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Laveriano-Santos EP, Luque-Corredera C, Trius-Soler M, Lozano-Castellón J, Dominguez-López I, Castro-Barquero S, Vallverdú-Queralt A, Lamuela-Raventós RM, Pérez M. Enterolignans: from natural origins to cardiometabolic significance, including chemistry, dietary sources, bioavailability, and activity. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2024:1-21. [PMID: 38952149 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2024.2371939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/03/2024]
Abstract
The enterolignans, enterolactone and enterodiol, the main metabolites produced from plant lignans by the gut microbiota, have enhanced bioavailability and activity compared to their precursors, with beneficial effects on metabolic and cardiovascular health. Although extensively studied, the biosynthesis, cardiometabolic effects, and other therapeutic implications of mammalian lignans are still incompletely understood. The aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of these phytoestrogen metabolites based on up-to-date information reported in studies from a wide range of disciplines. Established and novel synthetic strategies are described, as are the various lignan precursors, their dietary sources, and a proposed metabolic pathway for their conversion to enterolignans. The methodologies used for enterolignan analysis and the available data on pharmacokinetics and bioavailability are summarized and their cardiometabolic bioactivity is explored in detail. The special focus given to research on the health benefits of microbial-derived lignan metabolites underscores the critical role of lignan-rich diets in promoting cardiovascular health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily P Laveriano-Santos
- Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Gastronomy, XIA, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Polyphenol Research Group, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- INSA-UB, Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute, University of Barcelona, Santa Coloma de Gramanet, Spain
- CIBER Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | | | - Marta Trius-Soler
- Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Gastronomy, XIA, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Polyphenol Research Group, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- INSA-UB, Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute, University of Barcelona, Santa Coloma de Gramanet, Spain
- CIBER Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Julian Lozano-Castellón
- Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Gastronomy, XIA, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Polyphenol Research Group, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- INSA-UB, Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute, University of Barcelona, Santa Coloma de Gramanet, Spain
- CIBER Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Inés Dominguez-López
- Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Gastronomy, XIA, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Polyphenol Research Group, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- INSA-UB, Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute, University of Barcelona, Santa Coloma de Gramanet, Spain
- CIBER Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Sara Castro-Barquero
- INSA-UB, Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute, University of Barcelona, Santa Coloma de Gramanet, Spain
- CIBER Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- BCNatal|Fetal Medicine Research Center (Hospital Clínic and Hospital Sant Joan de Déu), University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Anna Vallverdú-Queralt
- Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Gastronomy, XIA, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Polyphenol Research Group, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- INSA-UB, Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute, University of Barcelona, Santa Coloma de Gramanet, Spain
- CIBER Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Rosa M Lamuela-Raventós
- Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Gastronomy, XIA, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Polyphenol Research Group, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- INSA-UB, Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute, University of Barcelona, Santa Coloma de Gramanet, Spain
- CIBER Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Maria Pérez
- Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Gastronomy, XIA, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Polyphenol Research Group, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- INSA-UB, Nutrition and Food Safety Research Institute, University of Barcelona, Santa Coloma de Gramanet, Spain
- CIBER Physiopathology of Obesity and Nutrition, Institute of Health Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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De Silva SF, Alcorn J. Flaxseed Lignans as Important Dietary Polyphenols for Cancer Prevention and Treatment: Chemistry, Pharmacokinetics, and Molecular Targets. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2019; 12:E68. [PMID: 31060335 PMCID: PMC6630319 DOI: 10.3390/ph12020068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer causes considerable morbidity and mortality across the world. Socioeconomic, environmental, and lifestyle factors contribute to the increasing cancer prevalence, bespeaking a need for effective prevention and treatment strategies. Phytochemicals like plant polyphenols are generally considered to have anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antimicrobial, and immunomodulatory effects, which explain their promotion for human health. The past several decades have contributed to a growing evidence base in the literature that demonstrate ability of polyphenols to modulate multiple targets of carcinogenesis linking models of cancer characteristics (i.e., hallmarks and nutraceutical-based targeting of cancer) via direct or indirect interaction or modulation of cellular and molecular targets. This evidence is particularly relevant for the lignans, an ubiquitous, important class of dietary polyphenols present in high levels in food sources such as flaxseed. Literature evidence on lignans suggests potential benefit in cancer prevention and treatment. This review summarizes the relevant chemical and pharmacokinetic properties of dietary polyphenols and specifically focuses on the biological targets of flaxseed lignans. The consolidation of the considerable body of data on the diverse targets of the lignans will aid continued research into their potential for use in combination with other cancer chemotherapies, utilizing flaxseed lignan-enriched natural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Franklyn De Silva
- Drug Discovery & Development Research Group, College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, 104 Clinic Place, Health Sciences Building, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan (SK), S7N 2Z4, Canada.
| | - Jane Alcorn
- Drug Discovery & Development Research Group, College of Pharmacy and Nutrition, 104 Clinic Place, Health Sciences Building, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan (SK), S7N 2Z4, Canada.
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Yerramsetty V, Roe M, Cohen J, Hegeman A, Ismail B. Development of a simple, fast, and accurate method for the direct quantification of selective estrogen receptor modulators using stable isotope dilution mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:7028-7037. [PMID: 23805827 DOI: 10.1021/jf3051895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
A rapid analytical procedure was developed to quantify major selective estrogen receptor modulators (SERMs) simultaneously using stable isotope dilution mass spectrometry (SID-LCMS). Two novel isotopically labeled (SIL) analogues of natural SERMs, genistein and daidzein, were synthesized using a H/D exchange reaction mechanism. Computational chemistry coupled with MS and NMR data confirmed the site and mechanism of deuteration. The SIL analogues, which were mono- and dideutero substituted at the ortho positions, exhibited minimal deuterium isotope effects and were stable under the employed sample preparation protocol and MS analysis. An isotopic overlap correction was successfully employed to improve the accuracy and precision of the analytical method. The developed method, which was found to be sensitive, selective, precise and accurate, could be a valuable tool for research focused on determining the bioavailability of individual SERMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vamsidhar Yerramsetty
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Minnesota , Saint Paul, Minnesota 55108, United States
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4
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Wiart C. Comment on Protective effects of anthocyanins against amyloid β-peptide-induced damage in neuro-2A cells. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:761. [PMID: 23256683 DOI: 10.1021/jf302972b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
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5
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Li H, Yan L, Wang J, Zhang Q, Zhou Q, Sun T, Chen W, Zhang H. Fermentation characteristics of six probiotic strains in soymilk. ANN MICROBIOL 2012. [DOI: 10.1007/s13213-011-0401-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022] Open
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Analysis of isoflavones and flavonoids in human urine by UHPLC. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 399:3211-9. [PMID: 20936271 PMCID: PMC3044235 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4206-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2010] [Revised: 08/29/2010] [Accepted: 09/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A rapid, ultra high-performance liquid chromatographic (UHPLC) method has been developed and validated for simultaneous identification and analysis of the isoflavones genistein, daidzein, glycitin, puerarin, and biochanin A, and the flavonoids (±)-catechin, (−)-epicatechin, rutin, hesperidin, neohesperidin, quercitrin, and hesperetin in human urine. Urine samples were incubated with β-glucuronidase/sulfatase. UHPLC was performed with a Hypersil Gold (50 × 2.1 mm, 1.9 μm) analytical column. Elution was with a gradient prepared from aqueous trifluoroacetic acid (0.05%) and acetonitrile. UV detection was performed at 254 and 280 nm. The calibration curves were indicative of good linearity (r2 ≥ 0.9992) in the range of interest for each analyte. LODs ranged between 15.4 and 107.0 ng mL−1 and 3.9 and 20.4 ng mL−1 for flavonoids and isoflavones, respectively. Intra-day and inter-day precision (C.V., %) was less than 3.9% and 3.8%, respectively, and accuracy was between 0.03% and 5.0%. Recovery was 70.35–96.58%. The method is very rapid, simple, and reliable, and suitable for pharmacokinetic analysis. It can be routinely used for simultaneous determination of these five isoflavones and seven flavonoids in human urine. The method can also be applied to studies after administration of pharmaceutical preparations containing isoflavones and flavonoids to humans.
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Quantitative aspects of the metabolism of lignans in pigs fed fibre-enriched rye and wheat bread. Br J Nutr 2009; 102:985-94. [PMID: 19393112 DOI: 10.1017/s0007114509344098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
A diet rich in lignans has been suggested to be protective against a range of chronic diseases. The distribution and metabolic fate of lignans is, however, very poorly understood. We fed high-fibre wheat breads low in lignans (n 8) or high-fibre rye breads (n 9) rich in plant lignans to pigs for 58-67 d, and analysed the content of plant lignans and their metabolites in the diet, blood, bile, faeces, urine and selected tissues. Apparent faecal digestibility of dietary precursors was higher than of total (plant- and entero-) lignans due to conversion to enterolactone and enterodiol. The digestibility of lariciresinol and matairesinol was lower than that of the sum of plant lignans. This suggests that interconversion of plant lignans during digestion and enterohepatic circulation occur without complete conversion to enterolignans. The majority of lignans present in plasma and urine was in the form of enterolignans, but up to 23 % in the plasma, and 11 % in the urine of the rye-fed pigs were in the form of plant lignans. There was a very high concentration of lignans in bile from the rye-fed pigs with as much as 77 % in the form of plant lignans. Lignans were detected in the tissue of colon, liver, breast and brain at a much higher level with rye than with wheat, but only in the form of enterolactone. The importance and implications of systemic exposure to plant lignans remain to be elucidated.
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Franke AA, Halm BM, Kakazu K, Li X, Custer LJ. Phytoestrogenic isoflavonoids in epidemiologic and clinical research. Drug Test Anal 2009; 1:14-21. [PMID: 20355154 PMCID: PMC4439247 DOI: 10.1002/dta.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Isoflavones (IFLs) are natural products to which humans have been traditionally exposed predominantly through soy foods; more recently humans are also exposed to them through soy protein addition to processed foods or through supplements. They are structurally similar to steroidal estrogens and can exert estrogenic or antiestrogenic effects depending on their concentrations and on the tissue considered. These properties qualify IFLs to be classified as phytoestrogens and are believed to account for many of the biological effects observed for soy and/or IFL exposure including benefits for bone and heart health or prevention of menopausal symptoms and certain types of cancer. In order to evaluate the function of IFLs, alone or when exposure happens through soy intake, pharmacokinetics and bioavailability are critical issues to be considered in epidemiologic and clinical research. For this purpose precise, accurate, robust, fast, and affordable techniques for IFL analyses are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian A Franke
- Cancer Research Center of Hawai'i, Natural Products and Cancer Biology Program, Honolulu, HI 96813, USA.
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Kim MH, Han JH, Kim SU. Isoflavone Daidzein: Chemistry and Bacterial Metabolism. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.3839/jabc.2008.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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10
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Larkin T, Price WE, Astheimer L. The key importance of soy isoflavone bioavailability to understanding health benefits. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2008; 48:538-52. [PMID: 18568859 DOI: 10.1080/10408390701542716] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Research over the past two decades has provided significant epidemiological and other evidence for the health benefits of the consumption of soy-based foods. A large number of dietary intervention studies have examined the effects of soy isoflavones on risk factors for cardiovascular disease and hormone-dependent cancers. However, these report large variability in outcome measures, very limited reproducibility between studies, and in some cases, controversy between the results of clinical trials using dietary soy or soy protein and isoflavone supplementation. This highlights a major gap in our understanding of soy isoflavone uptake, metabolism, distribution, and overall bioavailability. There are many potential factors that may influence bioavailability and a better knowledge is necessary to rationalize the inconsistencies in the intervention and clinical studies. This review focuses attention on our current state of knowledge in this area and highlights the importance of metabolism of the parent soy isoflavones and the critical role of gut microbiota on the bioavailability of these compounds and their metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa Larkin
- Smart Food Centre, University of Wollongong, NSW, Australia
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11
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Prasain JK, Barnes S. Metabolism and bioavailability of flavonoids in chemoprevention: current analytical strategies and future prospectus. Mol Pharm 2008; 4:846-64. [PMID: 18052086 DOI: 10.1021/mp700116u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Flavonoids are structurally diverse and among the most ubiquitous groups of dietary polyphenols distributed in various fruits and vegetables. Many have been proposed to be bioactive compounds in the diet that are responsible for lowering the risk of cancer and have been used in chemoprevention studies using animal models of this disease. As for any xenobiotic, to evaluate the potential risks and benefits of bioflavonoids to human health, an understanding of the physiological behavior of these compounds following oral ingestion is needed as well as their absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME). The study on metabolism and bioavailability is very important in defining the pharmacological and toxicological profile of these compounds. Due to great structural diversity among flavonoids, these profiles differ greatly from one compound to another, so that the most abundant polyphenols in our diet are not necessarily the ones that reach target tissues. Therefore, careful analysis of flavonoids and their metabolites in biological systems is critical. Mass spectrometry in various combinations with chromatographic methods has been a mainstay in applications that involve profiling and quantification of metabolites in complex biological samples. Because of its speed, sensitivity and specificity, liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) has become the technology of choice for sample analysis. This review describes the chemistry of polyphenols and flavonoids, their ADME, and the various mass spectrometry-based strategies used in the analysis of flavonoids, including future trends in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeevan K Prasain
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Purdue--UAB Botanicals Center for Age-Related Disease, UAB Center for Nutrient-Gene Interaction in Cancer Prevention, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA.
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12
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Smeds AI, Willför SM, Pietarinen SP, Peltonen-Sainio P, Reunanen MHT. Occurrence of "mammalian" lignans in plant and water sources. PLANTA 2007; 226:639-46. [PMID: 17497165 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-007-0512-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2006] [Accepted: 03/13/2007] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Enterolignans, also called "mammalian" lignans because they are formed in the intestine of mammals after ingestion of plant lignans, were identified for the first time in extracts of four tree species, i.e., in knot heartwood of the hardwood species Fagus sylvatica and in knot or stem heartwood of the softwood species Araucaria angustifolia, Picea smithiana, and Abies cilicia. They were also identified for the first time in grain extracts of cultivated plants, i.e., in 15 cereal species, in 3 nut species, and in sesame and linseeds. Furthermore, some plant lignans and enterolignans were identified in extracts of water from different sources, i.e., in sewage treatment plant influent and effluent and in humic water, and for the first time also in tap and seawater. They were present also in water processed through a water purification system (ultrapure water). As enterolignans seem to be abundant in the aquatic environment, the occurrence of enterolignans in plant sources is most likely due to uptake by the roots from the surrounding water. This uptake was also shown experimentally by treating wheat (Triticum aestivum ssp. vulgare) seeds with purified lignan-free water spiked with enterolactone (EL) during germination and growth. Both the remaining seeds and seedlings contained high EL levels, especially the roots. They also contained metabolites of EL, i.e., 7-hydroxy-EL and 7-oxo-EL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika I Smeds
- Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacy, Abo Akademi University, BioCity, Artillerigatan 6 A, 20520 Turku, Finland.
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Moors S, Blaszkewicz M, Bolt HM, Degen GH. Simultaneous determination of daidzein, equol, genistein and bisphenol A in human urine by a fast and simple method using SPE and GC-MS. Mol Nutr Food Res 2007; 51:787-98. [PMID: 17579895 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200600289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Human diet contains weakly estrogenic compounds such as daidzein (DAI) and genistein (GEN), phytoestrogens present in soy and many vegetables as well as bisphenol A (BPA), a contaminant from packing materials and plastic containers for foods and beverages. In light of concerns about hormonally active agents, biomonitoring methods are needed to assess human exposure to such compounds. A method for simultaneous determination of DAI, its metabolite equol (EQ), GEN, and BPA by GC-MS analysis was established, validated and applied to measure concentrations in human urine. Sample preparation involves enzymatic conjugate cleavage, SPE and derivatization by silylation. For GC/MS analysis, deuterated DAI and GEN and( 13)C-BPA are used as internal standards. LOD are 4, 4, 5 and 3 ng/mL urine for DAI, EQ, GEN and BPA, respectively. Interassay variations were 9% for DAI, 15% for EQ, 18% for GEN and 10% for BPA. Simple workup and accuracy of the method are suited for biomonitoring. An analysis of urine samples from 15 adults consuming typical German food revealed dietary exposure to phytoestrogens in all samples: GEN concentrations ranged between 13 and 238 ng/mL, those for DAI ranged from 12 to 356 ng/mL. More than half of the individuals excreted also the more estrogenic metabolite EQ, at levels of 8-128 ng/mL. Higher concentrations (GEN: 820, DAI: 960 and EQ: 1740 ng/mL) were measured in a 24 h urine sample upon ingestion of soy protein (50 g with 12.9 mg DAI and 25.2 mg GEN). Only urine collected after some days on strict phytoestrogen-free diet had undetectable isoflavone levels. BPA was detected in 9 of 15 urine samples ranging from 3 to 11 ng/mL, and at 55 ng/mL in one sample. In conclusion, a reliable method to determine BPA and isoflavones in urine was established and applied in a pilot study: Biomonitoring results show much higher dietary exposure to phytoestrogens than to BPA in German adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Moors
- Institut für Arbeitsphysiologie an der Universität Dortmund, Dortmund, Germany
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Kwon SH, Kang MJ, Huh JS, Ha KW, Lee JR, Lee SK, Lee BS, Han IH, Lee MS, Lee MW, Lee J, Choi YW. Comparison of oral bioavailability of genistein and genistin in rats. Int J Pharm 2007; 337:148-54. [PMID: 17280808 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2006.12.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2006] [Revised: 11/21/2006] [Accepted: 12/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Genistein (GT) is an isoflavone from Leguminosae and has received much attention as a phytoestrogen. Genistin is a glycoside form of GT (genistein-7-O-beta-D-glucopyranoside, GT-glu) is mainly found in soy-derived foods. In this study, we examined the pharmacokinetic properties and bioavailability of GT in rats and compared with those of GT-glu. In order to characterize and compare the pharmacokinetics of GT and GT-glu, these compounds were administered intravenously and orally. The plasma concentration of GT was determined by HPLC after enzymatic hydrolysis. After oral administration of GT with various doses (4, 20, 40 mg/kg), the bioavailability of GT was 38.58, 24.34 and 30.75%, respectively. The T(max), C(max) and AUC(0-infinity) of GT after oral administration of GT (40 mg/kg), were 2h, 4876.19 ng/ml, 31,269.66 ng h/ml, respectively. When smaller amount of GT was administered, the faster T(max) was observed. Oral administration of GT-glu resulted in longer T(max), lower C(max), and greater bioavailability than that of GT. The pharmacokinetic parameters of GT following oral administration of GT-glu (64 mg/kg as GT-glu, 40 mg/kg as GT) were obtained as follows: 8h (T(max)), 3763.96 ng/ml (C(max)), 51,221.08 ng h/ml (AUC(0-infinity)) and 48.66% (absolute bioavailability), respectively. These results indicate that the oral bioavailability of GT-glu is greater than that of GT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suk Hyung Kwon
- Division of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Chung-Ang University, 221 Heuksuk-dong, Dongjak-gu, Seoul 156-756, South Korea
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15
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Sidhu JS, Kabir Y, Huffman FG. Functional Foods from Cereal Grains. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FOOD PROPERTIES 2007. [DOI: 10.1080/10942910601045289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Wei QK, Chen TR, Chen JT. Using of Lactobacillus and Bifidobacterium to product the isoflavone aglycones in fermented soymilk. Int J Food Microbiol 2007; 117:120-4. [PMID: 17477997 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2006] [Revised: 01/13/2007] [Accepted: 02/20/2007] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The study determined isoflavone aglycone contents in soymilk and sugar-soymilk fermented with a single culture of two strains of Lactobacillus paracasei, two strains of Lactobacillus acidophilus, and one strain of Bifidobacterium longum respectively at 37 degrees C for 24 h. Isoflavone concentration was analyzed by HPLC. The viable count of bacteria in all of the fermented soymilk ranged from 7 to 9 log CFU/ml. The isoflavone aglycone had a significant increase of 62%-96% of isoflavone in all of the fermented soymilk compared to 17% in non-fermented soymilk (P<0.05). The five strains of microorganisms produced lesser amount of isoflavone aglycones in fermented sucrose-soymilk than in other fermented soymilk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Que-King Wei
- Department of Food Nutrition, Chung Hua University of Medical Technology, 89 Wunhua 1st Street, Rende Township, Tainan 71703, Taiwan, ROC.
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Consumption of wholemeal rye bread increases serum concentrations and urinary excretion of enterolactone compared with consumption of white wheat bread in healthy Finnish men and women. Br J Nutr 2007. [DOI: 10.1017/s0007114500002452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Rye is an important source of plant lignans in Finland. In the present crossover trial we wanted to study the effect of rye bread as part of the usual diet on serum and urine enterolactone (ENL) concentrations in healthy volunteers. Eighteen men aged 43 (SEM 2·0) YEARS AND TWENTY-ONE WOMEN AGED 43 (sem 1·6) years consumed wholemeal rye bread and white wheat bread in random order for 4 weeks. The bread periods were separated by a 4 week wash-out period. The breads provided at least 20 % of the daily energy intake. The mean intakes of rye bread were 219 (sem 14·6) and 162 (sem 5·3) g/d and those of wheat bread were 200 (sem 9·6) and 153 (sem 5·8) g/d for men and women respectively. Blood samples were collected from all subjects and three 24 h urine samples were collected from ten men and twelve women at the end of both bread periods for the determination of serum concentration and urinary excretion of ENL. The mean serum ENL concentrations in both men and women at the beginning of baseline period and at the end of the rye-bread period remained constant and were significantly higher than those at the end of the wheat-bread period. Correspondingly, daily urinary ENL excretion increased significantly during the rye-bread period compared with the wheat-bread period and was 5- and 10-fold higher in men and women respectively in comparison with the amount of plant lignan precursors measured in the rye bread. These data indicate the presence of other precursors for ENL in rye which are not detected by the current method of measuring plant lignans in food. The possible role of fibre in enhancement of the formation of mammalian lignans from their plant precursors in the gut also remains to be determined.
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Abstract
Food samples (n 114) were prepared from vegetables commonly eaten in Europe. The glycosidic forms of the phyto-oestrogens daidzein and genistein were extracted from the dried foods into aqueous methanol. The isoflavones were quantified by GC–MS after hydrolytic removal of any conjugated carbohydrate. Completeness of extraction and any procedural losses of the isoflavones were accounted for using synthetic daidzin (7-O-glucosyl-4′-hydroxyisoflavone) and genistin (7-O-glucosyl-4′5-dihydroxyisoflavone) as internal standards. Of the 114 foods assayed, at a limit of quantification of 0·1 μg/kg dry weight, forty-eight contained no detectable daidzein or genistein, forty-one contained less than 100 μg/kg of the two isoflavones combined and the remaining twenty-five contained more than this amount. Soyabean products contained between 470 and 1420 mg (average of 960 mg) daidzein and genistein combined per kg wet weight of food, and legumes contained between 20 and 5750 μg/kg wet weight of food, with an average of 620 μg/kg. Cooking by boiling in water caused a decrease in the daidzein and genistein content of food in twenty-four of twenty-eight foods. The extent of the decrease was variable and warrants further investigation. The present paper comprises the first comprehensive description of the content of daidzein and genistein in vegetables.
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Abstract
To study the intestinal metabolism of lignans, the concentrations of plant and mammalian lignans in intestinal digesta sampled along the intestinal tract of pigs were determined by isotope dilution GC–MS. The pigs were fed rye-bread diets made from either whole rye-grains or rye-grain milling fractions enriched in pericarp–testa, aleurone or endosperm cells. The content and characteristics of dietary fibre varied between diets and had been shown to induce different colon fermentation patterns. As the metabolism of lignans depends on the action of the intestinal flora, we tested whether the rye-bread diets influence the metabolism of lignans. In the ileum, the lignans were mainly present as conjugated plant lignans, which were determined only when the analytical procedure included a hydrolysis step. High recovery of dietary lignans in the ileum may indicate that the lignans enter the enterohepatic circulation. In addition, two to three times the intake of lignans were recovered in the faeces when the diets had a high content of dietary fibre suggesting underestimation of plant lignans in the diet. Most of the plant lignans disappeared from the intestinal tract between the terminal ileum and the caecum. The intestinal concentrations and the disappearance of lignans correlated with the content of lignans in the diet, being highest on the pericarp–testa diet and lowest on the endosperm diet. No effect of fermentation pattern on the intestinal metabolism of lignans was observed. The lignans were liberated from the pericarp–testa diet although the plant cell walls remained largely undegraded.
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Abstract
Dietary lignans are phyto-oestrogens that possibly influence human health. The present review deals with lignan bioavailability, the study of which is crucial to determine to what extent metabolism, absorption and excretion of lignans alter their biological properties. Since intestinal bacteria play a major role in lignan conversion, for instance by producing the enterolignans enterodiol and enterolactone, emphasis is put on data obtained in recent bacteriological studies.
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Peñalvo JL, Nurmi T. Application of coulometric electrode array detection to the analysis of isoflavonoids and lignans. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2006; 41:1497-507. [PMID: 16644172 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2006.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2006] [Accepted: 03/15/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A comprehensive review of the available methods for the analysis of isoflavonoids and lignans in biological matrices based on coulometric electrode array detection (CEAD) is presented. Different aspects such as sample extraction and purification procedures as well as instrumental settings and method validation are discussed. Comparisons with other available protocols using different detection techniques such as mass spectrometry or immunoassay are also reported to underline the versatility and reliability of the detector. Practical notes and tips for scientists working with CEAD are also provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- José L Peñalvo
- Institute for Preventive Medicine, Nutrition and Cancer, Folkhälsan Research Center, and Division of Clinical Chemistry, University of Helsinki, Biomedicum, P.O. Box 63, 00014 Helsinki, Finland.
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22
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Otieno DO, Ashton JF, Shah NP. Evaluation of enzymic potential for biotransformation of isoflavone phytoestrogen in soymilk by Bifidobacterium animalis, Lactobacillus acidophilus and Lactobacillus casei. Food Res Int 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodres.2005.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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23
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Ruefer CE, Gerhäuser C, Frank N, Becker H, Kulling SE. In vitro phase II metabolism of xanthohumol by human UDP-glucuronosyltransferases and sulfotransferases. Mol Nutr Food Res 2005; 49:851-6. [PMID: 16092069 DOI: 10.1002/mnfr.200500057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Xanthohumol (XN) is the principal prenylated flavonoid of the hop plant and has recently gained considerable interest due to its potential cancer-chemopreventive effects. However, the metabolism of XN has not yet been investigated in detail. Therefore, we studied the in vitro phase II metabolism of XN using nine human recombinant UDP-glucuronosyltransferases (UGT) and five sulfotransferases (SULT). The identification of the metabolites formed was elucidated using HPLC with diode array detection as well as HPLC/API-ES MS. XN was efficiently glucuronidated by UGT 1 A 8, 1 A 9, and 1 A 10; further important UGTs were UGT 1 A 1, 1 A 7, and 2 B 7. With respect to the sulfation reaction, SULT 1 A 1*2, 1 A 2, and 1 E 1 were the most active SULT forms. UGT 1 A 3, 1 A 4, and 1 A 6 as well as SULT 1 A 3 and 2 A 1 were of minor importance for the conjugation of XN. Three mono-glucuronides as well as three mono-sulfates were identified. Considering the tissue distribution of the tested UGT and SULT enzyme forms, these findings suggest a prominent role for the glucuronidation and sulfation of XN in the liver as well as in the gastrointestinal tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corinna E Ruefer
- Institute of Nutritional Physiology, Federal Research Centre for Nutrition and Food, Karlsruhe, Germany
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24
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Valentín-Blasini L, Sadowski MA, Walden D, Caltabiano L, Needham LL, Barr DB. Urinary phytoestrogen concentrations in the U.S. population (1999-2000). JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE ANALYSIS AND ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2005; 15:509-23. [PMID: 15928707 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
We report population-based urinary concentrations of phytoestrogens stratified by age, sex, and composite racial/ethnic variables. We measured the isoflavones - genistein, daidzein, equol, and O-desmethylangolensin (O-DMA) - and the lignans - enterolactone and enterodiol - in approximately 2500 urine samples from individuals aged 6 years and older who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) in 1999 and 2000. We detected all phytoestrogens in over 70% of the samples analyzed; enterolactone was detected in the highest concentrations, and daidzein was detected with the highest frequency. The geometric means for each phytoestrogen were as follows: genistein, 22.3 microg/g; daidzein, 68.6 microg/g; equol, 7.65 microg/g; O-DMA, 3.95 microg/g; enterolactone, 217 microg/g; and enterodiol, 24.3 microg/g creatinine. The 95th percentiles for each phytoestrogen were as follows: genistein, 380 microg/g; daidzein, 944 microg/g; equol, 50.3 microg/g; O-DMA, 217 microg/g; enterolactone, 2240 microg/g; and enterodiol, 240 microg/g creatinine. Multivariate analyses showed statistically significant differences among many of the demographic subgroups. Adolescents had higher concentrations of genistein and equol than adults. Non-Hispanic whites had higher concentrations of enterodiol and equol than Mexican Americans or non-Hispanic blacks. Non-Hispanic whites also had higher concentrations of enterolactone and O-DMA than Mexican Americans. Mexican Americans had higher concentrations of genistein than non-Hispanic blacks; however, the opposite was found for O-DMA. Determination of phytoestrogen exposure in the US population will help us to better understand phytoestrogen consumption in the US and will assist us in elucidating the potential role of phytoestrogens in protecting against cancer and heart disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liza Valentín-Blasini
- National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA.
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Jenner AM, Rafter J, Halliwell B. Human fecal water content of phenolics: the extent of colonic exposure to aromatic compounds. Free Radic Biol Med 2005; 38:763-72. [PMID: 15721987 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.11.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2004] [Revised: 11/03/2004] [Accepted: 11/15/2004] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Phenolic compounds are not completely absorbed in the small intestine and so enter the colon, where they might exert physiological effects. To identify phenolics that are present in normal human colon, fecal water was prepared from 5 free-living volunteers with no dietary restrictions and analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Daily measurements were also performed on a single individual to examine the variation more closely. Levels of polyphenols were variable between individuals. Naringenin and quercetin had mean concentrations of 1.20 and 0.63 microM. All other flavonoids examined were present < or =0.17 microM. Simple phenolic and other aromatic acids were present at much higher concentrations. The major components were phenylacetic acid, 479 microM; 3-phenylpropionic acid, 166 microM; 3-(4-hydroxy)-phenylpropionic acid, 68 microM; 3,4-dihydroxycinnamic acid, 52 microM; benzoic acid, 51 microM; 3-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, 46 microM; and 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid, 19 microM. Other phenolic acids ranged from 0.04 to 7 microM. Decreased dietary phenolic intake caused a decrease in polyphenol and monophenolic acid concentration in fecal water 24 h later. This study is the first to measure the range of aromatic compounds in human fecal water and demonstrates that phenolic acid concentrations are high. The biological effects of phenolics may play an important role in colon function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew M Jenner
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Singapore, 8 Medical Drive, Singapore 117597.
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Prasain JK, Wang CC, Barnes S. Mass spectrometric methods for the determination of flavonoids in biological samples. Free Radic Biol Med 2004; 37:1324-50. [PMID: 15454273 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2004.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2004] [Revised: 07/15/2004] [Accepted: 07/22/2004] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
There is an ever-increasing interest in the biological effects of the bioflavonoids, members of the large group of plant polyphenols. Because of the aromatic character of these compounds, they have been analyzed by several chromatographic methods. In the case of high-performance liquid chromatography, they are readily detected by their ultraviolet absorbance or electrochemical properties. More evidence that the bioflavonoids undergo extensive metabolism during uptake from the gut and distribution around the body and in specific tissues is accumulating. In addition, free radical products at sites of inflammatory processes react with bioflavonoids and their metabolites, generating important new compounds of as yet unknown properties. For these reasons, careful examination of the chemical nature of bioflavonoids and their products in biological systems is absolutely required. Combination of mass spectrometry with the various chromatographic methods has proved to be highly successful in this regard. This review of the literature on the bioflavonoids is focused on the methods that are currently available for their qualitative and quantitative analysis by mass spectrometry and covers the period 2001-2003. Emphasis is placed on the description and value of existing methods, followed by an examination of emerging technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeevan K Prasain
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.
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Kroon PA, Clifford MN, Crozier A, Day AJ, Donovan JL, Manach C, Williamson G. How should we assess the effects of exposure to dietary polyphenols in vitro? Am J Clin Nutr 2004; 80:15-21. [PMID: 15213022 DOI: 10.1093/ajcn/80.1.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 336] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Human intervention studies have provided clear evidence that dietary polyphenols (eg, flavonoids--eg, flavonols--and isoflavones) are at least partly absorbed and that they have the potential to exert biological effects. Biological activity of polyphenols is often assessed by using cultured cells as tissue models; in almost all such studies, cells are treated with aglycones or polyphenol-rich extracts (derived from plants and foods), and data are reported at concentrations that elicited a response. There are 2 inherent flaws in such an approach. First, plasma and tissues are not exposed in vivo to polyphenols in these forms. Several human studies have identified the nature of polyphenol conjugates in vivo and have shown that dietary polyphenols undergo extensive modification during first-pass metabolism so that the forms reaching the blood and tissues are, in general, neither aglycones (except for green tea catechins) nor the same as the dietary source. Polyphenols are present as conjugates of glucuronate or sulfate, with or without methylation of the catechol functional group. As a consequence, the polyphenol conjugates are likely to possess different biological properties and distribution patterns within tissues and cells than do polyphenol aglycones. Although deconjugation can potentially occur in vivo to produce aglycone, it occurs only at certain sites. Second, the polyphenol concentrations tested should be of the same order as the maximum plasma concentrations attained after a polyphenol-rich meal, which are in the range of 0.1-10 micromol/L. For correct interpretation of results, future efforts to define biological activities of polyphenols must make use of the available data concerning bioavailability and metabolism in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A Kroon
- Nutrition Division, Institute of Food Research, Norwich, United Kingdom.
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Kuo HW, Ding WH. Trace determination of bisphenol A and phytoestrogens in infant formula powders by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2004; 1027:67-74. [PMID: 14971485 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2003.08.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
This investigation describes a reliable and sensitive method for simultaneously determining bisphenol A (BPA) and two major phytoestrogens, daidzein and genistein, in powdered milks and infant formulas by gas chromatography-mass spectrometric analysis after trimethylsilylation. To reduce the matrix interference associated with the constituents of the formulas, the dissolved formula solutions were firstly ultra-centrifuged and the analytes in the supernatant were then extracted using a C18 solid-phase extraction column. The accuracy and precision of the method were determined and the technique was successfully employed to measure trace concentrations of BPA, daidzein and genistein in powdered formulas. The results show that BPA, daidzein and genistein were detected in all the testing samples (n = 6) at concentrations from 45 to 113 ng/g (except one infant formula), 20 to 2050 ng/g and 21 to 6510 ng/g, respectively. The highest concentrations of daidzein and genistein (i.e., 2050 and 6510 ng/g) were detected in a soy-based powdered infant formula. The quantitation limits were 1.0 ng/g for BPA, and 10 ng/g for daidzein and genistein using 0.5 g powdered milk samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han-Wen Kuo
- Department of Chemistry, National Central University, Chung-Li 32054, Taiwan
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29
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Valentín-Blasini L, Blount BC, Caudill SP, Needham LL. Urinary and serum concentrations of seven phytoestrogens in a human reference population subset. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE ANALYSIS AND ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2003; 13:276-82. [PMID: 12923554 DOI: 10.1038/sj.jea.7500278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/21/2023]
Abstract
Diets rich in naturally occurring plant estrogens (phytoestrogens) are strongly associated with a decreased risk for cancer and heart disease in humans. Phytoestrogens have estrogenic and, in some cases, antiestrogenic and antiandrogenic properties, and may contribute to the protective effect of some diets. However, little information is available about the levels of these phytoestrogens in the general US population. Therefore, levels of phytoestrogens were determined in urine (N=199) and serum (N=208) samples taken from a nonrepresentative subset of adults who participated in NHANES III, 1988-1994. The phytoestrogens quantified were the lignans (enterolactone, enterodiol, matairesinol); the isoflavones (genistein, daidzein, equol, O-desmethylangolensin); and coumestrol (urine only). Phytoestrogens with the highest mean urinary levels were enterolactone (512 ng/ml), daidzein (317 ng/ml), and genistein (129 ng/ml). In serum, the concentrations were much less and the relative order was reversed, with genistein having the highest mean level (4.7 ng/ml), followed by daidzein (3.9 ng/ml) and enterolactone (3.6 ng/ml). Highly significant correlations of phytoestrogen levels in urine and serum samples from the same persons were observed for enterolactone, enterodiol, genistein, and daidzein. Determination of phytoestrogen concentrations in large study populations will give a better insight into the actual dietary exposure to these biologically active compounds in the US population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liza Valentín-Blasini
- National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30341, USA.
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Hoikkala AA, Schiavoni E, Wähälä K. Analysis of phyto-oestrogens in biological matrices. Br J Nutr 2003; 89 Suppl 1:S5-18. [PMID: 12725650 DOI: 10.1079/bjn2002791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
A review covering different methods for the analysis of phyto-oestrogens in biological matrices is presented. Sample pretreatment and analysis of isoflavonoids and lignans by HPLC and GC with various detection methods are discussed. The immunoassay method is also briefly presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antti A Hoikkala
- Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, PO Box 55, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
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31
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Bach Knudsen KE, Serena A, Kjaer AKB, Tetens I, Heinonen SM, Nurmi T, Adlercreutz H. Rye bread in the diet of pigs enhances the formation of enterolactone and increases its levels in plasma, urine and feces. J Nutr 2003; 133:1368-75. [PMID: 12730424 DOI: 10.1093/jn/133.5.1368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
To obtain new insight into the quantitative and qualitative metabolism of rye and wheat lignans, we performed three series of experiments with catheterized pigs. Two diets with similar levels of dietary fiber and macronutrients but with contrasting levels of plant lignans (isolariciresinol, lariciresinol, matairesinol, pinoresinol, secoisolariciresinol and syringaresinol) were prepared from rye (high in lignans) and wheat (low in lignans) soft and crisp breads. In two series of experiments we quantified the uptake from the gut of enterolactone in four pigs fitted with catheters in the portal vein and mesenteric artery and with an ultrasonic flow probe attached to the portal vein to monitor the blood flow. In a third study with six pigs, we quantified the bioavailability of the plant lignans that can be converted to enterolactone (lariciresinol, matairesinol, pinoresinol, secoisolariciresinol and syringaresinol) and the concentration in the peripheral blood. Plant and mammalian lignans in diets and stool were analyzed by isotope dilution gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and enterolactone in plasma and urine determined by time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay. There was a significantly higher formation of enterolactone in pigs fed the rye diet, and higher fecal and urinary excretion and circulating levels of mammalian lignans than in pigs fed the wheat diet. The conversion of mammalian lignan precursors to enterolactone was 48% with the wheat diet and 60% with the rye diet. Mammalian lignans are absorbed by passive diffusion from the large intestine and a substantial fraction of the absorbed mammalian lignans undergoes enterohepatic circulation, resulting in low diurnal variation in plasma levels of enterolactone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Knud Erik Bach Knudsen
- Department of Animal Nutrition and Physiology, Danish Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Research Centre Foulum, Tjele, Denmark.
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Abstract
Isoflavones and lignans are biologically active plant-food constituents that have potential chemopreventive properties. Quantitation of isoflavones and lignans in humans is necessary to establish the benefits and risks of exposure to these compounds in populations and to determine which components of a mixed diet contribute to the exposure. Isoflavones and lignans are metabolized by colonic bacteria to more biologically active metabolites; thus both the parent compounds and the metabolites are measured routinely. Isoflavonoids (genistein, daidzein, dihydrodaidzein, O-desmethylangolensin and equol) and lignans (enterolactone, enterodiol, matairesinol and secoisolariciresinol) can be quantified in various body fluids. Typically, high concentrations of isoflavonoids in urine and serum are associated with soy consumption, and high concentrations of lignans are associated primarily with intake of whole grains and other fiber-containing plant foods. Controlled feeding studies and nutritional epidemiologic studies demonstrate a linear dose response between dietary intake and urinary excretion of isoflavones. Lignan excretion is associated positively with dietary fiber intake as well as with diets that are on average higher in fiber and carbohydrate and lower in fat; thus lignans have also been proposed as a marker of healthier dietary patterns. The complex interactions between the colonic environment and the external and internal factors that modulate it contribute to significant variation in serum and urinary phytoestrogen levels among individuals. Understanding these sources of variation is important to be able to use these measures effectively as dietary biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna W Lampe
- Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA.
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Abstract
The mammalian phytoestrogens enterodiol (END) and enterolactone (ENL) are produced in the colon by the action of bacteria on the plant precursors matairesinol (MAT), secoisolariciresinol (SECO), their glycosides, and other precursors in the diet. Both END and ENL have been shown to possess weakly estrogenic and antiestrogenic activities, and it has been suggested that the high production of these antiestrogenic mammalian lignans in the gut may serve to protect against breast cancer in women and prostate cancer in men. Various in vitro experiments suggested END and ENL significantly inhibited the growth of human colon tumor cells, and the E2-induced proliferation of MCF-7 breast cancer cells was inhibited by ENL. The protective effects of mammalian lignans may be due to their ability to compete with E2 for the type II estrogen receptor, to induce sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG), to inhibit placental aromatase, and to act as antioxidants. This review mainly deals with the chemistry, quantitative analysis, biological properties and health effects of END and ENL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Quan Wang
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, PO Box 100485, 1600 SW Archer Road, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA.
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Wähälä K, Rasku S, Parikka K. Deuterated phytoestrogen flavonoids and isoflavonoids for quantitation. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2002; 777:111-22. [PMID: 12270204 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-0232(02)00096-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Isotopically and isomerically pure polydeuterated flavonoids and isoflavonoids have been prepared for quantitation of these compounds in biological matrices. Various deutero-labeling techniques are presented and methods for establishing the isotopical and isomerical purity of deuterated products are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Wähälä
- Organic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, PO Box 55, FIN-00014, Helsinki, Finland.
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Wang CC, Prasain JK, Barnes S. Review of the methods used in the determination of phytoestrogens. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2002; 777:3-28. [PMID: 12270197 DOI: 10.1016/s1570-0232(02)00341-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Interest in analytical methods for plant estrogens (phytoestrogens) has risen sharply in the past 10 years. In this review, we examine the existing analytical methods based on separations by gas-liquid chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography and capillary electrophoresis in addition to methods of detection by ultraviolet absorption, fluorescence, electrochemical oxidation/reduction and mass spectrometry. These methods are compared with other methods of phytoestrogen analysis utilizing immunoassay approaches. The advantages and disadvantages of each of these methods are highlighted and potential areas for further development identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao-Cheng Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.
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Abstract
A review with 114 references about mammalian lignans (enterolignans). Several aspects have been reviewed: the precursors of mammalian lignans and their biosynthesis, biological activities and health effects, metabolism (in vivo and in vitro) in human and animals, some synthetic strategies to obtain enterolignan skeleton types, including the synthesis of haptens and deuterated lignans, and finally an overview of the analytical methods to detect and quantify lignans in biological matrices and foods.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Raffaelli
- Organic Chemistry Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, PO Box 55, FIN-00014, Helsinki, Finland
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Ríos JL, Giner RM, Prieto JM. New findings on the bioactivity of lignans. BIOACTIVE NATURAL PRODUCTS 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s1572-5995(02)80008-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
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Thomas BF, Zeisel SH, Busby MG, Hill JM, Mitchell RA, Scheffler NM, Brown SS, Bloeden LT, Dix KJ, Jeffcoat AR. Quantitative analysis of the principle soy isoflavones genistein, daidzein and glycitein, and their primary conjugated metabolites in human plasma and urine using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection. JOURNAL OF CHROMATOGRAPHY. B, BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES AND APPLICATIONS 2001; 760:191-205. [PMID: 11530977 DOI: 10.1016/s0378-4347(01)00269-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Soy isoflavones are becoming of increasing interest as nutritional agents which can be used to combat osteoporosis and hyperlipidemia, and are also being considered as potential cancer chemopreventive compounds. However, prior to their formulation and distribution as therapeutic agents, thorough pharmacokinetic and toxicological assessment needs to be completed in men and women in a variety of health conditions in order to ensure their therapeutic efficacy and safety. At this time, studies of purified soy isoflavones are possible, and are being designed to fully evaluate the pharmacological utility of these preparations. In support of these studies, quantitative analysis of soy isoflavones in biological fluids can be accomplished with a wide variety of methods and analytical instrumentation. However, the relatively ubiquitous presence of high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection (HPLC-UV) in most analytical laboratories, the relative ease of its operation, and the lesser expense of this instrumentation as compared to more sophisticated techniques such as liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, offers some distinct advantages for its use in pharmacokinetic studies. In this manuscript, the development and validation of an HPLC-UV method for the quantitation of the principal soy isoflavones, genistein, daidzein, and glycitein, and their primary metabolites, in human plasma and urine is described. This analytical approach allows for pharmacologically relevant concentrations of the analytes and their principle metabolites to be detected, and has been validated in close agreement with the US Food and Drug Administration's guidelines for the validation of methods to be used in support of pharmacokinetic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- B F Thomas
- Research Triangle Institute, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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40
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Heinonen S, Nurmi T, Liukkonen K, Poutanen K, Wähälä K, Deyama T, Nishibe S, Adlercreutz H. In vitro metabolism of plant lignans: new precursors of mammalian lignans enterolactone and enterodiol. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2001; 49:3178-3186. [PMID: 11453749 DOI: 10.1021/jf010038a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 326] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The metabolism of the plant lignans matairesinol, secoisolariciresinol, pinoresinol, syringaresinol, arctigenin, 7-hydroxymatairesinol, isolariciresinol, and lariciresinol by human fecal microflora was investigated to study their properties as mammalian lignan precursors. The quantitative analyses of lignan precursors and the mammalian lignans enterolactone and enterodiol were performed by HPLC with coulometric electrode array detector. The metabolic products, including mammalian lignans, were characterized as trimethylsilyl derivatives by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Matairesinol, secoisolariciresinol, lariciresinol, and pinoresinol were converted to mammalian lignans only. Several metabolites were isolated and tentatively identified as for syringaresinol and arctigenin in addition to the mammalian lignans. Metabolites of 7-hydroxymatairesinol were characterized as enterolactone and 7-hydroxyenterolactone by comparison with authentic reference compounds. A metabolic scheme describing the conversion of the most abundant new mammalian lignan precursors, pinoresinol and lariciresinol, is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Heinonen
- Folkhälsan Research Center and Department of Clinical Chemistry, P.O. Box 60, FIN-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
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Careri M, Elviri L, Mangia A. Validation of a high-performance liquid chromatographic method for determination of isoflavonoids in soybeans. Study of the extraction procedure by experimental design. Chromatographia 2001. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02491831] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Abstract
There is growing evidence that dietary phytoestrogens have a beneficial role in chronic renal disease. This review summarizes the recent findings from dietary intervention studies performed in animals and humans suggesting that consumption of soy-based protein rich in isoflavones and flaxseed rich in lignans retards the development and progression of chronic renal disease. In several animal models of renal disease, both soy protein and flaxseed have been shown to limit or reduce proteinuria and renal pathological lesions associated with progressive renal failure. In studies of human subjects with different types of chronic renal disease, soy protein and flaxseed also appear to moderate proteinuria and preserve renal function. However, most of these clinical trials were of relatively short duration and involved a small number of patients. Furthermore, it is not clear whether the renal protective effects of soy protein and flaxseed are caused by the isoflavones (daidzein and genistein) and lignans (matairesinol and secoisolariciresinol) or some other component. The biochemistry, metabolism, and mechanisms of actions of isoflavones and lignans are discussed. Isoflavones and lignans appear to act through various mechanisms that modulate cell growth and proliferation, extracellular matrix synthesis, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Some of these actions have been shown in vitro, but studies of the mechanisms operative in vivo are lacking. The diversity of cellular actions of isoflavones and lignans supports their protective effects in a variety of experimental and human types of chronic renal disease. Further investigations are needed to evaluate their long-term effects on renal disease progression in patients with chronic renal failure.
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Setchell KD, Brown NM, Desai P, Zimmer-Nechemias L, Wolfe BE, Brashear WT, Kirschner AS, Cassidy A, Heubi JE. Bioavailability of pure isoflavones in healthy humans and analysis of commercial soy isoflavone supplements. J Nutr 2001; 131:1362S-75S. [PMID: 11285356 DOI: 10.1093/jn/131.4.1362s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 616] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The pharmacokinetic behavior of naturally occurring isoflavones has been determined for the first time in healthy adults. We compared plasma kinetics of pure daidzein, genistein and their beta-glycosides administered as a single-bolus dose to 19 healthy women. This study demonstrates differences in the pharmacokinetics of isoflavone glycosides compared with their respective beta-glycosides. Although all isoflavones are efficiently absorbed from the intestinal tract, there are striking differences in the fate of aglycones and beta-glycosides. Mean time to attain peak plasma concentrations (t(max)) for the aglycones genistein and daidzein was 5.2 and 6.6 h, respectively, whereas for the corresponding beta-glycosides, the t(max) was delayed to 9.3 and 9.0 h, respectively, consistent with the residence time needed for hydrolytic cleavage of the glycoside moiety for bioavailability. The apparent volume of distribution of isoflavones confirms extensive tissue distribution after absorption. Plasma genistein concentrations are consistently higher than daidzein when equal amounts of the two isoflavones are administered, and this is accounted for by the more extensive distribution of daidzein (236 L) compared with genistein (161 L). The systemic bioavailability of genistein [mean AUC = 4.54 microg/(mL x h)] is much greater than that of daidzein [mean AUC = 2.94 microg/(mL x h)], and bioavailability of these isoflavones is greater when ingested as beta-glycosides rather than aglycones as measured from the area under the curve of the plasma appearance and disappearance concentrations. The pharmacokinetics of methoxylated isoflavones show distinct differences depending on the position of the methoxyl group in the molecule. Glycitin, found in two phytoestrogen supplements, underwent hydrolysis of the beta-glycoside moiety and little further biotransformation, leading to high plasma glycitein concentrations. Biochanin A and formononetin, two isoflavones found in one phytoestrogen supplement, were rapidly and efficiently demethylated, resulting in high plasma genistein and daidzein concentrations typically observed after the ingestion of soy-containing foods. These differences in pharmacokinetics and metabolism have implications for clinical studies because it cannot be assumed that all isoflavones are comparable in their pharmacokinetics and bioavailability. An analysis of 33 phytoestrogen supplements and extracts revealed considerable differences in the isoflavone content from that claimed by the manufacturers. Plasma concentrations of isoflavones show marked qualitative and quantitative differences depending on the type of supplement ingested. These studies indicate a need for improvement in quality assurance and standardization of such products.
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Affiliation(s)
- K D Setchell
- Division of Clinical Mass Spectrometry, University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio 45229, USA.
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Schaefer WR, Hermann T, Meinhold-Heerlein I, Deppert WR, Zahradnik HP. Exposure of human endometrium to environmental estrogens, antiandrogens, and organochlorine compounds. Fertil Steril 2000; 74:558-63. [PMID: 10973655 DOI: 10.1016/s0015-0282(00)00704-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine concentrations of environmental estrogens, antiandrogens, and organochlorine compounds in human endometrium and body fat. DESIGN Cross-sectional, population-based study. SETTING Patient recruitment was done at a university hospital; chemical analysis was performed in a specialized private laboratory. PATIENT(S) Premenopausal, unexposed women undergoing hysterectomy for uterine myoma. INTERVENTION(S) None. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S) Concentrations of environmental modulators in human endometrium and body fat were quantified by high-resolution gas chromatography/high-resolution mass spectrometry. RESULT(S) Among known endocrine modulators, the antiandrogenic p, p'-dichlorodiphenyl-dichloroethylene was found in the highest concentrations in endometrium (median 4.7 microg/kg wet weight) and body fat (median 446 microg/kg wet weight). Only trace amounts of the identified environmental estrogens beta-hexachlorocyclohexane, o, p'-dichlorodiphenyl-trichloroethane, bisphenol A, hydroxylated polychlorinated biphenyls, and genistein were found in the endometrium (median <1 microg/kg wet weight). As major organochlorine contaminants without endocrine activities, polychlorinated biphenyls and hexachlorobenzene were found. CONCLUSION(S) Our data demonstrate that nonchlorinated environmental estrogens do not build up cumulative tissue concentrations in the endometrium. The risk of reduced fertility because of ambient levels of environmental estrogens in the endometrium is negligible.
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Affiliation(s)
- W R Schaefer
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany.
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Déprez S, Scalbert A. Isotopic labelling of dietary polyphenols for bioavailability studies. BASIC LIFE SCIENCES 2000; 66:357-70. [PMID: 10800453 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4615-4139-4_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- S Déprez
- Laboratoire de Chimie Biologique (INRA), INA-PG, Thiverval-Grignon, France
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Wang GJ, Lapcík O, Hampl R, Uehara M, Al-Maharik N, Stumpf K, Mikola H, Wähälä K, Adlercreutz H. Time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay of plasma daidzein and genistein. Steroids 2000; 65:339-48. [PMID: 10802284 DOI: 10.1016/s0039-128x(00)00089-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
We present a method for the determination of the phytoestrogens daidzein and genistein in plasma (serum). These weakly estrogenic isoflavones occur in soybeans and in smaller amounts in some other beans and plants. It has been suggested that they may afford protection against prostate and breast cancer. The method is based on time-resolved fluoroimmunoassay (TR-FIA) using a europium chelate as a label. After synthesis of 4'-O-carboxymethyl-daidzein and 4'-O-carboxymethyl-genistein the compounds are coupled to bovine serum albumin (BSA), then used as antigens to immunize rabbits. The tracers with the europium chelate are synthesized using the same 4'-O-derivative of the isoflavones. After enzymatic hydrolysis and ether extraction the immunoassay is carried out using the VICTOR 1420 multilabel counter (Wallac Oy, Turku, Finland). The antisera cross-reacted to some extent with some isoflavonoids but not with flavonoids. The cross-reactivity seems not to influence the results, which were highly specific for both compounds. The correlation coefficients between the TR-FIA methods and the reference method based on isotope dilution gas chromatography-mass spectrometry were high; r-values were about 0.95-0.99 depending on concentration. The intra-assay coefficients of variation (CV%) for daidzein and genistein at three different concentrations vary 3.2-4.5 and 3.2-4.1, respectively. The inter-assay CVs vary 5.0-6.3 and 4.5-5.3, respectively. The working ranges of the daidzein and genistein assays are 1.0-216 and 1.7-370 nmol/l, respectively. The plasma values (n = 80) of daidzein and genistein are very low in Finnish subjects (mean for daidzein, 3.8+/-6.8 and for genistein, 3.2+/-7.6 nmol/l; median value for daidzein 1.5 and for genistein 1.4 nmol/l).
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Affiliation(s)
- G J Wang
- Institute for Preventive Medicine, Nutrition and Cancer, Folkhälsan Research Center, Department of Clinical Chemistry, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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Bradlow HL, Telang NT, Sepkovic DW, Osborne MP. Phytochemicals as modulators of cancer risk. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2000; 472:207-21. [PMID: 10736628 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4757-3230-6_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
These results, describing antitumor activity of some of the phytochemicals that have been actively studied, suggest that dietary changes could play a role in decreasing the incidence of a variety of tumors. 13C and the other compounds discussed may well be only prototypes for other as yet unexplored phytochemicals present in the diet. There have been no attempts to explore the possibilities of synergistic action among the various phytochemicals, 13C, limonene, curcumin, epigallocatechin gallate, sulforaphene, or genistein. Mixtures of these compounds might well show potency at lower doses for each of the compounds and show even greater promise than that already demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- H L Bradlow
- Strang Cancer Research Laboratory, New York, NY 10021, USA
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Mäkelä T, Matikainen J, Wähälä K, Hase T. Development of a Novel Hapten for Radioimmunoassay of the Lignan, Enterolactone in Plasma (Serum). Total Synthesis of (±)-trans-5-Carboxymethoxyenterolactone and Several Analogues. Tetrahedron 2000. [DOI: 10.1016/s0040-4020(00)00078-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Bylund A, Zhang JX, Bergh A, Damber JE, Widmark A, Johansson A, Adlercreutz H, Aman P, Shepherd MJ, Hallmans G. Rye bran and soy protein delay growth and increase apoptosis of human LNCaP prostate adenocarcinoma in nude mice. Prostate 2000; 42:304-14. [PMID: 10679760 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0045(20000301)42:4<304::aid-pros8>3.0.co;2-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In this study, we investigated whether dietary intervention could inhibit tumor growth of an androgen-sensitive human prostatic cancer. METHODS LNCaP cells were transplanted subcutaneously in nude-mice. The animals were then put on different diets and tumor take, tumor growth and prostate specific antigen (PSA) secretion were studied during 9 weeks. RESULTS Palpable tumors developed in 75% of the tumor-cell injected sites in animals fed a control diet (corn starch, sucrose, etc.) whereas, for animals given rye bran (RB), ethyl acetate extraction from rye bran supplemented cellulose based diets (CCEE), palpable tumors were seen in only 30% and for soy protein based diets (SCC) 50% of the transplantation sites, respectively. The tumors that grew to palpable size in the rye (RB) and soy (SCC) groups were smaller and secreted less PSA than those in the control group. In the rye and soy groups tumor cell apoptosis was increased, but cell proliferation was unaffected. Addition of fat to the rye diet reduced its effect on prostate cancer growth. CONCLUSIONS Factors in rye bran and soy protein may inhibit prostate cancer growth. The effect is more apparent for rye than for soy. Further studies are needed to identify the effective substances and to explore the mechanism of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Bylund
- Department of Oncology, University of Umeå, Umeå, Sweden.
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