Electrical activity suppresses nicotinic acetylcholine receptor gamma subunit promoter activity

EFFECTS OF VITAMIN E AND ELECTRICAL STIMULATION ON THE DENERVATED RAT GASTROCNEMIUS MUSCLE MALONDIALDEHYDE AND GLUTATHIONE LEVELS

Effects of vitamin E treatment and local electrical stimulation on progression of atrophy in the denervated rat gastrocnemius muscle were studied. Denervation was performed by right leg sciatic nerve axotomy. Electrical stimulation (3-10 mA ms(-1), 10 min per day for 7 days) was applied to the right gastrocnemius muscle starting from day 1 of denervation. The muscle samples were assayed for malondialdehyde (MDA) and glutathione levels, as well as the histological appearance after 8 days of denervation. MDA levels were markedly increased following denervation. However, electrical stimulation, vitamin E treatment (30 mg kg(-1), i.m., everyday for 7 days), and combination of electrical stimulation and vitamin E treatment markedly reduced MDA levels. Glutathione levels were significantly decreased in the denervation group. Electrical stimulation, vitamin E treatment, and electrical stimulation plus vitamin E treatment prevented these reductions in glutathione levels. In the vitamin E treatment group, glutathione levels were markedly higher than in the control group. These results indicate that electrical stimulation and vitamin E treatment alone, or in combination, were able to prevent the effects of denervation on muscle atrophy.

Activity-dependent gene regulation in skeletal muscle is mediated by a histone deacetylase (HDAC)-Dach2-myogenin signal transduction cascade

Muscle activity contributes to muscle development and function largely by means of regulated gene expression. Many genes crucial to neuromuscular synapse formation, such as MuSK and nAChRs, are induced before muscle innervation or after muscle denervation, and this induction requires expression of the E-box binding, basic helix-loop-helix muscle-specific transcription factor, myogenin (Mgn). The mechanism by which muscle activity is coupled to gene expression is poorly defined. Here we report that inhibition of histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity attenuates the induction of activity-regulated genes in aneural myotubes and adult denervated muscle. The effect of HDAC inhibitors requires new protein synthesis, suggesting HDACs may regulate the expression of a Mgn transcriptional repressor. We identified Dach2 as a Mgn transcriptional repressor whose expression is dramatically reduced in an HDAC-dependent manner in developing aneural myotubes or adult denervated muscle. Dach2 overexpression in denervated muscle suppressed Mgn, nAChR, and MuSK gene induction, whereas Dach2 knockdown induced Mgn gene expression in innervated muscle and relieved Mgn promoter inhibition by HDAC inhibitors. Thus, a HDAC-Dach2-myogenin signaling pathway has been identified to decode nerve activity and control muscle gene expression in developing and adult skeletal muscle.

Characterization of a muscle-specific enhancer in human MuSK promoter reveals the essential role of myogenin in controlling activity-dependent gene regulation

Neuromuscular synaptogenesis is initiated by the release of agrin from motor neurons and the activation of the receptor tyrosine kinase, MuSK, in the postsynaptic membrane. MuSK gene expression is regulated by nerve-derived agrin and muscle activity. Agrin stimulates synapse-specific MuSK gene expression by activating GABP(alphabeta) transcription factors in endplate-associated myonuclei. In contrast, the mechanism by which muscle activity regulates MuSK gene expression is not known. We report on a 60-bp MuSK enhancer that confers promoter regulation by muscle differentiation, changes in intracellular calcium, and muscle activity. Within this enhancer, we identified a single E-box that is essential for this regulation. This E-box binds myogenin, and we showed that myogenin is necessary for not only MuSK but also nAChR gene regulation by muscle activity. Surprisingly, the same E-box functions in vivo to mediate muscle-specific and differentiation-dependent gene induction in zebrafish, suggesting an evolutionary conserved mechanism of regulation of synaptic protein gene expression.

Gene expression of nAChR, SNAP-25 and GAP-43 in skeletal muscles following botulinum toxin A injection: a study in rats

PURPOSE

Botulinum toxin A (BoNT-A) is used to manage spasticity in cerebral palsy. BoNT-A cleaves SNAP-25 protein, blocking acetylcholine release and weakening the muscle. Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) including alpha, beta, delta, gamma, and epsilon subunits, and GAP-43 protein are associated with functional recovery of neuromuscular junctions (NMJ) following BoNT-A. To better understand the mechanism behind this functional recovery, this study attempted to (1) document changes in NMJ morphometry following BoNT-A, and (2) determine the gene expression of nAChR subunits, SNAP-25, and GAP-43 protein.

METHODS

In this rat study (46 rats), 6 units/kg body weight of BoNT-A was injected into the gastrocnimus. NMJ morphometry and the time course of gene expression of nAChR subunits, SNAP-25, and GAP-43 were evaluated up to 1year post-injection.

RESULTS

NMJ morphometry: gutter depth was reduced vs. the control side at two months, and normalizing by 6 months following BoNT. nAChR alpha mRNA and gamma mRNA increased by 3 days, peaked at 7 days and returned to control levels; delta mRNA peaked at 3 days. Epsilon mRNA peaked by 7 days. SNAP-25 mRNA increased from 60 to 90 days, returning to control levels by 6 months. GAP-43 mRNA was unchanged.

CONCLUSIONS

Specific nAChR subunit mRNA expression up-regulates and then returns to normal within two weeks, preceding changes in NMJ morphometry. Although GAP-43 participates in nerve sprouting, no increase of GAP-43 mRNA occurred following BoNT-A. Delayed up-regulation of SNAP-25 mRNA might be associated with muscle functional recovery.

Regulation of MuSK expression by a novel signaling pathway

MuSK is a receptor tyrosine kinase essential for neuromuscular junction formation. Expression of the MuSK gene is tightly regulated during development and at the neuromuscular junction. However, little is known about molecular mechanisms regulating its gene expression. Here we report a characterization of the promoter of the mouse MuSK gene. The transcription of MuSK starts at multiple sites with a major site 51 nt upstream of the translation start site. We have identified an E-box-like cis-element that is both required and sufficient for differentiation-dependent transcription. Interestingly, the promoter activity of the MuSK gene did not respond to neuregulin, a factor believed to mediate the synapse-specific transcription of acetylcholine receptor subunit genes. Rather, MuSK expression is increased in muscle cells stimulated with Wnt or at conditions when the Wnt signaling was activated. These results suggest a novel mechanism for the MuSK synapse-specific expression.

Functional maturation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors as an indicator of murine muscular differentiation in a new nerve-muscle co-culture system

Under normal conditions in situ, muscle fibers and motoneurons, the main partners of motor units, are strongly dependent on each other. This interdependence hinders ex vivo studies of neuromuscular disorders where nervous or muscular components are considered separately. To allow in vitro access to complex nerve-muscle relationships, we developed a novel nerve-muscle co-culture system where mouse muscle innervation is assured by rat spinal cord explants. The degree of muscular maturation during co-culture was evaluated using the distribution of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) and their electrophysiological characteristics before and after innervation. In myotubes from non-innervated cultures, AChRs were diffusely distributed over the entire myotube surface. Their single-channel conductance (33.5+/-0.6 pS) and mean open time (8.1+/-0.7 ms) are characteristic of AChRs described in embryonic or denervated skeletal muscles. In innervated muscle fibers from co-cultures, AChRs appear as discrete aggregates and co-localize with synaptotagmin. In addition to the embryonic type currents, in innervated fibers AChR currents having high conductance (53.3+/-5.9 pS) and short mean open time (2.6+/-0.1 ms), characteristic of AChRs at mature neuromuscular junctions, were observed. Our data support the use of this new nerve-muscle co-culture system as a reliable model for the study of murine muscular differentiation and function.

Compartmentalized NRG signaling and PDZ domain-containing proteins in synapse structure and function

The synapse-specific synthesis of the acetylcholine receptor (AChR) is mediated by multiple mechanisms including compartmentalized signaling induced by neuregulin (NRG). This paper presents evidence that NRG receptors--ErbB receptor tyrosine kinases interact with distinct PDZ domain-containing proteins that are localized at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). ErbB4 associates with the PSD-95 (also known as SAP90)-family members including PSD-95, SAP97, and SAP102 whereas ErbB2 interacts with Erbin and PICK1. Although, ErbB kinases are concentrated at the NMJ, they are not colocalized with the AChR in cultured muscle cells even in the presence of agrin. Co-expression of PSD-95 causes ErbB4 to form clusters in COS cells. We propose that PDZ domain-containing proteins play a role in anchoring ErbB proteins at the neuromuscular junction, and/or mediating downstream signaling pathways. Such mechanisms could be important for the maintenance and function of the synapse.

Sodium channel mRNAs at the neuromuscular junction: distinct patterns of accumulation and effects of muscle activity

Voltage-gated sodium channels (VGSCs) are highly concentrated at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ) in mammalian skeletal muscle. Here we test the hypothesis that local upregulation of mRNA contributes to this accumulation. We designed radiolabeled antisense RNA probes, specific for the "adult" Na(V)1.4 and "fetal" Na(V)1.5 isoforms of VGSC in mammalian skeletal muscle, and used them in in situ hybridization studies of rat soleus muscles. Na(V)1.4 mRNA is present throughout normal adult muscles but is highly concentrated at the NMJ, in which the amount per myonucleus is more than eightfold greater than away from the NMJ. Na(V)1.5 mRNA is undetectable in innervated muscles but is dramatically upregulated by denervation. In muscles denervated for 1 week, both Na(V)1.4 and Na(V)1.5 mRNAs are present throughout the muscle, and both are concentrated at the NMJ. No Na(V)1.5 mRNA was detectable in denervated muscles stimulated electrically for 1 week in vivo. Neither denervation nor stimulation had any significant effect on the level or distribution of Na(V)1.4 mRNA. We conclude that factors, probably derived from the nerve, lead to the increased concentration of VGSC mRNAs at the NMJ. In addition, the expression of Na(V)1.5 mRNA is downregulated by muscle activity, both at the NMJ and away from it.

Erbin is a protein concentrated at postsynaptic membranes that interacts with PSD-95

Neuregulin is a factor essential for synapse-specific transcription of acetylcholine receptor genes at the neuromuscular junction. Its receptors, ErbB receptor tyrosine kinases, are localized at the postjunctional membrane presumably to ensure localized signaling. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying synaptic localization of ErbBs are unknown. Our recent studies indicate that ErbB4 interacts with postsynaptic density (PSD)-95 (SAP90), a PDZ domain-containing protein that does not interact with ErbB2 or ErbB3. Using as bait the ErbB2 C terminus, we identified Erbin, another PDZ domain-containing protein that interacts specifically with ErbB2. Erbin is concentrated in postsynaptic membranes at the neuromuscular junction and in the central nervous system, where ErbB2 is concentrated. Expression of Erbin increases the amount of ErbB2 labeled by biotin in transfected cells, suggesting that Erbin is able to increase ErbB2 surface expression. Furthermore, we provide evidence that Erbin interacts with PSD-95 in both transfected cells and synaptosomes. Thus ErbB proteins can interact with a network of PDZ domain-containing proteins. This interaction may play an important role in regulation of neuregulin signaling and/or subcellular localization of ErbB proteins.

CaM kinase II-dependent suppression of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor delta-subunit promoter activity

Nerve-induced muscle activity suppresses nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) gene expression by increasing intracellular calcium levels. This suppression is mediated by nAChR promoter sequences harboring at least 1 E-box (CANNTG) that bind myogenic helix-loop-helix transcription factors. How muscle depolarization or increased calcium mediates changes in nAChR promoter activity is not well understood. In chick muscle, protein kinase C (PKC) activation is necessary for activity-dependent nAChR gene suppression. Similar effects of PKC activation have not been found in mammalian skeletal muscle. Therefore, we used rat primary muscle cultures to screen for other calcium-regulated enzymatic activities that may mediate the effects of muscle activity and calcium on nAChR promoter activity. We report here that calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaM kinase II) can specifically suppress nAChR promoter activity in mammalian muscle. This regulation was mediated by a single E-box sequence residing in the previously characterized nAChR delta-subunit genes 47-base pair activity-dependent enhancer. In vitro protein/DNA interaction studies suggest that CaM kinase II inhibits binding of the myogenic factor, myogenin, to the delta-promoter 47-base pair activity-dependent enhancer. CaM kinase activity is increased in active muscle and inhibition of this enzymatic activity results in increased nAChR delta-promoter activity. Therefore, CaM kinase II may represent a previously unappreciated activity that participates in coupling muscle depolarization to nAChR gene expression.

ERK MAP kinase activation is required for acetylcholine receptor inducing activity-induced increase in all five acetylcholine receptor subunit mRNAs as well as synapse-specific expression of acetylcholine receptor epsilon-transgene

The AChR is a pentamer of four different subunits in a stoichiometry of alpha2betagammadelta in embryonic and alpha2betaepsilondelta in adult animals. Transcription of AChR subunit genes is most active in synaptic nuclei in adult skeletal muscle cells, and is regulated by neural factors such as ARIA. We report here that ARIA up-regulated specifically the expression of all five AChR subunits in C2C12 cells. The mRNA level of erbB2, erbB3, rapsyn, MuSK, SHP-2 and beta-actin remained unchanged in response to ARIA stimulation in C2C12 cells. The ARIA-induced increase in AChR subunit expression in C2C12 cells was inhibited by the erbB kinase inhibitor tyrphostin AG1478 and the MEK inhibitor PD98059, but not by the PI3 kinase inhibitor wortmannin, suggesting an important role of the erbB protein tyrosine kinases and MAP kinase in the regulation of the expression of the five different AChR subunits. To determine the signaling pathways in vivo, we studied the expression of reporter genes driven by the epsilon-promoter in injected muscles. The in vivo expression of the epsilon-transgene was inhibited by co-expression of dominant negative mutants of key components in the MAP kinase pathway including ras, raf and MEK, but not the dominant negative mutant of PI3 kinase. These results suggest that ERK MAP kinase activation is required for ARIA-induced increase in all five AChR subunit mRNAs as well as synapse-specific expression of AChR epsilon-transgene.

Cloning and characterization of GETS-1, a goldfish Ets family member that functions as a transcriptional repressor in muscle

An Ets transcription factor family member, GETS-1, was cloned from a goldfish retina cDNA library. GETS-1 contains a conserved Ets DNA-binding domain at its N-terminus and is most similar to ternary complex factor (TCF) serum-response-factor protein-1a (SAP-1a). GETS-1 is expressed in many tissues, but is enriched in retina and brain. As with the TCFs SAP-1a and ets-related protein (ERP), overexpression of the GETS-1 promoter suppresses nicotinic acetylcholine receptor epsilon-subunit gene expression in cultured muscle cells. A consensus Ets binding site sequence in the promoter of the epsilon-subunit gene is required for GETS-1-mediated repression. GETS-1 repressor activity is abrogated by overexpression of an activated Ras/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAP kinase) or by mutation of Ser-405, a MAP kinase phosphorylation site in GETS-1. Fusion proteins created between GETS-1 and the Gal4 DNA-binding domain show that, like other TCFs, GETS-1 contains a C-terminal activation domain that is activated by a Ras/MAP kinase signalling cascade. Interestingly, mutation of Ser-405 located within this activation domain abrogated transcriptional activation of the fusion protein.

Role for calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum in coupling muscle activity to nicotinic acetylcholine receptor gene expression in rat

Neurally evoked muscle electrical activity suppresses nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) gene expression in extrajunctional domains of adult muscle fibers. It has been proposed that this regulation is mediated by calcium influx through voltage-dependent L-type calcium channels but bypasses the sarcoplasmic reticulum in chick and mouse C2C12 cells. Here we report that in rat muscle calcium influx through L-type calcium channels preferentially reduced nAChR epsilon-subunit RNA via a post-transcriptional mechanism. In contrast, calcium release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) suppressed nAChR subunit RNA levels as a result of decreasing nAChR subunit promoter activity. Finally, we show that this decreased promoter activity is mediated through the same DNA sequences that control activity-dependent gene expression. Therefore, we propose that in rat muscle, calcium release from the SR participates in coupling muscle depolarization to nAChR gene expression.

Nonmyogenic factors bind nicotinic acetylcholine receptor promoter elements required for response to denervation

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (AChRs) belong to a class of muscle proteins whose expression is regulated by muscle electrical activity. In innervated muscle fiber, AChR genes are transcriptionally repressed outside of the synapse, while after denervation they become reexpressed throughout the fiber. The myogenic determination factors (MDFs) of the MyoD family have been shown to play a central role in this innervation-dependent regulation. In the chicken AChR alpha-subunit gene promoter, two E-boxes that bind MDFs are necessary to achieve the enhancement of transcription following muscle denervation. However, the deletion of promoter sequences located upstream to these E-boxes greatly impairs the response to denervation (Bessereau, J. L., Stratford- Perricaudet, L. D., Piette, J., Le Poupon, C. and Changeux, J. P. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 91, 1304-1308). Here we identified two additional cis-regulatory elements of the alpha-subunit gene promoter that cooperate with the E-boxes in the denervation response. One region binds the Sp1 and Sp3 zinc finger transcription factors. The second region binds at least three distinct factors, among which we identified an upstream stimulatory factor, a b-ZIP-HLH transcription factor. We propose that among MDF-responsive muscle promoters, a specific combination between myogenic and nonmyogenic factors specify innervation-dependent versus innervation-independent promoters.

Use of DNA injection for identification of slow nerve-dependent regions of the MLC2s gene

It has been well established that expression of slow contractile protein genes in skeletal muscle is regulated, in part, by activity from slow motoneurons. However, very little is understood about the mechanism by which neural activity regulates transcription of slow isoform genes. The purpose of this investigation was first to more fully define the in vivo DNA injection technique for use in both fast-twitch and slow-twitch muscles and second to use the injection technique for the identification of slow nerve-dependent regions of the myosin light chain 2 slow (MLC2s) gene. Initial experiments determined that the same amount of plasmid DNA was taken up by both the slow-twitch soleus and fast-twitch extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles and that injection of from 0.5 to 10 micrograms DNA/muscle is ideal for analysis of promoter activity during regeneration. This technique was subsequently used to identify that the region from -800 to +12 base pairs of MLC2s gene directed approximately 100 times higher activity in the innervated soleus than in innervated EDL, denervated soleus, or denervated EDL muscles. Placing the introns upstream of either the MLC2s or SV40 promoter increased expression 5- and 2.7-fold, respectively, in innervated soleus but not in innervated EDL, denervated soleus, or denervated EDL muscles. These results demonstrate that 1) in vivo DNA injection is a sensitive assay for promoter analysis in both fast-twitch and slow-twitch skeletal muscles and 2) both 5' flanking and intronic regions of the MLC2s gene can independently and synergistically direct slow nerve-dependent transcription in vivo.

Multiple nuclear proteins bind a novel cis-acting element that regulates the muscle-specific expression of the mouse nicotinic acetylcholine receptor alpha-subunit gene

Expression of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) is transcriptionally regulated during the development of vertebrate striated muscle. To better define regulatory elements involved in this process, site-directed mutations were made in the gene's 86 bp muscle specific enhancer. Transient expression assays in skeletal muscle C2C12 cells indicated that all three E-boxes, plus a novel sequence outside the E-boxes, are necessary for full activity of the AChR gene in myotubes. Gel mobility shift assays demonstrated that mutations in the non-E-box sequence disrupted the formation of two DNA/protein complexes while not affecting myoD binding. Methylation interference footprinting confirmed that the complexes form at nucleotides within the mutated region, and also include part of the central E-box. UV crosslinking of nuclear proteins to a DNA probe identified five proteins of 125, 81, 55, 42, and 35 kDa that bind to this region; with the 125 kDa protein being differentially bound in U.V. crosslink assays during the transition from myoblasts to myotubes. These data suggest that interactions between this DNA element and the five proteins contribute to the transcriptional control of the AChR alpha-subunit gene expression during the differentiation of skeletal muscle.

Identification of an element required for acetylcholine receptor-inducing activity (ARIA)-induced expression of the acetylcholine receptor epsilon subunit gene

Acetylcholine Receptor (AChR)-inducing activity (ARIA) is believed to be the trophic factor utilized by motoneurons to stimulate AChR synthesis in the subsynaptic area. Among the four AChR subunit genes, the epsilon subunit gene is strictly expressed in nuclei localized to the synaptic region of the muscle. To understand mechanisms of the regulation of synapse-specific transcription, we studied the promoter activity of the 5'-flanking region of the AChR epsilon subunit gene in response to ARIA. Transgenes containing the wild type or mutant 5'-flanking regions upstream of a luciferase gene were transfected in C2C12 muscle cells. The promoter activity of these transgenes was determined by assaying activity of expressed luciferase. Analyzing a combination of 5' deletion and site-directed mutants, we identified a 10-nucleotide element (position -55/-46), which was crucial for ARIA-induced expression from the epsilon subunit promoter. This element was named ARE for ARIA-responsive element. Mutation of ARE greatly diminished ARIA-induced transgene expression and deletion of ARE abolished completely the ARIA response. Electrophoretic mobility shift analyses revealed a DNA binding activity in muscle nuclear extract that interacted with ARE. Such interaction was enhanced by ARIA stimulation of muscle cells and appeared to be dependent on nuclear protein phosphorylation.

Identification and characterization of a 47 base pair activity-dependent enhancer of the rat nicotinic acetylcholine receptor delta-subunit promoter

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) genes are regulated by muscle electrical activity. E-box sequences found in their promoters are necessary for this regulation. However, many muscle genes contain E-boxes, yet are not regulated by muscle depolarization. This suggests that other elements are necessary, perhaps working in conjunction with E-boxes, to confer depolarization-dependent control onto promoter activity. We have used direct DNA injection into muscle as an in vivo assay to identify and characterize these additional elements. Mutagenesis and expression assays identified multiple elements within the first 81 base pairs (bp) of the nAChR delta-subunit promoter that contribute to its regulation by muscle electrical activity. Within this 81 bp sequence, two regions of DNA were identified that were capable of conferring activity-dependent regulation onto a heterologous promoter. The stronger of these two putative enhancers was characterized further. It is a 47 bp sequence that contains an E-box along with sequences similar to the SV40 core enhancer and an SP1 site. Site-directed mutagenesis identified residues within each of these sequences that were necessary for enhancer activity. Furthermore, methylation interference DNA footprinting assays showed increased nuclear protein binding to sequences within both these enhancers after muscle denervation, and this pattern of binding was very similar to that observed with nuclear protein isolated from myotube extracts. These latter results suggest that similar mechanisms may mediate increased nAChR expression during muscle development and after muscle denervation.

Cloning and characterization of a novel transcriptional repressor of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor delta-subunit gene

We have identified a negative cis-acting regulatory element in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor delta-subunit gene's promoter. This element resides within a previously identified 47-base pair activity-dependent enhancer. Proteins that bind this region of DNA were cloned from a lambdagt11 innervated muscle expression library. Two cDNAs (MY1 and MY1a) were isolated that encode members of the Y-box family of transcription factors. MY1/1a RNAs are expressed at relatively high levels in heart, skeletal muscle, testis, glia, and specific regions of the central nervous system. MY1/1a are nuclear proteins that bind specifically to the coding strand of the 47-base pair enhancer and suppress delta-promoter activity in a sequence-specific manner. These results suggest a novel mechanism of repression by MY1/1a, which may contribute to the low level expression of the delta-subunit gene in innervated muscle. Finally, the gene encoding MY1/1a, Yb2, maps to the mid-distal region of mouse chromosome 6.

Adaptation of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, myogenin, and MRF4 gene expression to long-term muscle denervation

Muscle activity alters the expression of functionally distinct nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) via regulation of subunit gene expression. Denervation increases the expression of all subunit genes and promotes the expression of embryonic-type (alpha 2 beta delta gamma) nAChRs, while electrical stimulation of denervated muscle prevents this induction. We have discovered that the denervation-induced increases in alpha, beta, gamma, and delta subunit gene expression do not persist in muscles that have been denervated for periods extending beyond a couple of months. However, expression of RNA encoding the epsilon-subunit remains elevated suggesting a return to expression of predominantly adult-type (alpha 2 beta delta epsilon) nAChR in long-term denervated muscles; a finding confirmed by single channel patch-clamp analysis. Since the nAChR subunit genes are regulated by the MyoD family of muscle regulatory factors, and the genes encoding these factors are also induced following short-term muscle denervation, we determined their level of expression in long-term denervated muscle. Although MyoD and myf-5 RNA levels remained elevated, myogenin and MRF4 RNAs were induced only transiently by muscle denervation. Surprisingly, Id-1, a negative regulator of transcription, was gradually induced in denervated muscle with RNA levels peaking about two months after denervation. It is likely that this maintained level of increased Id expression, in conjunction with the returning levels of myogenin and MRF4 expression, account for the reduced level of embryonic receptors in long-term denervated muscle. These changing patterns of gene expression may have important consequences for the ability of muscle to recover function after denervation.