lines exposed to the cyanobacterial toxin cylindrospermopsin. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2007; 70:1687-93. [PMID: 17763087 DOI: 10.1080/15287390701434877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Cylindrospermopsin (CYN) is a cyanobacterial toxin that induces a range of genotoxic indicators in a variety of models. The possible involvement of the tumor suppressor protein p53 in cylindrospermopsin-induced gene expression was examined in cultured human dermal fibroblasts and the human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line HepG2. After 6 h of exposure to CYN, concentration-dependent increases in mRNA levels were observed for the p53 target genes CDKN1A, GADD45alpha, BAX, and MDM2, indicating an early activation of p53. After 24 h, relative mRNA levels for these genes remained elevated. Accumulation of p53 protein occurred after longer exposures in the HepG2-derived cell line C3A. Data suggest that cylindrospermopsin induces stress responses that result in the activation of the p53 transcription factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Bain
- School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Sciences, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia.
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