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Saoshiro S, Karino K. Mate Discrimination Using Chemical Cues by Male Guppies. Zoolog Sci 2023; 40:341-347. [PMID: 37818882 DOI: 10.2108/zs220103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
Males often perform mate choice with the aim of maximizing reproductive success. To identify profitable mates, the males of some animals are known to use visual and chemical cues derived from females. In this study, we aimed to examine mate discrimination by male guppies (Poecilia reticulata) using chemical cues received from females under different reproductive statuses, i.e., virgin females, pregnant females, females after copulation with another male, and post-partum females. We conducted a dichotomous choice experiment for each combination of chemical stimuli from females under different reproductive statuses. In experiment 1, in which females were removed from water that was subsequently used as a chemical stimulus, male preferences did not differ significantly in all combinations of chemical stimuli from females under different reproductive statuses. However, in experiment 2, in which females remained within bottles containing the water used as a chemical stimulus, with the exception of one combination of chemical stimuli, significant differences in male preferences were detected for chemical stimuli derived from females under different reproductive statuses. Overall, males generally showed a preference for chemical stimulus received from females after copulation with other males. The findings of this study indicate that male guppies can discriminate the reproductive status of females based solely on chemical cues that may disappear or degenerate within a short period of time, thereby facilitating profitable mate choice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seiji Saoshiro
- Department of Biology, Tokyo Gakugei University, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8501, Japan
| | - Kenji Karino
- Department of Biology, Tokyo Gakugei University, Koganei, Tokyo 184-8501, Japan,
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Singh S, Mishra G, Omkar. Maternal body size and age govern reproduction and offspring phenotype in the zig-zag ladybird beetle ( Menochilus sexmaculatus). CAN J ZOOL 2021. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2020-0152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Maternal effects are possible channels through which mothers provision their offspring differentially, thereby affecting offspring phenotype. We investigated maternal effects in the zig-zag ladybird beetle (Menochilus sexmaculatus (Fabricius, 1781) = Cheilomenes sexmaculata (Fabricius, 1781)) in response to body size (induced by different feeding regimes during larval development) and their age within the reproductive cycle. Different-sized females were permitted to mate and were provided with daily-replenished ad libitum prey. After mating, reproductive output and developmental duration of offspring from different oviposition days were recorded. We hypothesized that small females would lay smaller and fewer eggs than larger females, and that egg mass would also reduce with increased maternal age. In our study, the larger mothers laid more eggs per day. Small and large mothers oviposited maximally at middle age. Maternal age did not influence the egg mass, although it was slightly higher in the case of older, larger females. Offspring from old, small and large mothers developed rapidly. This nimble development could be an adaptive strategy for the use of ephemeral aphid patches. The results of the study are indicative of this ladybird species’ ability to adjust their offspring’s life-history traits, a feature more prominent in larger females.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shashwat Singh
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
| | - Geetanjali Mishra
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
| | - Omkar
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
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Singh P, Mishra G, Omkar. Influence of body size and familiarity on mating and reproductive parameters in the zig-zag ladybird beetle, Menochilus sexmaculatus (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). CAN J ZOOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2017-0344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Body size often indicates an individual’s quality and so mate selection is typically for larger individuals, including in ladybirds (Coccinellidae). Many organisms including ladybirds are also are known to refuse mating attempts with familiar individuals, but whether at the expense of mating with larger individuals is not clear. We assessed the cumulative effect of body size and familiarity on mating and reproductive behaviour in the zig-zag ladybird beetle (Menochilus sexmaculatus (Fabricius, 1781) = Cheilomenes sexmaculata (Fabricius, 1781)). For this study, individuals were separated into small- and large-bodied individuals and allowed to mate in all possible combinations. Furthermore, following the first mating, an immediate second mating was provided to the males, with either a familiar (same as in the first mating) or an unfamiliar (new female with the same mating status) female. Mating and reproductive parameters were recorded. The mating duration was longer with familiar partners than unfamiliar individuals. Mating duration was shorter for the second mating, suggesting that mating and ejaculate transfer are costly, to assure higher reproductive success. In this ladybird beetle, familiarity modified mating duration, whereas fecundity and egg viability were influenced by body size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priya Singh
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
| | - Geetanjali Mishra
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
| | - Omkar
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow 226007, India
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Moy KG, Unmack PJ, Lintermans M, Duncan RP, Brown C. Barriers to hybridisation and their conservation implications for a highly threatened Australian fish species. Ethology 2019. [DOI: 10.1111/eth.12837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karl G. Moy
- Institute for Applied Ecology; University of Canberra; Canberra Australian Capital Territory Australia
| | - Peter J. Unmack
- Institute for Applied Ecology; University of Canberra; Canberra Australian Capital Territory Australia
| | - Mark Lintermans
- Institute for Applied Ecology; University of Canberra; Canberra Australian Capital Territory Australia
| | - Richard P. Duncan
- Institute for Applied Ecology; University of Canberra; Canberra Australian Capital Territory Australia
| | - Culum Brown
- Department of Biological Sciences; Macquarie University; Sydney New South Wales Australia
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Dorková M, Naďo L, Jarčuška B, Kaňuch P. Size-dependent mating pattern in a nuptial gift-giving insect. Ecol Evol 2019; 9:454-462. [PMID: 30680127 PMCID: PMC6342177 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.4763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The reproductive interests of females and males often diverge in terms of the number of mating partners, an individual's phenotype, origin, genes, and parental investment. This conflict may lead to a variety of sex-specific adaptations and also affect mate choice in both sexes. We conducted an experiment with the bush-cricket Pholidoptera griseoaptera (Orthoptera, Tettigoniidae), a species in which females receive direct nutritional benefits during mating. Mated individuals could be assigned due to the genotype of male spermatodoses, which are stored in the female's spermatheca. After 3 weeks of possible copulations in established mating groups which were random replications with four females and males we did not find consistent assortative mating preference regarding to body size of mates. However, our results showed that the frequency of within-pair copulations (192 analyzed mating events in 128 possible pairwise combinations) was positively associated with the body size of both mated individuals with significant interaction between sexes (having one mate very large, association between body size and the number of copulations has weaken). Larger individuals also showed a higher degree of polygamy. This suggests that body size of this nuptial gift-giving insect species is an important sexual trait according to which both sexes choose their optimal mating partner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Dorková
- Institute of Forest EcologySlovak Academy of SciencesZvolenSlovakia
- Faculty of Ecology and Environmental SciencesTechnical University in ZvolenZvolenSlovakia
| | - Ladislav Naďo
- Institute of Forest EcologySlovak Academy of SciencesZvolenSlovakia
| | | | - Peter Kaňuch
- Institute of Forest EcologySlovak Academy of SciencesZvolenSlovakia
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Singh N, Mishra G. Slow and fast development in two aphidophagous ladybirds on scarce and abundant prey supply. BULLETIN OF ENTOMOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2016; 106:347-358. [PMID: 26898500 DOI: 10.1017/s0007485316000080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Developmental rates are highly variable, both within and between genotypes and populations. But the rationale for two differential (slow and fast) developmental rates within same cohort under varying prey supply has yet not been explored. For this purpose, we investigated the effect of scarce and abundant prey supply on slow and fast development at 27°C in two aphidophagous ladybirds, Menochilus sexmaculatus (Fabricius) and Propylea dissecta (Mulsant) and its effect on their body mass and reproductive attributes. The ladybirds were provided with scarce and abundant supply of Aphis craccivora Koch under standardized abiotic conditions in the laboratory. A clear bimodal (two peaks, where the first peak represented the fast developing individuals and the second peak slow developing individuals) pattern of distribution for both prey supplies was obtained, which got skewed with change in prey supply. On abundant prey supply, more fast developing individuals (139 M. sexmaculatus and 123 P. dissecta) were found and less (46 M. sexmaculatus and 36 P. dissecta) on scarce prey supply. Slow developing individuals had female biased sex ratio, higher longevity and lower body mass. Fast developing females laid higher number of eggs with higher egg viability. Results of the study are indicative of occurrence and constancy of the slow and fast developing individuals in the egg batch.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Singh
- Ladybird Research Laboratory,Department of Zoology,University of Lucknow,Lucknow-226007,India
| | - G Mishra
- Ladybird Research Laboratory,Department of Zoology,University of Lucknow,Lucknow-226007,India
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Singh N, Mishra G. Effect of photoperiod on slow and fast developing individuals in aphidophagous ladybirds, Menochilus sexmaculatus and Propylea dissecta (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). INSECT SCIENCE 2016; 23:117-133. [PMID: 25382458 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/11/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The effects of environmental parameters on insect development have been studied extensively. But the reasons for 2 differential developmental rates within same cohort under varying environmental factors have not been explored. For the purpose, in this study the existence and stability of slow and fast development under 5 photoperiods (i.e., 8L: 16D, 10L : 14D, 12L : 12D, 14L : 10D and 16L : 8D; light and dark hours per day) and its effect on body mass and reproductive attributes in 2 aphidophagous ladybirds, Menochilus sexmaculatus (Fabricius) and Propylea dissecta (Mulsant) was examined on Aphis craccivora Koch at 27 ± 1 °C temperature. A clear bimodal (2 peaks, where the first peak represented the fast developing and the 2nd peak slow developing individuals) pattern of distribution at each photoperiod was found. The proportion of slow and fast developing individuals in a cohort differed with photoperiods. The slow developing individuals were more in numbers at 8L : 16D, in equal numbers at 14L : 10D and in less numbers at 16L: 8D, indicating that the variation in emergence was owing to exogenous cues influenced differential rates of mortality. Slow developing individuals had female biased sex ratio, higher longevity and lower body mass than fast developing individuals. Fast developing females laid higher numbers of eggs with higher egg viability than slow developing females. Study of such variations in development at different photoperiods is helpful to understand its role in the development of insects particularly ladybirds and permits the selection of fast developing bioagents for their use in biocontrol of pest species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neha Singh
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, 226007, India
| | - Geetanjali Mishra
- Ladybird Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow, 226007, India
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Louâpre P, Fauvergue X, van Baaren J, Martel V. The male mate search: an optimal foraging issue? CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2015; 9:91-95. [PMID: 32846715 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2015.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Revised: 02/22/2015] [Accepted: 02/24/2015] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Male insects must find and mate females to have some descendants; male fitness therefore depends on the number of females they inseminate. Males are for this reason expected to optimize the behaviors related to mate location, orientation and copulation. Although optimization of the reproductive behavior of males has long been neglected in the literature, recent studies suggest a renewed interest for this idea. Here we discuss the parallel between male mate-finding and mating strategies in insects and optimal foraging theory (OFT), a class of models which formalize the behavior of organisms seeking and exploiting resources, generally food. We highlight the different facets of male mating systems allowing such a parallel, and claim for a unifying approach of foraging behavior. Finally, we discuss novel research perspective emerging from the application of OFT to male reproductive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Louâpre
- University of Burgundy, UMR CNRS 6282 Biogeosciences, 6 bd Gabriel, 21000 Dijon, France.
| | - Xavier Fauvergue
- Institut Sophia Agrobiotech, UMR INRA-CNRS-UNS 1355, 400 route des Chappes, BP 167, 06903 Sophia Antipolis Cedex, France
| | - Joan van Baaren
- University of Rennes 1, UMR CNRS 6553 Ecobio, Avenue du Général Leclerc, 35042 Rennes Cedex, France
| | - Véronique Martel
- Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre, 1055 rue du P.E.P.S, P.O. Box 10380, Stn. Ste-Foy, Québec, Québec, Canada
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Liu XP, He HM, Xue FS. The influence of female age on male mating preference and reproductive success in cabbage beetle, Colaphellus bowringi. INSECT SCIENCE 2014; 21:515-522. [PMID: 23955897 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.12051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/26/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The influence of female age on male mating preference and reproductive success has been studied using a promiscuous cabbage beetle, Colaphellus bowringi Baly (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae). In a simultaneous choice test, middle-aged females had significantly greater mating success than young and old females. In single pair trials, when paired with middle-aged virgin males, middle-aged females mated faster, copulated longer, and had greater fecundity and fertility than young or old females, while the longevity of males was not significantly affected by female age. This study on C. bowringi suggests that middle-aged females are more receptive to mating, which can result in the highest male reproductive success.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing-Ping Liu
- Institute of Entomology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang
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Singh N, Mishra G, Omkar. Does temperature modify slow and fast development in two aphidophagous ladybirds? J Therm Biol 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtherbio.2013.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Khan I, Prasad NG. Male Drosophila melanogaster show adaptive mating bias in response to female infection status. JOURNAL OF INSECT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 59:1017-1023. [PMID: 23932964 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinsphys.2013.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2013] [Revised: 07/23/2013] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Given the non-trivial cost of reproduction for males and substantial variation in female quality, males have been predicted to show mating bias as an evolved strategy. Using a large outbred population of Drosophila melanogaster, we test this prediction and show that males may adaptively bias their mating effort in response to the infection status of females. Given a simultaneous choice between females infected with pathogenic bacteria and sham infected females, males preferentially mated with the latter, who had a higher reproductive output compared to infected females. This may provide evidence for pre-copulatory male mate choice. Assessment of the reproductive behaviour ensured that the observed pattern of mating bias was not due to differences in receptivity between females infected with pathogenic bacteria and sham infected females. Further, there was no evidence for post-copulatory male mate choice measured in terms of copulation duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Imroze Khan
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Kolkata, Mohanpur Campus, PO: Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur 741252, West Bengal, India
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Males do not like the working class: male sexual preference and recognition of functional castes in a primitively eusocial wasp. Anim Behav 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Afaq U. Evaluation of Darwin's fecundity advantage hypothesis in Parthenium beetle, Zygogramma bicolorata. INSECT SCIENCE 2013; 20:531-540. [PMID: 24006336 DOI: 10.1111/j.1744-7917.2012.01510.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In the Parthenium beetle, Zygogramma bicolorata Pallister (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae), variation in body size exists between and within the sexes. The females are larger than the males. Darwin (1874) proposed the fecundity advantage hypothesis, i.e. large sized female produce more progeny, with subsequent studies supporting as well as refuting the hypothesis. Thus, in order to evaluate whether this hypothesis stands in Z. bicolorata we performed experiments to investigate the role of body size in influencing: (i) assortative mating, (ii) reproductive attributes, and (iii) growth, development and survival of offspring. It is the first attempt in this beetle. We found that size influenced assortative mating, reproductive output and offspring fitness. Larger males and females were preferred as mates over smaller ones. The pairs having larger adults as mates had higher fecundity while the egg viability was influenced by the male size only. The offspring of larger parents had fast development and higher survival indicating thereby possible better nutrient allotment by the female and supply of accessory gland proteins by the male in addition to better quality of genes.
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Nandy B, Joshi A, Ali ZS, Sen S, Prasad NG. Degree of adaptive male mate choice is positively correlated with female quality variance. Sci Rep 2012; 2:447. [PMID: 22685628 PMCID: PMC3370331 DOI: 10.1038/srep00447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
When the cost of reproduction for males and variance in female quality are high, males are predicted to show adaptive mate choice. Using Drosophila melanogaster, we test this prediction and show that sperm limited males preferentially mated with young and/or well fed females. The preferred females had higher reproductive output – direct evidence of adaptive precopulatory male mate choice. Our most striking finding is the strong positive correlation between the degree of mating bias showed by the males and the variance in the fitness of the females. We discuss the possible mechanism for such adaptive male mate choice and propose that such choice has important consequences with respect to the existing understanding of the mating system and the evolution of aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bodhisatta Nandy
- Indian Institute of Science Education and Research Mohali, Sector 81, SAS Nagar, Mohali, PO Manauli, Punjab 140306, India
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15
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Rittschof CC. Mortality risk affects mating decisions in the spider Nephila clavipes. Behav Ecol 2011. [DOI: 10.1093/beheco/arq222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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Head ML, Wong BBM, Brooks R. Sexual display and mate choice in an energetically costly environment. PLoS One 2010; 5:e15279. [PMID: 21151610 PMCID: PMC3000322 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0015279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2010] [Accepted: 11/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Sexual displays and mate choice often take place under the same set of environmental conditions and, as a consequence, may be exposed to the same set of environmental constraints. Surprisingly, however, very few studies consider the effects of environmental costs on sexual displays and mate choice simultaneously. We conducted an experiment, manipulating water flow in large flume tanks, to examine how an energetically costly environment might affect the sexual display and mate choice behavior of male and female guppies, Poecilia reticulata. We found that male guppies performed fewer sexual displays and became less choosy, with respect to female size, in the presence of a water current compared to those tested in still water. In contrast to males, female responsive to male displays did not differ between the water current treatments and females exhibited no mate preferences with respect to male size or coloration in either treatment. The results of our study underscore the importance of considering the simultaneous effects of environmental costs on the sexual behaviors of both sexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan L Head
- School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
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Byrne PG, Rice WR. Evidence for adaptive male mate choice in the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. Proc Biol Sci 2006; 273:917-22. [PMID: 16627276 PMCID: PMC1560241 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2005.3372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 160] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Theory predicts that males will benefit when they bias their mating effort towards females of higher reproductive potential, and that this discrimination will increase as males become more resource limited. We conducted a series of experiments to test these predictions in a laboratory population of the fruitfly, Drosophila melanogaster. In this species, courtship and copulation have significant costs to males, and females vary greatly in fecundity, which is positively associated with body size. When given a simultaneous choice between small and large virgin females, males preferentially mated with larger, more fecund, females. Moreover, after males had recently mated they showed a stronger preference for larger females. These results suggest that male D. melanogaster adaptively allocate their mating effort in response to variation in female quality and provide some of the first support for the theoretical prediction that male stringency in mate choice increases as resources become more limiting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip G Byrne
- School of Botany and Zoology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT 0200, Australia.
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20
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