Gprk2 controls cAMP levels in Drosophila development

Organization of an Ascending Circuit that Conveys Flight Motor State

Natural behaviors are a coordinated symphony of motor acts which drive self-induced or reafferent sensory activation. Single sensors only signal presence and magnitude of a sensory cue; they cannot disambiguate exafferent (externally-induced) from reafferent sources. Nevertheless, animals readily differentiate between these sources of sensory signals to make appropriate decisions and initiate adaptive behavioral outcomes. This is mediated by predictive motor signaling mechanisms, which emanate from motor control pathways to sensory processing pathways, but how predictive motor signaling circuits function at the cellular and synaptic level is poorly understood. We use a variety of techniques, including connectomics from both male and female electron microscopy volumes, transcriptomics, neuroanatomical, physiological and behavioral approaches to resolve the network architecture of two pairs of ascending histaminergic neurons (AHNs), which putatively provide predictive motor signals to several sensory and motor neuropil. Both AHN pairs receive input primarily from an overlapping population of descending neurons, many of which drive wing motor output. The two AHN pairs target almost exclusively non-overlapping downstream neural networks including those that process visual, auditory and mechanosensory information as well as networks coordinating wing, haltere, and leg motor output. These results support the conclusion that the AHN pairs multi-task, integrating a large amount of common input, then tile their output in the brain, providing predictive motor signals to non-overlapping sensory networks affecting motor control both directly and indirectly.

Normal Ethanol Sensitivity and Rapid Tolerance Require the G Protein Receptor Kinase 2 in Ellipsoid Body Neurons in Drosophila

BACKGROUND

G protein signaling pathways are key neuromodulatory mechanisms for behaviors and neurological functions that affect the impact of ethanol (EtOH) on locomotion, arousal, and synaptic plasticity. Here, we report a novel role for the Drosophila G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GPRK2) as a member of the GRK4/5/6 subfamily in modulating EtOH-induced behaviors.

METHODS

We studied the requirement of Drosophila Gprk2 for naïve sensitivity to EtOH sedation and ability of the fly to develop rapid tolerance after a single exposure to EtOH, using the loss of righting reflex (LORR) and fly group activity monitor (FlyGrAM) assays.

RESULTS

Loss-of-function Gprk2 mutants demonstrate an increase in alcohol-induced hyperactivity, reduced sensitivity to the sedative effects of EtOH, and diminished rapid tolerance after a single intoxicating exposure. The requirement for Gprk2 in EtOH sedation and rapid tolerance maps to ellipsoid body neurons within the Drosophila brain, suggesting that wild-type Gprk2 is required for modulation of locomotion and alertness. However, even though Gprk2 loss of function leads to decreased and fragmented sleep, this change in the sleep state does not depend on Gprk2 expression in the ellipsoid body.

CONCLUSION

Our work on GPRK2 has established a role for this GRK4/5/6 subfamily member in EtOH sensitivity and rapid tolerance.

Aubergine iCLIP Reveals piRNA-Dependent Decay of mRNAs Involved in Germ Cell Development in the Early Embryo

The Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA) pathway plays an essential role in the repression of transposons in the germline. Other functions of piRNAs such as post-transcriptional regulation of mRNAs are now emerging. Here, we perform iCLIP with the PIWI protein Aubergine (Aub) and identify hundreds of maternal mRNAs interacting with Aub in the early Drosophila embryo. Gene expression profiling reveals that a proportion of these mRNAs undergo Aub-dependent destabilization during the maternal-to-zygotic transition. Strikingly, Aub-dependent unstable mRNAs encode germ cell determinants. iCLIP with an Aub mutant that is unable to bind piRNAs confirms piRNA-dependent binding of Aub to mRNAs. Base pairing between piRNAs and mRNAs can induce mRNA cleavage and decay that are essential for embryonic development. These results suggest general regulation of maternal mRNAs by Aub and piRNAs, which plays a key developmental role in the embryo through decay and localization of mRNAs encoding germ cell determinants.

•

Aub binds to maternal mRNAs in early Drosophila embryos

•

Interaction between Aub and maternal mRNAs depends on piRNAs

•

aub mutants are defective in mRNA decay during the MZT

•

Aub-dependent unstable mRNAs encode germ cell determinants

Drosophila Fascin is a novel downstream target of prostaglandin signaling during actin remodeling

Prostaglandins (PGs) regulate the actin cytoskeleton. However, their mechanisms of action are unknown. Use of Drosophila oogenesis—specifically nurse cell dumping—as a model shows that PGs regulate the actin bundler Fascin to control parallel actin filament bundle formation and cortical actin integrity.

Although prostaglandins (PGs)—lipid signals produced downstream of cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes—regulate actin cytoskeletal dynamics, their mechanisms of action are unknown. We previously established Drosophila oogenesis, in particular nurse cell dumping, as a new model to determine how PGs regulate actin remodeling. PGs, and thus the Drosophila COX-like enzyme Pxt, are required for both the parallel actin filament bundle formation and the cortical actin strengthening required for dumping. Here we provide the first link between Fascin (Drosophila Singed, Sn), an actin-bundling protein, and PGs. Loss of either pxt or fascin results in similar actin defects. Fascin interacts, both pharmacologically and genetically, with PGs, as reduced Fascin levels enhance the effects of COX inhibition and synergize with reduced Pxt levels to cause both parallel bundle and cortical actin defects. Conversely, overexpression of Fascin in the germline suppresses the effects of COX inhibition and genetic loss of Pxt. These data lead to the conclusion that PGs regulate Fascin to control actin remodeling. This novel interaction has implications beyond Drosophila, as both PGs and Fascin-1, in mammalian systems, contribute to cancer cell migration and invasion.

The complexities of G-protein-coupled receptor kinase function in Hedgehog signaling

Hedgehog (Hh) signaling is essential for proper tissue patterning and maintenance and has a substantial impact on human disease. While many of the main components and mechanisms involved in transduction of the Hh signal have been identified, the details of how the pathway functions are continually being refined. One aspect that has attracted much attention recently is the involvement of G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) in the pathway. These regulators of G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling have an evolutionarily-conserved function in promoting high-threshold Hh target gene expression through regulation of Smoothened (Smo), a GPCR family member that activates intracellular Hh signaling. Several models of how GRKs impact on Smo to increase downstream signaling have been proposed. Recently, we demonstrated that these kinases have surprisingly complex and conflicting roles, acting to limit signaling through the pathway while also promoting Smo activity. In addition to the previously described direct effects of Gprk2 on Smo activation, Gprk2 also indirectly affects Hh signaling by controlling production of the second messenger cyclic AMP to influence Protein kinase A activity.

Drosophila G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 regulates cAMP-dependent Hedgehog signaling

G-protein-coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) play a conserved role in Hedgehog (Hh) signaling. In several systems, GRKs are required for efficient Hh target gene expression. Their principal target appears to be Smoothened (Smo), the intracellular signal-generating component of the pathway and a member of the G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) protein family. In Drosophila, a GRK called Gprk2 is needed for internalization and downregulation of activated Smo, consistent with the typical role of these kinases in negatively regulating GPCRs. However, Hh target gene activation is strongly impaired in gprk2 mutant flies, indicating that Gprk2 must also positively regulate Hh signaling at some level. To investigate its function in signaling, we analyzed several different readouts of Hh pathway activity in animals or cells lacking Gprk2. Surprisingly, although target gene expression was impaired, Smo-dependent activation of downstream components of the signaling pathway was increased in the absence of Gprk2. This suggests that Gprk2 does indeed play a role in terminating Smo signaling. However, loss of Gprk2 resulted in a decrease in cellular cAMP concentrations to a level that was limiting for Hh target gene activation. Normal expression of target genes was restored in gprk2 mutants by stimulating cAMP production or activating the cAMP-dependent Protein kinase A (Pka). Our results suggest that direct regulation of Smo by Gprk2 is not absolutely required for Hh target gene expression. Gprk2 is important for normal cAMP regulation, and thus has an indirect effect on the activity of Pka-regulated components of the Hh pathway, including Smo itself.

Role of the Drosophila non-visual ß-arrestin kurtz in hedgehog signalling

The non-visual ß-arrestins are cytosolic proteins highly conserved across species that participate in a variety of signalling events, including plasma membrane receptor degradation, recycling, and signalling, and that can also act as scaffolding for kinases such as MAPK and Akt/PI3K. In Drosophila melanogaster, there is only a single non-visual ß-arrestin, encoded by kurtz, whose function is essential for neuronal activity. We have addressed the participation of Kurtz in signalling during the development of the imaginal discs, epithelial tissues requiring the activity of the Hedgehog, Wingless, EGFR, Notch, Insulin, and TGFβ pathways. Surprisingly, we found that the complete elimination of kurtz by genetic techniques has no major consequences in imaginal cells. In contrast, the over-expression of Kurtz in the wing disc causes a phenotype identical to the loss of Hedgehog signalling and prevents the expression of Hedgehog targets in the corresponding wing discs. The mechanism by which Kurtz antagonises Hedgehog signalling is to promote Smoothened internalization and degradation in a clathrin- and proteosomal-dependent manner. Intriguingly, the effects of Kurtz on Smoothened are independent of Gprk2 activity and of the activation state of the receptor. Our results suggest fundamental differences in the molecular mechanisms regulating receptor turnover and signalling in vertebrates and invertebrates, and they could provide important insights into divergent evolution of Hedgehog signalling in these organisms.

Non-visual β-arrestins are key proteins involved in plasma membrane receptor internalization, recycling, and signalling. The activity of β-arrestins is generally linked to seven-transmembrane receptors, but in vertebrates they can also participate in many other signalling pathways. Consistently, β-arrestins play important roles during vertebrate development and are implicated in a variety of human pathologies. Here we take advantage of the fruit fly model to analyse the genetic requirements of the unique fly non-visual β-arrestin (kurtz) in signalling during the development of imaginal epithelia. To our surprise, we find that the complete elimination of kurtz has no major consequences in imaginal cells. Our data suggest that insect epithelial cells have evolved arrestin-independent mechanisms to control receptor turnover and signalling, so arrestin function has become less critical. On the other hand, in contrast to previous reports in vertebrates, we find that the over-expression of Kurtz blocks Hedgehog signalling by promoting the internalization and degradation of the transductor Smoothened. We suggest that such differences are based on the specific requirement of the primary cilia for Hedgehog signalling in most vertebrates. These results could provide important insights into divergent modes of membrane receptor regulation and Hedgehog signalling in vertebrates and invertebrates.

Evaluating Smoothened as a G-protein-coupled receptor for Hedgehog signalling

The Hedgehog signalling pathway controls numerous developmental processes. In response to Hedgehog, Smoothened (Smo), a seven-pass transmembrane protein, orchestrates pathway signalling and controls transcription factor activation. In the absence of Hedgehog, the receptor Patched indirectly inhibits Smo in a catalytic manner. Many questions surrounding Smo activation and signalling remain. Recent findings in Drosophila and vertebrate systems have provided strong evidence that Smo acts as a G-protein-coupled receptor. We discuss the role and regulation of Smo and reassess similarities between Smo and G-protein-coupled receptors. We also examine recently identified members of the invertebrate and vertebrate Smo signalling cascades that are typical components of G-protein-coupled receptor pathways. Greater understanding of the mechanisms of Smo activation and its signalling pathways will allow implementation of novel strategies to target disorders related to disruption of Hh signalling.

Regulation of smoothened by Drosophila G-protein-coupled receptor kinases

The Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway plays a conserved and essential role in regulating development and homeostasis of numerous tissues. Cytoplasmic signaling is initiated by Smoothened (Smo), a G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family member, whose levels and activity are regulated by the Hh receptor Patched (Ptc). In response to Hh binding to Ptc, Ptc-mediated repression of Smo is relieved, leading to Smo activation, surface accumulation, and downstream signaling. We find that downregulation of Drosophila Smo protein in Hh-responding imaginal disc cells is dependent on the activity of G-protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (Gprk2). By analyzing gain- and null loss-of-function phenotypes, we provide evidence that Gprk2 promotes Smo internalization subsequent to its activation, most likely by direct phosphorylation. Ptc-dependent regulation of Smo accumulation is normal in gprk2 mutants, indicating that Gprk2 and Ptc downregulate Smo by different mechanisms. Finally, we show that both Drosophila G-protein-coupled receptor kinase orthologues, Gprk1 and Gprk2, act in a partially redundant manner to promote Hh signaling. Our results suggest that Smo is regulated by distinct Ptc-dependent and Gprk2-dependent trafficking mechanisms in vivo, analogous to constitutive and activity-dependent regulation of GPCRs. G-protein-coupled receptor kinase activity is also important for efficient downstream signaling.

The RGS gene loco is essential for male reproductive system differentiation in Drosophila melanogaster

BACKGROUND

The loco gene encodes several different isoforms of a regulator of G-protein signalling. These different isoforms of LOCO are part of a pathway enabling cells to respond to external signals. LOCO is known to be required at various developmental stages including neuroblast division, glial cell formation and oogenesis. Less is known about LOCO and its involvement in male development therefore to gain further insight into the role of LOCO in development we carried out a genetic screen and analysed males with reduced fertility.

RESULTS

We identified a number of lethal loco mutants and four semi-lethal lines, which generate males with reduced fertility. We have identified a fifth loco transcript and show that it is differentially expressed in developing pupae. We have characterised the expression pattern of all loco transcripts during pupal development in the adult testes, both in wild type and loco mutant strains. In addition we also show that there are various G-protein alpha subunits expressed in the testis all of which may be potential binding partners of LOCO.

CONCLUSION

We propose that the male sterility in the new loco mutants result from a failure of accurate morphogenesis of the adult reproductive system during metamorphosis, we propose that this is due to a loss of expression of loco c3. Thus, we conclude that specific isoforms of loco are required for the differentiation of the male gonad and genital disc.

The G protein-coupled receptor regulatory kinase GPRK2 participates in Hedgehog signaling in Drosophila

Signaling by Smoothened (Smo) plays fundamental roles during animal development and is deregulated in a variety of human cancers. Smo is a transmembrane protein with a heptahelical topology characteristic of G protein-coupled receptors. Despite such similarity, the mechanisms regulating Smo signaling are not fully understood. We show that Gprk2, a Drosophila member of the G protein-coupled receptor kinases, plays a key role in the Smo signal transduction pathway. Lowering Gprk2 levels in the wing disc reduces the expression of Smo targets and causes a phenotype reminiscent of loss of Smo function. We found that Gprk2 function is required for transducing the Smo signal and that when Gprk2 levels are lowered, Smo still accumulates at the cell membrane, but its activation is reduced. Interestingly, the expression of Gprk2 in the wing disc is regulated in part by Smo, generating a positive feedback loop that maintains high Smo activity close to the anterior-posterior compartment boundary.

The cell biology of Smo signalling and its relationships with GPCRs

The Smoothened (Smo) signalling pathway participates in many developmental processes, contributing to the regulation of gene expression by controlling the activity of transcription factors belonging to the Gli family. The key elements of the pathway were identified by means of genetic screens carried out in Drosophila, and subsequent analysis in other model organisms revealed a high degree of conservation in both the proteins involved and in their molecular interactions. Recent analysis of the pathway, using a combination of biochemical and cell biological approaches, is uncovering the intricacies of Smo signalling, placing its elements in particular cellular compartments and qualifying the molecular processes involved. These include the synthesis, secretion and diffusion of the ligand, the activation of the receptor and the modifications in the activity of nuclear effectors. In this review we discuss recent advances in understanding biochemical and cellular aspects of Smo signalling, with particular focus in the similarities in the mechanism of signal transduction between Smo and other transmembrane proteins belonging to the G-Protein coupled receptors superfamily (GPCR).

Octopamine receptor OAMB is required for ovulation in Drosophila melanogaster

Octopamine is a major monoamine in invertebrates and affects many physiological processes ranging from energy metabolism to complex behaviors. Octopamine binds to receptors located on various cell types and activates distinct signal transduction pathways to produce these diverse effects. We previously identified one of the Drosophila octopamine receptors named OAMB that produces increases in cAMP and intracellular Ca2+ upon ligand binding. It is expressed at high levels in the brain. To explore OAMB's physiological roles, we generated deletions in the OAMB locus. The resultant oamb mutants were viable without gross anatomical defects. The oamb females displayed normal courtship and copulation; however, they were impaired in ovulation with many mature eggs retained in their ovaries. RT-PCR, in situ hybridization, and expression of a reporter gene revealed that OAMB was also expressed in the thoracicoabdominal ganglion, the female reproductive system, and mature eggs in the ovary. Moreover, analysis of various alleles pinpointed the requirement for OAMB in the body, but not in the brain, for female fecundity. The novel expression pattern of OAMB and its genetic resource described in this study will help advance our understanding on how the neuromodulatory or endocrine system controls reproductive physiology and behavior.

Identification and Functional Analysis of the Drosophila Gene loco

In contrast to vertebrates, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster contains only a small number of regulator of G-protein signaling (RGS) domain genes. This article reviews current knowledge on these genes. Although the fruit fly is particularly amenable to genetic analysis and manipulation, not much is known about the functions and mechanisms of action. The best-studied RGS gene in Drosophila is loco, a member of the D/R12 subfamily. The four different protein isoforms all contain RGS, GoLoco, and RBD domains. This article describes the identification and functional analyses of loco in the Drosophila system and discusses some mechanistic models that may underlie loco function.

The role of maternal and zygotic Gprk2 expression in Drosophila development

G protein-coupled receptor activity is controlled by a number of factors including phosphorylation by the family of G protein-coupled receptor kinases. This phosphorylation is an important first step in desensitization of the receptor. The role of G protein-coupled receptor kinases in cellular physiology has been extensively studied, but less is known about their role in development. A Drosophila G protein-coupled receptor kinase mutant (gprk2(6936)) has developmental defects throughout the life cycle of the fly. This allows the opportunity to address G protein-coupled receptor kinase's function in vivo. Using a series of transgenic flies in which the wild type Gprk2 gene is expressed under the control of the hsp70 or germline-specific promoter, in combination with germline mosaic analysis, we have made a detailed analysis of the developmental stages in which Gprk2 expression is required and the tissues that must express Gprk2 for rescue of the gprk2(6936) mutant. These studies have shown that Gprk2 expression is required in the germline for proper formation of the anterior egg structures and for early embryogenesis. In the absence of maternal Gprk2 activity, zygotic expression affords partial rescue of egg hatching, suggesting that Gprk2 also plays an important role in late embryogenesis.