Identification of retinoic acid-responsive elements on the HNF1alpha and HNF4alpha genes

BCG as an Innovative Option for HCC Treatment: Repurposing and Mechanistic Insights

This study investigates Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) as a potential treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), a condition often associated with unfavorable treatment outcomes. Exploiting BCG's recognized immune-boosting properties, preclinical trials are conducted using HCC mice, with a single subcutaneous dose of BCG administered post-tumor formation. Results indicate that BCG treatment effectively diminishes tumor burden and extends survival in both male and female HCC mice. Positive influences on hepatic fibrosis and metabolism are observed, leading to a reduction in lipid levels. Spatial analysis underscores BCG's tumor-specific effects, inducing the enrichment of metabolic pathways and inhibiting various cancer-related pathways. Furthermore, BCG promotes immune cell infiltration, including CD4+, CD8+ T cells, and M1 macrophages, in both v-akt murine thymoma viral oncogene homolog 1(AKT)/neutoblastoma RAS viral oncogene homolog (RAS) and β-catenin positive HCC models. Interestingly, blocking T cells, trained immunity, and Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) function reverses BCG's anti-HCC effects. In conclusion, BCG emerges as a promising treatment option for HCC, characterized by a favorable safety profile and efficacy in inhibiting fibrosis, improving metabolism, and engaging both trained immunity and T cells in therapeutic mechanisms.

Retinol-binding protein 2 (RBP2): biology and pathobiology

Retinol-binding protein 2 (RBP2; originally cellular retinol-binding protein, type II (CRBPII)) is a 16 kDa cytosolic protein that in the adult is localized predominantly to absorptive cells of the proximal small intestine. It is well established that RBP2 plays a central role in facilitating uptake of dietary retinoid, retinoid metabolism in enterocytes, and retinoid actions locally within the intestine. Studies of mice lacking Rbp2 establish that Rbp2 is not required in times of dietary retinoid-sufficiency. However, in times of dietary retinoid-insufficiency, the complete lack of Rbp2 gives rise to perinatal lethality owing to RBP2 absence in both placental (maternal) and neonatal tissues. Moreover, when maintained on a high-fat diet, Rbp2-knockout mice develop obesity, glucose intolerance and a fatty liver. Unexpectedly, recent investigations have demonstrated that RBP2 binds long-chain 2-monoacylglycerols (2-MAGs), including the canonical endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol, with very high affinity, equivalent to that of retinol binding. Crystallographic studies establish that 2-MAGs bind to a site within RBP2 that fully overlaps with the retinol binding site. When challenged orally with fat, mucosal levels of 2-MAGs in Rbp2 null mice are significantly greater than those of matched controls establishing that RBP2 is a physiologically relevant MAG-binding protein. The rise in MAG levels is accompanied by elevations in circulating levels of the hormone glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP). It is not understood how retinoid and/or MAG binding to RBP2 affects the functions of this protein, nor is it presently understood how these contribute to the metabolic and hormonal phenotypes observed for Rbp2-deficient mice.

Hnf4a deletion in the mouse kidney phenocopies Fanconi renotubular syndrome

Different nephron tubule segments perform distinct physiological functions, collectively acting as a blood filtration unit. Dysfunction of the proximal tubule segment can lead to Fanconi renotubular syndrome (FRTS), with major symptoms such as excess excretion of water, glucose, and phosphate in the urine. It has been shown that a mutation in HNF4A is associated with FRTS in humans and that Hnf4a is expressed specifically in proximal tubules in adult rat nephrons. However, little is known about the role of Hnf4a in nephrogenesis. Here, we found that Hnf4a is expressed in both presumptive and differentiated proximal tubules in the developing mouse kidney. We show that Hnf4a is required for the formation of differentiated proximal tubules but is dispensable for the formation of presumptive proximal tubules. Furthermore, we show that loss of Hnf4a decreased the expression of proximal tubule-specific genes. Adult Hnf4a mutant mice presented with FRTS-like symptoms, including polyuria, polydipsia, glycosuria, and phosphaturia. Analysis of the adult Hnf4a mutant kidney also showed proximal tubule dysgenesis and nephrocalcinosis. Our results demonstrate the critical role of Hnf4a in proximal tubule development and provide mechanistic insight into the etiology of FRTS.

β-Apo-10'-carotenoids Modulate Placental Microsomal Triglyceride Transfer Protein Expression and Function to Optimize Transport of Intact β-Carotene to the Embryo

β-Carotene is an important source of vitamin A for the mammalian embryo, which depends on its adequate supply to achieve proper organogenesis. In mammalian tissues, β-carotene 15,15'-oxygenase (BCO1) converts β-carotene to retinaldehyde, which is then oxidized to retinoic acid, the biologically active form of vitamin A that acts as a transcription factor ligand to regulate gene expression. β-Carotene can also be cleaved by β-carotene 9',10'-oxygenase (BCO2) to form β-apo-10'-carotenal, a precursor of retinoic acid and a transcriptional regulator per se The mammalian embryo obtains β-carotene from the maternal circulation. However, the molecular mechanisms that enable its transfer across the maternal-fetal barrier are not understood. Given that β-carotene is transported in the adult bloodstream by lipoproteins and that the placenta acquires, assembles, and secretes lipoproteins, we hypothesized that the aforementioned process requires placental lipoprotein biosynthesis. Here we show that β-carotene availability regulates transcription and activity of placental microsomal triglyceride transfer protein as well as expression of placental apolipoprotein B, two key players in lipoprotein biosynthesis. We also show that β-apo-10'-carotenal mediates the transcriptional regulation of microsomal triglyceride transfer protein via hepatic nuclear factor 4α and chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter transcription factor I/II. Our data provide the first in vivo evidence of the transcriptional regulatory activity of β-apocarotenoids and identify microsomal triglyceride transfer protein and its transcription factors as the targets of their action. This study demonstrates that β-carotene induces a feed-forward mechanism in the placenta to enhance the assimilation of β-carotene for proper embryogenesis.

A RARE of hepatic Gck promoter interacts with RARα, HNF4α and COUP-TFII that affect retinoic acid- and insulin-induced Gck expression

The expression of hepatic glucokinase gene (Gck) is regulated by hormonal and nutritional signals. How these signals integrate to regulate the hepatic Gck expression is unclear. We have shown that the hepatic Gck expression is affected by Vitamin A status and synergistically induced by insulin and retinoids in primary rat hepatocytes. We hypothesized that this is mediated by a retinoic acid responsive element (RARE) in the hepatic Gck promoter. Here, we identified the RARE in the hepatic Gck promoter using standard molecular biology techniques. The single nucleotide mutations affecting the promoter activation by retinoic acid (RA) were also determined for detail analysis of protein and DNA interactions. We have optimized experimental conditions for performing electrophoresis mobility shift assay and demonstrated the interactions of the retinoic acid receptor α (RARα), retinoid X receptor α (RXRα), hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α (HNF4α) and chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter-transcription factor II (COUP-TFII) in the rat nuclear extract with this RARE, suggesting their roles in the regulation of Gck expression. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays demonstrated that recombinant adenovirus-mediated overexpression of RARα, HNF4α and COUP-TFII, but not RXRα, significantly increased their occupancy in the hepatic Gck promoter in primary rat hepatocytes. Overexpression of RARα, HNF4α and COUP-TFII, but not RXRα, also affected the RA- and insulin-mediated Gck expression in primary rat hepatocytes. In summary, this hepatic Gck promoter RARE interacts with RARα, HNF4α and COUP-TFII to integrate Vitamin A and insulin signals.

The expression of Apoc3 mRNA is regulated by HNF4α and COUP-TFII, but not acute retinoid treatments, in primary rat hepatocytes and hepatoma cells

Vitamin A status regulates obesity development, hyperlipidemia, and hepatic lipogenic gene expression in Zucker fatty (ZF) rats. The development of hyperlipidemia in acne patients treated with retinoic acid (RA) has been attributed to the induction of apolipoprotein C-III expression. To understand the role of retinoids in the development of hyperlipidemia in ZF rats, the expression levels of several selected RA-responsive genes in the liver and isolated hepatocytes from Zucker lean (ZL) and ZF rats were compared using real-time PCR. The Rarb and Srebp-1c mRNA levels are higher in the liver and isolated hepatocytes from ZF than ZL rats. The Apoc3 mRNA level is only higher in the isolated hepatocytes from ZF than ZL rats. To determine whether dynamic RA production acutely regulates Apoc3 expression, its mRNA levels in response to retinoid treatments or adenovirus-mediated overexpression of hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 alpha (HNF4α) and chicken ovalbumin upstream-transcription factor II (COUP-TFII) were analyzed. Retinoid treatments for 2-6 h did not induce the expression of Apoc3 mRNA. The overexpression of HNF4α or COUP-TFII induced or inhibited Apoc3 expression, respectively. We conclude that short-term retinoid treatments could not induce Apoc3 mRNA expression, which is regulated by HNF4α and COUP-TFII in hepatocytes.

Roles of Vitamin A Metabolism in the Development of Hepatic Insulin Resistance

The increase in the number of people with obesity- and noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus has become a major public health concern. Insulin resistance is a common feature closely associated with human obesity and diabetes. Insulin regulates metabolism, at least in part, via the control of the expression of the hepatic genes involved in glucose and fatty acid metabolism. Insulin resistance is always associated with profound changes of the expression of hepatic genes for glucose and lipid metabolism. As an essential micronutrient, vitamin A (VA) is needed in a variety of physiological functions. The active metablite of VA, retinoic acid (RA), regulates the expression of genes through the activation of transcription factors bound to the RA-responsive elements in the promoters of RA-targeted genes. Recently, retinoids have been proposed to play roles in glucose and lipid metabolism and energy homeostasis. This paper summarizes the recent progresses in our understanding of VA metabolism in the liver and of the potential transcription factors mediating RA responses. These transcription factors are the retinoic acid receptor, the retinoid X receptor, the hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α, the chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter-transcription factor II, and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor β/δ. This paper also summarizes the effects of VA status and RA treatments on the glucose and lipid metabolism in vivo and the effects of retinoid treatments on the expression of insulin-regulated genes involved in the glucose and fatty acid metabolism in the primary hepatocytes. I discuss the roles of RA production in the development of insulin resistance in hepatocytes and proposes a mechanism by which RA production may contribute to hepatic insulin resistance. Given the large amount of information and progresses regarding the physiological functions of VA, this paper mainly focuses on the findings in the liver and hepatocytes and only mentions the relative findings in other tissues and cells.

Impact of L-FABP and glucose on polyunsaturated fatty acid induction of PPARα-regulated β-oxidative enzymes

Liver fatty acid binding protein (L-FABP) is the major soluble protein that binds very-long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) in hepatocytes. However, nothing is known about L-FABP's role in n-3 PUFA-mediated peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-α (PPARα) transcription of proteins involved in long-chain fatty acid (LCFA) β-oxidation. This issue was addressed in cultured primary hepatocytes from wild-type, L-FABP-null, and PPARα-null mice with these major findings: 1) PUFA-mediated increase in the expression of PPARα-regulated LCFA β-oxidative enzymes, LCFA/LCFA-CoA binding proteins (L-FABP, ACBP), and PPARα itself was L-FABP dependent; 2) PPARα transcription, robustly potentiated by high glucose but not maltose, a sugar not taken up, correlated with higher protein levels of these LCFA β-oxidative enzymes and with increased LCFA β-oxidation; and 3) high glucose altered the potency of n-3 relative to n-6 PUFA. This was not due to a direct effect of glucose on PPARα transcriptional activity nor indirectly through de novo fatty acid synthesis from glucose. Synergism was also not due to glucose impacting other signaling pathways, since it was observed only in hepatocytes expressing both L-FABP and PPARα. Ablation of L-FABP or PPARα as well as treatment with MK886 (PPARα inhibitor) abolished/reduced PUFA-mediated PPARα transcription of these genes, especially at high glucose. Finally, the PUFA-enhanced L-FABP distribution into nuclei with high glucose augmentation of the L-FABP/PPARα interaction reveals not only the importance of L-FABP for PUFA induction of PPARα target genes in fatty acid β-oxidation but also the significance of a high glucose enhancement effect in diabetes.

Molecular mechanisms of Barrett's esophagus

Barrett's esophagus (BE) is defined as the metaplastic conversion of esophageal squamous epithelium to intestinalized columnar epithelium. As a premalignant lesion of esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC), BE develops as a result of chronic gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). Many studies have been conducted to understand the molecular mechanisms of this disease. This review summarizes recent results involving squamous and intestinal transcription factors, signaling pathways, stromal factors, microRNAs, and other factors in the development of BE. A conceptual framework is proposed to guide future studies. We expect elucidation of the molecular mechanisms of BE to help in the development of improved management of GERD, BE, and EAC.

Regulation of human apolipoprotein m gene expression by orphan and ligand-dependent nuclear receptors

Apolipoprotein M (apoM) plays an important role in the biogenesis and the metabolism of anti-atherogenic HDL particles in plasma and is expressed primarily in the liver and the kidney. We investigated the role of hormone nuclear receptors in apoM gene regulation in hepatic cells. Overexpression via adenovirus-mediated gene transfer and siRNA-mediated gene silencing established that hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 (HNF-4) is an important regulator of apoM gene transcription in hepatic cells. apoM promoter deletion analysis combined with DNA affinity precipitation and chromatin immunoprecipitation assays revealed that HNF-4 binds to a hormone-response element (HRE) in the proximal apoM promoter (nucleotides -33 to -21). Mutagenesis of this HRE decreased basal hepatic apoM promoter activity to 10% of control and abolished the HNF4-mediated transactivation of the apoM promoter. In addition to HNF-4, homodimers of retinoid X receptor and heterodimers of retinoid X receptor with receptors for retinoic acid, thyroid hormone, fibrates (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor), and oxysterols (liver X receptor) were shown to bind with different affinities to the proximal HRE in vitro and in vivo. Ligands of these receptors strongly induced human apoM gene transcription and apoM promoter activity in HepG2 cells, whereas mutations in the proximal HRE abolished this induction. These findings provide novel insights into the role of apoM in the regulation of HDL by steroid hormones and into the development of novel HDL-based therapies for diseases such as diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome, and coronary artery disease that affect a large proportion of the population in Western countries.

Dynamic and combinatorial control of gene expression by nuclear retinoic acid receptors (RARs)

Nuclear retinoic acid receptors (RARs) are transcriptional regulators controlling the expression of specific subsets of genes in a ligand-dependent manner. The basic mechanism for switching on transcription of cognate target genes involves RAR binding at specific response elements and a network of interactions with coregulatory protein complexes, the assembly of which is directed by the C-terminal ligand-binding domain of RARs. In addition to this scenario, new roles for the N-terminal domain and the ubiquitin-proteasome system recently emerged. Moreover, the functions of RARs are not limited to the regulation of cognate target genes, as they can transrepress other gene pathways. Finally, RARs are also involved in nongenomic biological activities such as the activation of translation and of kinase cascades. Here we will review these mechanisms, focusing on how kinase signaling and the proteasome pathway cooperate to influence the dynamics of RAR transcriptional activity.

Proteome alteration of U251 human astrocytoma cell after inhibiting retinoic acid synthesis

Retinoic acid (Ra) is crucial for the patterning and neuronal differentiation in the central nervous system (CNS). Ra deficiency in animals disrupts the motor activities and memory abilities. The molecular mechanisms underlying these behavior abnormalities remain largely unknown. In the current study, we treated the astrocytoma cells with citral, an inhibitor of Ra synthesis. We analyzed the differences in the protein concentrations between the treated and untreated astrocytoma cells by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE), Imagemaster software, and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). In total, 39 of 46 altered protein spots with significant mascot scores were identified representing 36 proteins, that were involved in significantly altered glutamate metabolism, lipid metabolism, mitochondrial function, and oxidative stress response by Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA). Altered 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (PHGDH) was also observed in western blot. These data provide some clues for explaining the behavioral changes caused by Ra deficiency, and support the hypothesis that Ra signaling is associated with some symptoms of neurodegenerative disorders and schizophrenia.

Developmental changes of the expression of the genes regulated by retinoic acid in the small intestine of rats

Retinoic acid (RA) serves as a hormone-like nutrient and it plays pivotal roles in cellular differentiation and proliferation in various tissues including the small intestine. In this study, we aimed to explore a possible role of RA signaling in the developing rat small intestine of perinatal (embryonic and newborn) and suckling-weaning transition period, and we investigated the changes in the expression of several genes regulated by RA. Northern blot analysis showed that both retinal dehydrogenase 1 (RALDH1) and retinal dehydrogenase 2 (RALDH2) mRNA levels were higher in 19-day fetal (2 days before birth) small intestine and then declined after birth. Retinoid X receptor alpha (RXRalpha) mRNA and retinoic acid receptor alpha (RARalpha) mRNA levels in the small intestine showed high levels in perinatal period compared with suckling-weaning transition period. RA-target genes such as retinoic acid receptor beta (RARbeta) and cellular retinol-binding protein, type II (CRBPII) mRNA levels were significantly increased in the perinatal small intestine. Furthermore, mRNA levels of hepatocyte nuclear factor-4 (HNF-4), which is one of the possible RA-target gene and a transcription factor regulating CRBPII gene expression, was also increased in the perinatal small intestine. These results suggest that the possible perinatal RA production by RALDHs might regulate various RA-target genes including CRBPII and RARalpha through RXRalpha or HNF-4 in the small intestine.

Nuclear retinoid receptors and the transcription of retinoid-target genes

The pleiotropic effects of retinoids are mediated by nuclear retinoid receptors (RARs and RXRs) which are ligand-activated transcription factors. In response to retinoid binding, RAR/RXR heterodimers undergo major conformational changes and orchestrate the transcription of specific gene networks, through binding to specific DNA response elements and recruiting cofactor complexes that act to modify local chromatin structure and/or engage the basal transcription machinery. Then the degradation of RARs and RXRs by the ubiquitin-proteasome controls the magnitude and the duration of the retinoid response. RARs and RXRs also integrate a variety of signaling pathways through phosphorylation events which cooperate with the ligand for the control of retinoid-target genes transcription. These different modes of regulation reveal unexpected levels of complexity in the dynamics of retinoid-dependent transcription.

Postnatal changes in gene expression of retinal dehydrogenase and retinoid receptors in liver of rats

Retinoic acid (RA) plays important roles in cellular differentiation and proliferation in various tissues including the liver. To explore a possible role of RA in the postnatal development of hepatic function, we analyzed RA-generation enzyme activity and the RA-related hepatic gene expressions in the suckling and weaning rats. At 5 days after birth, retinal dehydrogenase (RALDH) activity in the liver was relatively high. Its activity decreased by 70% until day 17, and then it gradually increased to a high level by the completion of weaning period. Northern blot analysis showed that RALDH2 mRNA levels decreased in the suckling period, whereas RALDH1 mRNA levels increased in the weaning period. Retinoid X receptor alpha (RXRalpha) mRNA levels increased in the suckling period and attained to a higher level at 17 days after birth. Retinoic acid receptor alpha (RARalpha) mRNA level showed only a slight and temporary increase on day 13. The mRNA levels of hepatocyte nuclear factors (HNF-4 and HNF-1alpha) exhibited parallel increases around suckling-weaning period, and the transcript levels of albumin, a typical target gene of the hepatocyte nuclear factors, increased during the suckling-weaning transition period. Electrophoretic mobility shift assay using a putative nuclear receptor-binding element on rat HNF-1 alpha gene revealed that HNF-4 homodimer, but not RXRalpha homodimer, bound to this element. These results suggest that postnatal expressions of hepatocyte-specific genes might be up-regulated by retinoid receptors, which may be related with the alterations of RALDH expression during postnatal development in the liver.

The engineering of tissues using progenitor cells

The "engineering" of a tissue implies that it can be constructed by assembling the necessary components. However, tissues are formed through an evolving, interactive process, not through a collection of parts. This chapter focuses on the biology of the progenitor cell, the native precursor to new tissue, and its role in neogenesis, or the de novo generation of functional tissue. We present a working hypothesis for the generation of parenchymal cell populations and use this hypothesis as a basis for analysis of three parenchymal populations, epidermal cells, hepatocytes of the liver, and pancreatic islets, with a view toward what impact this information will have on the development of cell therapies. By comparing developmental processes, response to injury and disease, and behavior in vitro, we conclude that the adult progenitor cell retains the potential for substantial growth and organ neogenesis and that its biological properties make it the cell of first choice for the engineering of tissues.

Identification of a retinoid receptor response element in the human aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 promoter

BACKGROUND

The human aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 promoter contains sites that bind members of the nuclear receptor family, and one (designated FP330-3') is predicted to bind retinoic acid receptors.

METHODS

Binding of retinoid receptors to the FP330-3' oligonucleotide duplex and point mutations thereof was assayed using electrophoretic mobility shift assays. The function of the promoter element was determined in transfection assays.

RESULTS

Heterodimers of retinoic acid receptor (RAR)alpha, beta, and gamma with retinoid X receptor (RXR)alpha bound the FP330-3' site. Mutagenesis of the FP330-3' site suggested that either the upstream DR-5 or downstream DR-1 could mediate binding of RAR/RXR. FP330-3' oligonucleotide duplexes were not bound by in vitro translated RXR homodimers but weakly competed with a synthetic DR-1 oligonucleotide duplex for binding by RXR. A reporter construct carrying four copies of the FP330-3' element was induced by cotransfection of rat hepatoma cells with a construct encoding RARalpha, when the RAR-specific ligand AM580 was present. Each of the three RXR isoforms alpha, beta, and gamma stimulated the expression of reporter constructs containing the FP330-3' sites in a 9-cis retinoic acid-dependent fashion in cells in culture. This was confirmed in the case of RXRalpha using the RXR-specific ligand methoprene.

CONCLUSION

The human aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 promoter contains a retinoid response element, which may contribute to regulation of the gene.

Retinoid regulation of the phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase gene in liver

The cytosolic PEPCK gene is a model gene for assessing retinoid regulation of liver-specific genes encoding enzymes of carbohydrate metabolism. In vivo, we have demonstrated that the PEPCK gene is inhibited by vitamin A deficiency. Specifically, under conditions of food deprivation, induction of the PEPCK gene is inhibited in the vitamin A deficient mouse. Inhibition of the PEPCK gene by vitamin A deficiency is reversed by all-trans or 9-cis retinoic acid (RA) treatment. In a transgenic mouse model, a -460 and -355 bp PEPCK promoter fragment confers susceptibility to inhibition by vitamin A deficiency and responsiveness to all-trans RA treatment. However, there is a differential effect of 9-cis RA on the PEPCK promoter; the -460 fragment confers responsiveness to 9-cis RA, but the -355 fragment does not. Taken together, these results indicate that the PEPCK retinoic acid response element (RARE)1 is required for 9-cis RA induction-but not all-trans RA induction-of the PEPCK gene. In order to determine if vitamin A deficiency alters specific localized expression of the PEPCK gene in the periportal cells of the liver, the effect of vitamin A status on PEPCK localization in the liver was also measured. The PEPCK transgenes were expressed specifically in the periportal region of the liver acinus and although vitamin A deficiency caused a decrease in PEPCK transgene mRNA levels in periportal cells, it did not alter the periportal cell-specific pattern of expression. Retinoid treatment induced PEPCK transgene mRNA levels in the same population of cells, however, the -355 bp PEPCK promoter fragment did not respond to 9-cis RA treatment. In order to determine the nuclear transcription factor(s) responsible for retinoid regulation of the PEPCK gene in the liver, we investigated retinoic acid receptor (RAR)alpha and beta and the retinoid X receptor (RXR)alpha-the major retinoid receptors in liver-in terms of expression and the ability of the receptors to bind the PEPCK RAREs. Vitamin A deficiency significantly decreased hepatic RAR beta, but not RAR alpha or RXR alpha mRNA levels. In situ hybridization showed that RAR alpha, RAR beta and RXR alpha mRNAs were localized in the periportal region, however, immunohistochemistry showed that RAR alpha and RXR alpha were distributed evenly across the liver acinus, whereas only RAR beta levels were higher in periportal cells. The binding of nuclear receptors to PEPCK RARE1, RARE2 and RARE3 indicates a complex pattern of retinoid receptor and orphan nuclear receptor binding.

Intracellular lipid binding proteins and nuclear receptors involved in branched-chain fatty acid signaling

Branched-chain fatty acids are potent regulators of gene expression. Among them are the vitamin A-derived retinoic acids, which are involved in cell growth and differentiation, and the chlorophyll-derived phytol metabolites such as phytanic and pristanic acids, which affect catabolic lipid metabolism. Gene expression regulated by these signaling molecules is mediated by two protein families. These are, on the one hand, the intracellular lipid binding proteins, i.e. cellular retinoic acid binding protein and liver-type fatty acid binding protein, which are responsible for ligand-transport to the nucleus. On the other hand are the ligand-activated nuclear receptors, i.e. the retinoic acid receptors for retinoic acids and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors for the phytol metabolites. In this review, we discuss the cross-talk between the two protein families and how this cross-talk contributes to targeted signaling with branched-chain fatty acids.

Regulatory mechanisms controlling human hepatocyte nuclear factor 4alpha gene expression

Hepatocyte nuclear factor 4alpha (HNF-4alpha) (nuclear receptor 2A1) is an essential regulator of hepatocyte differentiation and function. Genetic and molecular evidence suggests that the tissue-restricted expression of HNF-4alpha is regulated mainly at the transcriptional level. As a step toward understanding the molecular mechanism involved in the transcriptional regulation of the human HNF-4alpha gene, we cloned and analyzed a 12.1-kb fragment of its upstream region. Major DNase I-hypersensitive sites were found at the proximal promoter, the first intron, and the more-upstream region comprising kb -6.5, -8.0, and -8.8. By the use of reporter constructs, we found that the proximal-promoter region was sufficient to drive high levels of hepatocyte-specific transcription in transient-transfection assays. DNase I footprint analysis and electrophoretic mobility shift experiments revealed binding sites for HNF-1alpha and -beta, Sp-1, GATA-6, and HNF-6. High levels of HNF-4alpha promoter activity were dependent on the synergism between either HNF-1alpha and HNF-6 or HNF-1beta and GATA-6, which implies that at least two alternative mechanisms may activate HNF-4alpha gene transcription. Chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments with human hepatoma cells showed stable association of HNF-1alpha, HNF-6, Sp-1, and COUP-TFII with the promoter. The last factor acts as a repressor via binding to a newly identified direct repeat 1 (DR-1) sequence of the human promoter, which is absent in the mouse homologue. We present evidence that this sequence is a bona fide retinoic acid response element and that HNF-4alpha expression is upregulated in vivo upon retinoic acid signaling.

Sphingosine kinase regulates hepatoma cell differentiation: roles of hepatocyte nuclear factor and retinoid receptor

In hepatoma Huh-7 cells, inhibition of sphingosine kinase (SphK) activity by N,N-dimethylsphingosine (DMS) resulted in up-regulated production of liver-specific serum proteins including albumin and alpha-fetoprotein (AFP). The changes in these protein levels coincided well with those of two liver-enriched transcription factors, hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF)-1 and -4, which regulate a number of liver-specific genes at the transcriptional level. Moreover, DMS induced the expression of retinoic acid receptor-alpha and retinoid X receptor-alpha. In DMS-treated cells, 9-cis retinoic acid (RA) further enhanced HNF-4alpha and albumin expression but it inhibited AFP accumulation. These results suggest that activation of SphK disengages cells from their liver-specific phenotype, and that 9-cis RA further induces differentiation of hepatoma cells when SphK activity is inhibited.