The biological functions of A-kinase anchor proteins

The Tetrahymena bcd1 mutant implicates endosome trafficking in ciliate, cortical pattern formation

Ciliates, such as Tetrahymena thermophila, evolved complex mechanisms to determine both the location and dimensions of cortical organelles such as the oral apparatus (OA: involved in phagocytosis), cytoproct (Cyp: for eliminating wastes), and contractile vacuole pores (CVPs: involved in water expulsion). Mutations have been recovered in Tetrahymena that affect both the localization of such organelles along anterior-posterior and circumferential body axes and their dimensions. Here we describe BCD1, a ciliate pattern gene that encodes a conserved Beige-BEACH domain-containing protein a with possible protein kinase A (PKA)-anchoring activity. Similar proteins have been implicated in endosome trafficking and are linked to human Chediak-Higashi syndrome and autism. Mutations in the BCD1 gene broaden cortical organelle domains as they assemble during predivision development. The Bcd1 protein localizes to membrane pockets at the base of every cilium that are active in endocytosis. PKA activity has been shown to promote endocytosis in other organisms, so we blocked clathrin-mediated endocytosis (using "dynasore") and inhibited PKA (using H89). In both cases, treatment produced partial phenocopies of the bcd1 pattern mutant. This study supports a model in which the dimensions of diverse cortical organelle assembly-platforms may be determined by regulated balance between constitutive exocytic delivery and PKA-regulated endocytic retrieval of organelle materials and determinants.

AKAP13 Enhances CREB1 Activation by FSH in Granulosa Cells

Granulosa cells (GCs) must respond appropriately to follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) for proper follicle maturation. FSH activates protein kinase A (PKA) leading to phosphorylation of the cyclic AMP response element binding protein-1 (CREB1). We identified a unique A-kinase anchoring protein (AKAP13) containing a Rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor (RhoGEF) region that was induced in GCs during folliculogenesis. AKAPs are known to coordinate signaling cascades, and we sought to evaluate the role of AKAP13 in GCs in response to FSH. Aromatase reporter activity was increased in COV434 human GCs overexpressing AKAP13. Addition of FSH, or the PKA activator forskolin, significantly enhanced this activity by 1.5- to 2.5-fold, respectively (p < 0.001). Treatment with the PKA inhibitor H89 significantly reduced AKAP13-dependent activation of an aromatase reporter (p = 0.0067). AKAP13 physically interacted with CREB1 in co-immunoprecipitation experiments and increased the phosphorylation of CREB1. CREB1 phosphorylation increased after FSH treatment in a time-specific manner, and this effect was reduced by siRNA directed against AKAP13 (p = 0.05). CREB1 activation increased by 18.5-fold with co-expression of AKAP13 in the presence of FSH (p < 0.001). Aromatase reporter activity was reduced by inhibitors of the RhoGEF region, C3 transferase and A13, and greatly enhanced by the RhoGEF activator, A02. In primary murine and COV43 GCs, siRNA knockdown of Akap13/AKAP13 decreased aromatase and luteinizing hormone receptor transcripts in cells treated with FSH, compared with controls. Collectively, these findings suggest that AKAP13 may function as a scaffolding protein in FSH signal transduction via an interaction with CREB, resulting in phosphorylation of CREB.

Epicatechin Prevents Cryocapacitation of Bovine Spermatozoa through Antioxidant Activity and Stabilization of Transmembrane Ion Channels

Epicatechin (EPC) is a flavonoid belonging to the family of catechins; it has been described as a powerful scavenger of a wide spectrum of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and a modulator of ex vivo sperm vitality. In this study, we assessed the potential protective abilities of EPC on cryopreserved bovine spermatozoa. We focused on conventional quality parameters, as well as the oxidative profile of spermatozoa alongside capacitation patterns, and expression profiles of proteins involved in the process of capacitation. Semen samples were cryopreserved in the presence of 25, 50 or 100 μmol/L EPC and compared to native semen (negative control) as well as ejaculates frozen in the absence of EPC (positive control). A dose-dependent improvement of conventional sperm quality parameters was observed following EPC administration, particularly in case of the sperm motility, membrane, acrosome and DNA integrity in comparison to the positive control. Experimental groups exposed to all EPC doses presented with a significantly lower proportion of capacitated spermatozoa as opposed to the positive control. While no significant effects of EPC were observed in cases of superoxide production, a significant decrease in the levels of hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical were recorded particularly in the experimental groups supplemented with 50 and 100 μmol/L EPC. Western blot analysis revealed that supplementation of particularly 100 μmol/L EPC to the semen extender prevented the loss of the cation channel of sperm (CatSper) isoforms 1 and 2, sodium bicarbonate cotransporter (NBC) and protein kinase A (PKA), which play important roles in the process of sperm capacitation. In summary, we may hypothesize that EPC is particularly effective in the stabilization of the sperm membrane during the freeze-thaw process through its ability to quench ROS involved in damage to the membrane lipids and to prevent the loss of membrane channels crucial to initiate the process of sperm capacitation. These attributes of EPC provide an additional layer of protection to spermatozoa exposed to low temperatures, which may be translated into a higher post-thaw structural integrity and functional activity of male gametes.

In Vitro versus Cryo-Induced Capacitation of Bovine Spermatozoa, Part 2: Changes in the Expression Patterns of Selected Transmembrane Channels and Protein Kinase A

Since the molecular similarities and differences among physiological capacitation and cryocapacitation have not been studied in detail, this study was designed to assess the gene and protein expression levels of the Cation channel of sperm (CatSper) 1 and 2, sodium bicarbonate (Na+/HCO3−) cotransporter (NBC) and protein kinase A (PKA) in un-capacitated (control), in vitro capacitated (CAP) and cryopreserved (CRYO) bovine spermatozoa. All samples were subjected to motility evaluation using the computer assisted sperm analysis and chlortetracycline (CTC) assay for the assessment of the capacitation patterns. Furthermore, quantitative reverse transcription PCR (qRT-PCR) and Western blots were used to monitor the expression patterns of the selected capacitation markers. The results showed a significant reduction in the gene and protein expression levels of CatSper1 and 2 in the CRYO group when compared to the CAP group (p < 0.0001). In the case of NBC, the results were not significantly different or were inconclusive. While a non-significant down-regulation of PKA was found in the CRYO group, a significant reduction in the expression of the PKA protein was found in frozen-thawed spermatozoa in comparison to the CAP group (p < 0.05). In conclusion, we may hypothesize that while in vitro capacitated and cryopreserved spermatozoa exhibit CTC-patterns consistent with capacitation events, the molecular machinery underlying CTC-positivity may be different.

Functional Insights into Protein Kinase A (PKA) Signaling from C. elegans

Protein kinase A (PKA), which regulates a diverse set of biological functions downstream of cyclic AMP (cAMP), is a tetramer consisting of two catalytic subunits (PKA-C) and two regulatory subunits (PKA-R). When cAMP binds the PKA-R subunits, the PKA-C subunits are released and interact with downstream effectors. In Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans), PKA-C and PKA-R are encoded by kin-1 and kin-2, respectively. This review focuses on the contributions of work in C. elegans to our understanding of the many roles of PKA, including contractility and oocyte maturation in the reproductive system, lipid metabolism, physiology, mitochondrial function and lifespan, and a wide variety of behaviors. C. elegans provides a powerful genetic platform for understanding how this kinase can regulate an astounding variety of physiological responses.

Physiologic and pathophysiologic roles of AKAP12

A kinase anchoring protein (AKAP) 12 is a scaffolding protein that improves the specificity and efficiency of spatiotemporal signal through assembling intracellular signal proteins into a specific complex. AKAP12 is a negative mitogenic regulator that plays an important role in controlling cytoskeletal architecture, maintaining endothelial integrity, regulating glial function and forming blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood retinal barrier (BRB). Moreover, elevated or reduced AKAP12 contributes to a variety of diseases. Complex connections between AKAP12 and various diseases including chronic liver diseases (CLDs), inflammatory diseases and a series of cancers will be tried to delineate in this paper. We first describe the expression, distribution and physiological function of AKAP12. Then we summarize the current knowledge of different connections between AKAP12 expression and various diseases. Some research groups have found paradoxical roles of AKAP12 in different diseases and further confirmation is needed. This paper aims to assess the role of AKAP12 in physiology and diseases to help lay the foundation for the design of small molecules for specific AKAP12 to correct the pathological signal defects.

The regulation of PKA signaling in obesity and in the maintenance of metabolic health

The cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) system represents a primary cell-signaling pathway throughout systems and across species. PKA facilitates the actions of hormones, neurotransmitters and other signaling molecules that bind G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR) to modulate cAMP levels. Through its control of synaptic events, exocytosis, transcriptional regulation, and more, PKA signaling regulates cellular metabolism and emotional and stress responses making it integral in the maintenance and dysregulation of energy homeostasis. Neural PKA signaling is regulated by afferent and peripheral efferent signals that link specific neural cell populations to the regulation of metabolic processes in adipose tissue, liver, pancreas, adrenal, skeletal muscle, and gut. Mouse models have provided invaluable information on the roles for PKA subunits in brain and key metabolic organs. While limited, human studies infer differential regulation of the PKA system in obese compared to lean individuals. Variants identified in PKA subunit genes cause Cushing syndrome that is characterized by metabolic dysregulation associated with endogenous glucocorticoid excess. Under healthy physiologic conditions, the PKA system is exquisitely regulated by stimuli that activate GPCRs to alter intracellular cAMP concentrations, and by PKA cellular localization and holoenzyme stability. Adenylate cyclase activity generates cAMP while phosphodiesterase-mediated cAMP degradation to AMP decreases cAMP levels downstream of GPCRs. Chronic perturbations in PKA signaling appear to be capable of resetting PKA regulation at several levels; in addition, sex differences in PKA signaling regulation, while not well understood, impact the physiologic consequences of metabolic dysregulation and obesity. This review explores the roles for PKA signaling in the pathogenesis of metabolic diseases including obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus and associated co-morbidities through neural-peripheral crosstalk and cAMP/PKA signaling pathway targets that hold therapeutic potential.

Novel Synthetic Coumarin-Chalcone Derivative (E)-3-(3-(4-(Dimethylamino)Phenyl)Acryloyl)-4-Hydroxy-2H-Chromen-2-One Activates CREB-Mediated Neuroprotection in Aβ and Tau Cell Models of Alzheimer's Disease

Abnormal accumulations of misfolded Aβ and tau proteins are major components of the hallmark plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brains of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. These abnormal protein deposits cause neurodegeneration through a number of proposed mechanisms, including downregulation of the cAMP-response-element (CRE) binding protein 1 (CREB) signaling pathway. Using CRE-GFP reporter cells, we investigated the effects of three coumarin-chalcone derivatives synthesized in our lab on CREB-mediated gene expression. Aβ-GFP- and ΔK280 tau_RD-DsRed-expressing SH-SY5Y cells were used to evaluate these agents for possible antiaggregative, antioxidative, and neuroprotective effects. Blood-brain barrier (BBB) penetration was assessed by pharmacokinetic studies in mice. Of the three tested compounds, (E)-3-(3-(4-(dimethylamino)phenyl)acryloyl)-4-hydroxy-2H-chromen-2-one (LM-021) was observed to increase CREB-mediated gene expression through protein kinase A (PKA), Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII), and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) in CRE-GFP reporter cells. LM-021 exhibited antiaggregative, antioxidative, and neuroprotective effects mediated by the upregulation of CREB phosphorylation and its downstream brain-derived neurotrophic factor and BCL2 apoptosis regulator genes in Aβ-GFP- and ΔK280 tau_RD-DsRed-expressing SH-SY5Y cells. Blockage of the PKA, CaMKII, or ERK pathway counteracted the beneficial effects of LM-021. LM-021 also exhibited good BBB penetration ability, with brain to plasma ratio of 5.3%, in in vivo pharmacokinetic assessment. Our results indicate that LM-021 works as a CREB enhancer to reduce Aβ and tau aggregation and provide neuroprotection. These findings suggest the therapeutic potential of LM-021 in treating AD.

AKAP9 supports spermatogenesis through its effects on microtubule and actin cytoskeletons in the rat testis

In mammalian testes, extensive remodeling of the microtubule (MT) and actin cytoskeletons takes place in Sertoli cells across the seminiferous epithelium to support spermatogenesis. However, the mechanism(s) involving regulatory and signaling proteins remains poorly understood. Herein, A-kinase anchoring protein 9 (AKAP9, a member of the AKAP multivalent scaffold protein family) was shown to be one of these crucial regulatory proteins in the rat testis. Earlier studies have shown that AKAP9 serves as a signaling platform by recruiting multiple signaling and regulatory proteins to create a large protein complex that binds to the Golgi and centrosome to facilitate the assembly of the MT-nucleating γ-tubulin ring complex to initiate MT polymerization. We further expanded our earlier studies based on a Sertoli cell-specific AKAP9 knockout mouse model to probe the function of AKAP9 by using the techniques of immunofluorescence analysis, RNA interference (RNAi), and biochemical assays on an in vitro primary Sertoli cell culture model, and an adjudin-based animal model. AKAP9 robustly expressed across the seminiferous epithelium in adult rat testes, colocalizing with MT-based tracks, and laid perpendicular across the seminiferous epithelium, and prominently expressed at the Sertoli-spermatid cell-cell anchoring junction (called apical ectoplasmic specialization [ES]) and at the Sertoli cell-cell interface (called basal ES, which together with tight junction [TJ] created the blood-testis barrier [BTB]) stage specifically. AKAP9 knockdown in Sertoli cells by RNAi was found to perturb the TJ-permeability barrier through disruptive changes in the distribution of BTB-associated proteins at the Sertoli cell cortical zone, mediated by a considerable loss of ability to induce both MT polymerization and actin filament bundling. A considerable decline in AKAP9 expression and a disruptive distribution of AKAP9 across the seminiferous tubules was also noted during adjudin-induced germ cell (GC) exfoliation in this animal model, illustrating AKAP9 is essential to maintain the homeostasis of cytoskeletons to maintain Sertoli and GC adhesion in the testis.

Mitochondrial PKA Is Neuroprotective in a Cell Culture Model of Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive memory loss and cognitive decline. In hippocampal neurons, the pathological features of AD include the accumulation of extracellular amyloid-beta peptide (Aβ) accompanied by oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and neuron loss. A decrease in neuroprotective Protein Kinase A (PKA) signaling contributes to mitochondrial fragmentation and neurodegeneration in AD. By associating with the protein scaffold Dual-Specificity Anchoring Protein 1 (D-AKAP1), PKA is targeted to mitochondria to promote mitochondrial fusion by phosphorylating the fission modulator dynamin-related protein 1 (Drp1). We hypothesized that (1) a decrease in the endogenous level of endogenous D-AKAP1 contributes to decreased PKA signaling in mitochondria and that (2) restoring PKA signaling in mitochondria can reverse neurodegeneration and mitochondrial fragmentation in neurons in AD models. Through immunohistochemistry, we showed that endogenous D-AKAP1, but not other mitochondrial proteins, is significantly reduced in primary neurons treated with Aβ42 peptide (10μM, 24 h), and in the hippocampus and cortex from asymptomatic and symptomatic AD mice (5X-FAD). Transiently expressing wild-type, but not a PKA-binding deficient mutant of D-AKAP1, was able to reduce mitochondrial fission, dendrite retraction, and apoptosis in primary neurons treated with Aβ42. Mechanistically, the protective effects of D-AKAP1/PKA are moderated through PKA-mediated phosphorylation of Drp1, as transiently expressing a PKA phosphomimetic mutant of Drp1 (Drp1-S656D) phenocopies D-AKAP1's ability to reduce Aβ42-mediated apoptosis and mitochondrial fission. Overall, our data suggest that a loss of D-AKAP1/PKA contributes to mitochondrial pathology and neurodegeneration in an in vitro cell culture model of AD.

Hypoxia-induced circular RNA hsa_circ_0008450 accelerates hepatocellular cancer progression via the miR-431/AKAP1 axis

Hypoxia facilitates the progression of numerous cancers. Circular RNAs (circRNA) have been revealed to be involved in the process of tumors mediated by hypoxia. However, the role and molecular mechanism of circular RNA hsa_circ_0008450 (circ_0008450) in hepatocellular cancer (HCC) under hypoxic conditions has been rarely reported. Expression levels of circ_0008450, microRNA(miR)-431 and A-kinase anchor protein 1 (AKAP1) were examined using reverse transcription-quantitative PCR. Cell viability, apoptosis and glycolysis were assessed via Cell Counting Kit-8, flow cytometry and glycolysis assays, respectively. The association between circ_0008450 or AKAP1 and miR-431 was verified via dual-luciferase reporter assays. Protein levels of AKAP1 were detected by western blotting. Effect of hsa_circ_0008450 on tumor growth in vivo was confirmed by xenograft assays. Circ_0008450 was upregulated in HCC tissues and hypoxia-disposed HCC cells. Depletion of circ_0008450 suppressed tumor growth in vivo and reversed the repression of apoptosis and the acceleration of viability and glycolysis of HCC cells induced by hypoxia treatment in vitro. Notably, circ_0008450 regulated AKAP1 expression by sponging miR-431. Furthermore, miR-431 inhibition reversed the circ_0008450 silencing-mediated effects on viability, apoptosis and glycolysis in hypoxia-treated HCC cells. Additionally, AKAP1 enhancement abolished the effects of miR-431 upregulation on the viability, apoptosis and glycolysis in hypoxia-treated HCC cells. In conclusion, circ_0008450 repression mitigated the progression of HCC under hypoxia by downregulating AKAP1 via miR-431, providing a potential target for HCC treatment.

PKA functions in metabolism and resistance to obesity: lessons from mouse and human studies

Both direct and indirect evidence demonstrate a central role for the cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA) signaling pathway in the regulation of energy balance and metabolism across multiple systems. However, the ubiquitous pattern of PKA expression across cell types poses a challenge in pinpointing its tissue-specific regulatory functions and further characterizing its many downstream effects in certain organs or cells. Mouse models of PKA deficiency and over-expression and studies in living cells have helped clarify PKA function in adipose tissue (AT), liver, adrenal, pancreas, and specific brain nuclei, as they pertain to energy balance and metabolic dysregulation. Limited studies in humans suggest differential regulation of PKA in AT of obese compared to lean individuals and an overall dysregulation of PKA signaling in obesity. Despite its complexity, under normal physiologic conditions, the PKA system is tightly regulated by changes in cAMP concentrations upstream via adenylate cyclase and downstream by phosphodiesterase-mediated cAMP degradation to AMP and by changes in PKA holoenzyme stability. Adjustments in the PKA system appear to be important to the development and maintenance of the obese state and its associated metabolic perturbations. In this review we discuss the important role of PKA in obesity and its involvement in resistance to obesity, through studies in humans and in mouse models, with a focus on the regulation of PKA in energy expenditure, intake behavior, and lipid and glucose metabolism.

Combined transcriptome and proteome profiling of the pancreatic β-cell response to palmitate unveils key pathways of β-cell lipotoxicity

BACKGROUND

Prolonged exposure to elevated free fatty acids induces β-cell failure (lipotoxicity) and contributes to the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes. In vitro exposure of β-cells to the saturated free fatty acid palmitate is a valuable model of lipotoxicity, reproducing features of β-cell failure observed in type 2 diabetes. In order to map the β-cell response to lipotoxicity, we combined RNA-sequencing of palmitate-treated human islets with iTRAQ proteomics of insulin-secreting INS-1E cells following a time course exposure to palmitate.

RESULTS

Crossing transcriptome and proteome of palmitate-treated β-cells revealed 85 upregulated and 122 downregulated genes at both transcript and protein level. Pathway analysis identified lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, amino-acid metabolism and cell cycle pathways among the most enriched palmitate-modified pathways. Palmitate induced gene expression changes compatible with increased free fatty acid mitochondrial import and β-oxidation, decreased lipogenesis and modified cholesterol transport. Palmitate modified genes regulating endoplasmic reticulum (ER) function, ER-to-Golgi transport and ER stress pathways. Furthermore, palmitate modulated cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA) signaling, inhibiting expression of PKA anchoring proteins and downregulating the GLP-1 receptor. SLC7 family amino-acid transporters were upregulated in response to palmitate but this induction did not contribute to β-cell demise. To unravel critical mediators of lipotoxicity upstream of the palmitate-modified genes, we identified overrepresented transcription factor binding sites and performed network inference analysis. These identified LXR, PPARα, FOXO1 and BACH1 as key transcription factors orchestrating the metabolic and oxidative stress responses to palmitate.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first study to combine transcriptomic and sensitive time course proteomic profiling of palmitate-exposed β-cells. Our results provide comprehensive insight into gene and protein expression changes, corroborating and expanding beyond previous findings. The identification of critical drivers and pathways of the β-cell lipotoxic response points to novel therapeutic targets for type 2 diabetes.

Mitochondrial Homeostasis and Signaling in Parkinson's Disease

The loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra leads to a progressive, long-term decline of movement and other non-motor deficits. The symptoms of Parkinson's disease (PD) often appear later in the course of the disease, when most of the functional dopaminergic neurons have been lost. The late onset of the disease, the severity of the illness, and its impact on the global health system demand earlier diagnosis and better targeted therapy. PD etiology and pathogenesis are largely unknown. There are mutations in genes that have been linked to PD and, from these complex phenotypes, mitochondrial dysfunction emerged as central in the pathogenesis and evolution of PD. In fact, several PD-associated genes negatively impact on mitochondria physiology, supporting the notion that dysregulation of mitochondrial signaling and homeostasis is pathogenically relevant. Derangement of mitochondrial homeostatic controls can lead to oxidative stress and neuronal cell death. Restoring deranged signaling cascades to and from mitochondria in PD neurons may then represent a viable opportunity to reset energy metabolism and delay the death of dopaminergic neurons. Here, we will highlight the relevance of dysfunctional mitochondrial homeostasis and signaling in PD, the molecular mechanisms involved, and potential therapeutic approaches to restore mitochondrial activities in damaged neurons.

Synemin Redefined: Multiple Binding Partners Results in Multifunctionality

Historically synemin has been studied as an intermediate filament protein. However, synemin also binds the type II regulatory (R) subunit α of protein kinase A (PKA) and protein phosphatase type 2A, thus participating in the PKA and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)-Akt and signaling pathways. In addition, recent studies using transgenic mice indicate that a significant function of synemin is its role in signaling pathways in various tissues, including the heart. Recent clinical reports have shown that synemin mutations led to multiple cases of dilated cardiomyopathy. Additionally, a single case of the rare condition ulnar-mammary-like syndrome with left ventricular tachycardia due to a mutation in the synemin gene (SYNM) has been reported. Therefore, this review uses these recent studies to provide a new framework for detailed discussions on synemin tissue distribution, binding partners and synemin in disease. Differences between α- and β-synemin are highlighted. The studies presented here indicate that while synemin does function as an intermediate filament protein, it is unique among this large family of proteins as it is also a regulator of signaling pathways and a crosslinker. Also evident is that the dominant function(s) are isoform-, developmental-, and tissue-specific.

Feedback inhibition of cAMP effector signaling by a chaperone-assisted ubiquitin system

Activation of G-protein coupled receptors elevates cAMP levels promoting dissociation of protein kinase A (PKA) holoenzymes and release of catalytic subunits (PKAc). This results in PKAc-mediated phosphorylation of compartmentalized substrates that control central aspects of cell physiology. The mechanism of PKAc activation and signaling have been largely characterized. However, the modes of PKAc inactivation by regulated proteolysis were unknown. Here, we identify a regulatory mechanism that precisely tunes PKAc stability and downstream signaling. Following agonist stimulation, the recruitment of the chaperone-bound E3 ligase CHIP promotes ubiquitylation and proteolysis of PKAc, thus attenuating cAMP signaling. Genetic inactivation of CHIP or pharmacological inhibition of HSP70 enhances PKAc signaling and sustains hippocampal long-term potentiation. Interestingly, primary fibroblasts from autosomal recessive spinocerebellar ataxia 16 (SCAR16) patients carrying germline inactivating mutations of CHIP show a dramatic dysregulation of PKA signaling. This suggests the existence of a negative feedback mechanism for restricting hormonally controlled PKA activities.

Loss of Akap1 Exacerbates Pressure Overload-Induced Cardiac Hypertrophy and Heart Failure

Left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is a major contributor to the development of heart failure (HF). Alterations in cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent signaling pathways participate in cardiomyocyte hypertrophy and mitochondrial dysfunction occurring in LVH and HF. cAMP signals are received and integrated by a family of cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA) anchor proteins (AKAPs), tethering PKA to discrete cellular locations. AKAPs encoded by the Akap1 gene (mitoAKAPs) promote PKA mitochondrial targeting, regulating mitochondrial structure and function, reactive oxygen species production, and cell survival. To determine the role of mitoAKAPs in LVH development, in the present investigation, mice with global genetic deletion of Akap1 (Akap1-/-), Akap1 heterozygous (Akap1+/-), and their wild-type (wt) littermates underwent transverse aortic constriction (TAC) or SHAM procedure for 1 week. In wt mice, pressure overload induced the downregulation of AKAP121, the major cardiac mitoAKAP. Compared to wt, Akap1-/- mice did not display basal alterations in cardiac structure or function and cardiomyocyte size or fibrosis. However, loss of Akap1 exacerbated LVH and cardiomyocyte hypertrophy induced by pressure overload and accelerated the progression toward HF in TAC mice, and these changes were not observed upon prevention of AKAP121 degradation in seven in absentia homolog 2 (Siah2) knockout mice (Siah2-/-). Loss of Akap1 was also associated to a significant increase in cardiac apoptosis as well as lack of activation of Akt signaling after pressure overload. Taken together, these results demonstrate that in vivo genetic deletion of Akap1 enhances LVH development and accelerates pressure overload-induced cardiac dysfunction, pointing at Akap1 as a novel repressor of pathological LVH. These results confirm and extend the important role of mitoAKAPs in cardiac response to stress.

Mitochondrial cAMP-PKA signaling: What do we really know?

Mitochondria are key organelles for cellular homeostasis. They generate the most part of ATP that is used by cells through oxidative phosphorylation. They also produce reactive oxygen species, neurotransmitters and other signaling molecules. They are important for calcium homeostasis and apoptosis. Considering the role of this organelle, it is not surprising that most mitochondrial dysfunctions are linked to the development of pathologies. Various mechanisms adjust mitochondrial activity according to physiological needs. The cAMP-PKA signaling emerged in recent years as a direct and powerful mean to regulate mitochondrial functions. Multiple evidence demonstrates that such pathway can be triggered from cytosol or directly within mitochondria. Notably, specific anchor proteins target PKA to mitochondria whereas enzymes necessary for generation and degradation of cAMP are found directly in these organelles. Mitochondrial PKA targets proteins localized in different compartments of mitochondria, and related to various functions. Alterations of mitochondrial cAMP-PKA signaling affect the development of several physiopathological conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases. It is however difficult to discriminate between the effects of cAMP-PKA signaling triggered from cytosol or directly in mitochondria. The specific roles of PKA localized in different mitochondrial compartments are also not completely understood. The aim of this work is to review the role of cAMP-PKA signaling in mitochondrial (patho)physiology.

Intracellular cAMP Sensor EPAC: Physiology, Pathophysiology, and Therapeutics Development

This review focuses on one family of the known cAMP receptors, the exchange proteins directly activated by cAMP (EPACs), also known as the cAMP-regulated guanine nucleotide exchange factors (cAMP-GEFs). Although EPAC proteins are fairly new additions to the growing list of cAMP effectors, and relatively "young" in the cAMP discovery timeline, the significance of an EPAC presence in different cell systems is extraordinary. The study of EPACs has considerably expanded the diversity and adaptive nature of cAMP signaling associated with numerous physiological and pathophysiological responses. This review comprehensively covers EPAC protein functions at the molecular, cellular, physiological, and pathophysiological levels; and in turn, the applications of employing EPAC-based biosensors as detection tools for dissecting cAMP signaling and the implications for targeting EPAC proteins for therapeutic development are also discussed.

Akap1 genetic deletion increases the severity of hyperoxia-induced acute lung injury in mice

Critically ill patients are commonly treated with high levels of oxygen, hyperoxia, for prolonged periods of time. Unfortunately, extended exposure to hyperoxia can exacerbate respiratory failure and lead to a high mortality rate. Mitochondrial A-kinase anchoring protein (Akap) has been shown to regulate mitochondrial function. It has been reported that, under hypoxic conditions, Akap121 undergoes proteolytic degradation and promotes cardiac injury. However, the role of Akap1 in hyperoxia-induced acute lung injury (ALI) is largely unknown. To address this gap in our understanding of Akap1, we exposed wild-type ( wt) and Akap1^-/- mice to 100% oxygen for 48 h, a time point associated with lung damage in the murine model of ALI. We found that under hyperoxia, Akap1^-/- mice display increased levels of proinflammatory cytokines, immune cell infiltration, and protein leakage in lungs, as well as increased alveolar capillary permeability compared with wt controls. Further analysis revealed that Akap1 deletion enhances lung NF-κB p65 activity as assessed by immunoblotting and DNA-binding assay and mitochondrial autophagy-related markers, PINK1 and Parkin. Ultrastructural analysis using electron microscopy revealed that Akap1 deletion was associated with remarkably aberrant mitochondria and lamellar bodies in type II alveolar epithelial cells. Taken together, these results demonstrate that Akap1 genetic deletion increases the severity of hyperoxia-induced acute lung injury in mice.

Role of A-kinase anchoring protein 95 in the regulation of cytochrome P450 family 19 subfamily A member 1 (CYP19A1) in human ovarian granulosa cells

Irregular expression of cytochrome P450 family 19 subfamily A member 1 (CYP19A1) is involved in the development of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Activation of the cAMP/protein kinase A (PKA)/cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) pathway plays a crucial role in FSH regulation of CYP19A1 in human ovarian granulosa cells. A-Kinase anchor protein 95 (AKAP95) is known to confine PKA to the nucleus. However, it is unclear whether anchoring PKA to the nucleus is essential for the induction of CYP19A1 by FSH in human ovarian granulosa cells. Using the human granulosa cell line KGN and primary cultured human luteinised granulosa cells (hLGCs), we found that knockdown of AKAP8, the gene encoding AKAP95, or inhibition of AKAP95 reduced the amount of PKA anchored in the nucleus and attenuated the phosphorylation of CREB by either FSH or activation of the cAMP/PKA pathway. Moreover, knockdown of AKAP8 or inhibition of AKAP95 also significantly attenuated FSH-induced CYP19A1 expression and oestrogen synthesis. Furthermore, significant decreases in AKAP95 and CYP19A1 were observed in hLGCs obtained from PCOS patients. The results of the present study demonstrate a crucial role for AKAP95 in CYP19A1 expression and oestrogen synthesis in hLGCs, which implies that AKAP95 may be involved in the pathogenesis of PCOS.

AKAP95-mediated nuclear anchoring of PKA mediates cortisol-induced PTGS2 expression in human amnion fibroblasts

Phosphorylation of the transcription factors cyclic adenosine monophosphate response element-binding protein (CREB) and signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) by protein kinase A (PKA) is required for the cortisol-induced production of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) in human amnion fibroblasts, which critically mediates human parturition (labor). We found that PKA was confined in the nucleus by A-kinase-anchoring protein 95 (AKAP95) in amnion fibroblasts and that this localization was key to the cortisol-induced expression of PTGS2, the gene encoding COX-2. Cortisol increased the abundance of nuclear PKA by stimulating the expression of the gene encoding AKAP95. Knockdown of AKAP95 not only reduced the amounts of nuclear PKA and phosphorylated CREB but also attenuated the induction of PTGS2 expression in primary human amnion fibroblasts treated with cortisol, whereas the phosphorylation of STAT3 in response to cortisol was not affected. The abundances of AKAP95, phosphorylated CREB, and COX-2 were markedly increased in human amnion tissue after labor compared to those in amnion tissues from cesarean sections without labor. These results highlight an essential role for PKA that is anchored in the nucleus by AKAP95 in the phosphorylation of CREB and the consequent induction of COX-2 expression by cortisol in amnion fibroblasts, which may be important in human parturition.

PKA Regulates PINK1 Stability and Parkin Recruitment to Damaged Mitochondria through Phosphorylation of MIC60

A mitochondrial kinase, PTEN-induced putative kinase 1 (PINK1), selectively recruits the ubiquitin ligase Parkin to damaged mitochondria, which modifies mitochondria by polyubiquitination, leading to mitochondrial autophagy. Here, we report that treatment with an adenylate cyclase agonist or expression of protein kinase A (PKA) impairs Parkin recruitment to damaged mitochondria and decreases PINK1 protein levels. We identified a mitochondrial membrane protein, MIC60 (also known as mitofilin), as a PKA substrate. Mutational and mass spectrometric analyses revealed that the Ser528 residue of MIC60 undergoes PKA-dependent phosphorylation. MIC60 transiently interacts with PINK1, and MIC60 downregulation leads to a reduction in PINK1 and mislocalization of Parkin. Phosphorylation-mimic mutants of MIC60 fail to restore the defect in Parkin recruitment in MIC60-knocked down cells, whereas a phosphorylation-deficient MIC60 mutant facilitates the mitochondrial localization of Parkin. Our findings indicate that PKA-mediated phosphorylation of MIC60 negatively regulates mitochondrial clearance that is initiated by PINK1 and Parkin.

The opioid receptor triple agonist DPI-125 produces analgesia with less respiratory depression and reduced abuse liability

Opioid analgesics remain the first choice for the treatment of moderate to severe pain, but they are also notorious for their respiratory depression and addictive effects. This study focused on the pharmacology of a novel opioid receptor mixed agonist DPI-125 and attempted to elucidate the relationship between the δ-, μ- and κ-receptor potency ratio and respiratory depression and abuse liability. Five diarylmethylpiperazine compounds (DPI-125, DPI-3290, DPI-130, KUST202 and KUST13T02) were selected for this study. PKA fluorescence redistribution assays in CHO cells individually expressing δ-, μ- or κ-receptors were used to measure the agonist potency. The respiratory safety profiles were estimated in rats by the ratio of ED₅₀ (pCO₂ increase)/ED₅₀ (antinociception). The abuse liability of DPI-125 was evaluated with a self-administration model in rhesus monkeys. The observed agonist potencies of DPI-125 for δ-, μ- and κ-opioid receptors were 4.29±0.36, 11.10±3.04, and 16.57±4.14 nmol/L, respectively. The other four compounds were also mixed agonists with varying potencies. DPI-125 exhibited a high respiratory safety profile, clearly related to its high δ-receptor potency. The ratio of the EC₅₀ potencies for the μ- and δ-receptors was found to be positively correlated with the respiratory safety ratio. DPI-125 has similar potencies for μ- and κ-receptors, which is likely the reason for its reduced abuse potential. Our results demonstrate that the opioid receptor mixed agonist DPI-125 is safer and less addictive than traditional μ-agonist analgesics. These findings suggest that the development of δ>μ∼κ opioid receptor mixed agonists is feasible, and such compounds could represent a promising class of potent analgesics with wider therapeutic windows.

PINK1 regulates mitochondrial trafficking in dendrites of cortical neurons through mitochondrial PKA

Mitochondrial Protein Kinase A (PKA) and PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1), which is linked to Parkinson's disease, are two neuroprotective serine/threonine kinases that regulate dendrite remodeling and mitochondrial function. We have previously shown that PINK1 regulates dendrite morphology by enhancing PKA activity. Here, we show the molecular mechanisms by which PINK1 and PKA in the mitochondrion interact to regulate dendrite remodeling, mitochondrial morphology, content, and trafficking in dendrites. PINK1-deficient cortical neurons exhibit impaired mitochondrial trafficking, reduced mitochondrial content, fragmented mitochondria, and a reduction in dendrite outgrowth compared to wild-type neurons. Transient expression of wild-type, but not a PKA-binding-deficient mutant of the PKA-mitochondrial scaffold dual-specificity A Kinase Anchoring Protein 1 (D-AKAP1), restores mitochondrial trafficking, morphology, and content in dendrites of PINK1-deficient cortical neurons suggesting that recruiting PKA to the mitochondrion reverses mitochondrial pathology in dendrites induced by loss of PINK1. Mechanistically, full-length and cleaved forms of PINK1 increase the binding of the regulatory subunit β of PKA (PKA/RIIβ) to D-AKAP1 to enhance the autocatalytic-mediated phosphorylation of PKA/RIIβ and PKA activity. D-AKAP1/PKA governs mitochondrial trafficking in dendrites via the Miro-2/TRAK2 complex and by increasing the phosphorylation of Miro-2. Our study identifies a new role of D-AKAP1 in regulating mitochondrial trafficking through Miro-2, and supports a model in which PINK1 and mitochondrial PKA participate in a similar neuroprotective signaling pathway to maintain dendrite connectivity.

Mitochondrial AKAP1 supports mTOR pathway and tumor growth

Mitochondria are the powerhouses of energy production and the sites where metabolic pathway and survival signals integrate and focus, promoting adaptive responses to hormone stimulation and nutrient availability. Increasing evidence suggests that mitochondrial bioenergetics, metabolism and signaling are linked to tumorigenesis. AKAP1 scaffolding protein integrates cAMP and src signaling on mitochondria, regulating organelle biogenesis, oxidative metabolism and cell survival. Here, we provide evidence that AKAP1 is a transcriptional target of Myc and supports the growth of cancer cells. We identify Sestrin2, a leucine sensor and inhibitor of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), as a novel component of the complex assembled by AKAP1 on mitochondria. Downregulation of AKAP1 impaired mTOR pathway and inhibited glioblastoma growth. Both effects were reversed by concomitant depletion of AKAP1 and sestrin2. High levels of AKAP1 were found in a wide variety of high-grade cancer tissues. In lung cancer, AKAP1 expression correlates with high levels of Myc, mTOR phosphorylation and reduced patient survival. Collectively, these data disclose a previously unrecognized role of AKAP1 in mTOR pathway regulation and cancer growth. AKAP1/mTOR signal integration on mitochondria may provide a new target for cancer therapy.

A-kinase anchoring protein BIG3 coordinates oestrogen signalling in breast cancer cells

Approximately 70% of breast cancer cells express oestrogen receptor alpha (ERα). Previous studies have shown that the Brefeldin A-inhibited guanine nucleotide-exchange protein 3–prohibitin 2 (BIG3-PHB2) complex has a crucial role in these cells. However, it remains unclear how BIG3 regulates the suppressive activity of PHB2. Here we demonstrate that BIG3 functions as an A-kinase anchoring protein that binds protein kinase A (PKA) and the α isoform of the catalytic subunit of protein phosphatase 1 (PP1Cα), thereby dephosphorylating and inactivating PHB2. E2-induced PKA-mediated phosphorylation of BIG3-S305 and -S1208 serves to enhance PP1Cα activity, resulting in E2/ERα signalling activation via PHB2 inactivation due to PHB2-S39 dephosphorylation. Furthermore, an analysis of independent cohorts of ERα-positive breast cancers patients reveal that both BIG3 overexpression and PHB2-S39 dephosphorylation are strongly associated with poor prognosis. This is the first demonstration of the mechanism of E2/ERα signalling activation via the BIG3–PKA–PP1Cα tri-complex in breast cancer cells.

BIG3 is highly expressed in breast cancers and its interaction with PHB2 results in constitutive activation of E2/ERa signalling. Here the authors unveil the mechanistic details of this regulation showing that BIG3 binds PKA and regulates PP1Ca activity in an oestrogen-dependent manner.

Differential expression of the protein kinase A subunits in normal adrenal glands and adrenocortical adenomas

Somatic mutations in protein kinase A catalytic α subunit (PRKACA) were found to be causative for 30-40% of cortisol-producing adenomas (CPA) of the adrenal gland, rendering PKA signalling constitutively active. In its resting state, PKA is a stable and inactive heterotetramer, consisting of two catalytic and two regulatory subunits with the latter inhibiting PKA activity. The human genome encodes three different PKA catalytic subunits and four different regulatory subunits that are preferentially expressed in different organs. In normal adrenal glands all regulatory subunits are expressed, while CPA exhibit reduced protein levels of the regulatory subunit IIβ. In this study, we linked for the first time the loss of RIIβ protein levels to the PRKACA mutation status and found the down-regulation of RIIβ to arise post-transcriptionally. We further found the PKA subunit expression pattern of different tumours is also present in the zones of the normal adrenal cortex and demonstrate that the different PKA subunits have a differential expression pattern in each zone of the normal adrenal gland, indicating potential specific roles of these subunits in the regulation of different hormones secretion.

Molecular Mechanisms for cAMP-Mediated Immunoregulation in T cells - Role of Anchored Protein Kinase A Signaling Units

The cyclic AMP/protein kinase A (cAMP/PKA) pathway is one of the most common and versatile signal pathways in eukaryotic cells. A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) target PKA to specific substrates and distinct subcellular compartments providing spatial and temporal specificity for mediation of biological effects channeled through the cAMP/PKA pathway. In the immune system, cAMP is a potent negative regulator of T cell receptor-mediated activation of effector T cells (Teff) acting through a proximal PKA/Csk/Lck pathway anchored via a scaffold consisting of the AKAP Ezrin holding PKA, the linker protein EBP50, and the anchoring protein phosphoprotein associated with glycosphingolipid-enriched microdomains holding Csk. As PKA activates Csk and Csk inhibits Lck, this pathway in response to cAMP shuts down proximal T cell activation. This immunomodulating pathway in Teff mediates clinically important responses to regulatory T cell (Treg) suppression and inflammatory mediators, such as prostaglandins (PGs), adrenergic stimuli, adenosine, and a number of other ligands. A major inducer of T cell cAMP levels is PG E2 (PGE2) acting through EP2 and EP4 prostanoid receptors. PGE2 plays a crucial role in the normal physiological control of immune homeostasis as well as in inflammation and cancer immune evasion. Peripherally induced Tregs express cyclooxygenase-2, secrete PGE2, and elicit the immunosuppressive cAMP pathway in Teff as one tumor immune evasion mechanism. Moreover, a cAMP increase can also be induced by indirect mechanisms, such as intercellular transfer between T cells. Indeed, Treg, known to have elevated levels of intracellular cAMP, may mediate their suppressive function by transferring cAMP to Teff through gap junctions, which we speculate could also be regulated by PKA/AKAP complexes. In this review, we present an updated overview on the influence of cAMP-mediated immunoregulatory mechanisms acting through localized cAMP signaling and the therapeutical increasing prospects of AKAPs disruptors in T-cell immune function.

Toxoplasma gondii Cyclic AMP-Dependent Protein Kinase Subunit 3 Is Involved in the Switch from Tachyzoite to Bradyzoite Development

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular apicomplexan parasite that infects warm-blooded vertebrates, including humans. Asexual reproduction in T. gondii allows it to switch between the rapidly replicating tachyzoite and quiescent bradyzoite life cycle stages. A transient cyclic AMP (cAMP) pulse promotes bradyzoite differentiation, whereas a prolonged elevation of cAMP inhibits this process. We investigated the mechanism(s) by which differential modulation of cAMP exerts a bidirectional effect on parasite differentiation. There are three protein kinase A (PKA) catalytic subunits (TgPKAc1 to -3) expressed in T. gondii. Unlike TgPKAc1 and TgPKAc2, which are conserved in the phylum Apicomplexa, TgPKAc3 appears evolutionarily divergent and specific to coccidian parasites. TgPKAc1 and TgPKAc2 are distributed in the cytomembranes, whereas TgPKAc3 resides in the cytosol. TgPKAc3 was genetically ablated in a type II cyst-forming strain of T. gondii (PruΔku80Δhxgprt) and in a type I strain (RHΔku80Δhxgprt), which typically does not form cysts. The Δpkac3 mutant exhibited slower growth than the parental and complemented strains, which correlated with a higher basal rate of tachyzoite-to-bradyzoite differentiation. 3-Isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX) treatment, which elevates cAMP levels, maintained wild-type parasites as tachyzoites under bradyzoite induction culture conditions (pH 8.2/low CO₂), whereas the Δpkac3 mutant failed to respond to the treatment. This suggests that TgPKAc3 is the factor responsible for the cAMP-dependent tachyzoite maintenance. In addition, the Δpkac3 mutant had a defect in the production of brain cysts in vivo, suggesting that a substrate of TgPKAc3 is probably involved in the persistence of this parasite in the intermediate host animals.

Toxoplasma gondii is one of the most prevalent eukaryotic parasites in mammals, including humans. Parasites can switch from rapidly replicating tachyzoites responsible for acute infection to slowly replicating bradyzoites that persist as a latent infection. Previous studies have demonstrated that T. gondii cAMP signaling can induce or suppress bradyzoite differentiation, depending on the strength and duration of cAMP signal. Here, we report that TgPKAc3 is responsible for cAMP-dependent tachyzoite maintenance while suppressing differentiation into bradyzoites, revealing one mechanism underlying how this parasite transduces cAMP signals during differentiation.

Akap1 Deficiency Promotes Mitochondrial Aberrations and Exacerbates Cardiac Injury Following Permanent Coronary Ligation via Enhanced Mitophagy and Apoptosis

A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) transmit signals cues from seven-transmembrane receptors to specific sub-cellular locations. Mitochondrial AKAPs encoded by the Akap1 gene have been shown to modulate mitochondrial function and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in the heart. Under conditions of hypoxia, mitochondrial AKAP121 undergoes proteolytic degradation mediated, at least in part, by the E3 ubiquitin ligase Seven In-Absentia Homolog 2 (Siah2). In the present study we hypothesized that Akap1 might be crucial to preserve mitochondrial function and structure, and cardiac responses to myocardial ischemia. To test this, eight-week-old Akap1 knockout mice (Akap1-/-), Siah2 knockout mice (Siah2-/-) or their wild-type (wt) littermates underwent myocardial infarction (MI) by permanent left coronary artery ligation. Age and gender matched mice of either genotype underwent a left thoracotomy without coronary ligation and were used as controls (sham). Twenty-four hours after coronary ligation, Akap1-/- mice displayed larger infarct size compared to Siah2-/- or wt mice. One week after MI, cardiac function and survival were also significantly reduced in Akap1-/- mice, while cardiac fibrosis was significantly increased. Akap1 deletion was associated with remarkable mitochondrial structural abnormalities at electron microscopy, increased ROS production and reduced mitochondrial function after MI. These alterations were associated with enhanced cardiac mitophagy and apoptosis. Autophagy inhibition by 3-methyladenine significantly reduced apoptosis and ameliorated cardiac dysfunction following MI in Akap1-/- mice. These results demonstrate that Akap1 deficiency promotes cardiac mitochondrial aberrations and mitophagy, enhancing infarct size, pathological cardiac remodeling and mortality under ischemic conditions. Thus, mitochondrial AKAPs might represent important players in the development of post-ischemic cardiac remodeling and novel therapeutic targets.

Regulation of mitochondrial functions by protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation

The mitochondria are double membrane-bound organelles found in most eukaryotic cells. They generate most of the cell’s energy supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are critical mechanisms in the regulation of cell signaling networks and are essential for almost all the cellular functions. For many decades, mitochondria were considered autonomous organelles merely functioning to generate energy for cells to survive and proliferate, and were thought to be independent of the cellular signaling networks. Consequently, phosphorylation and dephosphorylation processes of mitochondrial kinases and phosphatases were largely neglected. However, evidence accumulated in recent years on mitochondria-localized kinases/phosphatases has changed this longstanding view. Mitochondria are increasingly recognized as a hub for cell signaling, and many kinases and phosphatases have been reported to localize in mitochondria and play important functions. However, the strength of the evidence on mitochondrial localization and the activities of the reported kinases and phosphatases vary greatly, and the detailed mechanisms on how these kinases/phosphatases translocate to mitochondria, their subsequent function, and the physiological and pathological implications of their localization are still poorly understood. Here, we provide an updated perspective on the recent advancement in this area, with an emphasis on the implications of mitochondrial kinases/phosphatases in cancer and several other diseases.

Yessotoxin, a Promising Therapeutic Tool

Yessotoxin (YTX) is a polyether compound produced by dinoflagellates and accumulated in filter feeding shellfish. No records about human intoxications induced by this compound have been published, however it is considered a toxin. Modifications in second messenger levels, protein levels, immune cells, cytoskeleton or activation of different cellular death types have been published as consequence of YTX exposure. This review summarizes the main intracellular pathways modulated by YTX and their pharmacological and therapeutic implications.

Multiple functions of syncytiotrophoblast mitochondria

The human placenta plays a central role in pregnancy, and the syncytiotrophoblast cells are the main components of the placenta that support the relationship between the mother and fetus, in apart through the production of progesterone. In this review, the metabolic processes performed by syncytiotrophoblast mitochondria associated with placental steroidogenesis are described. The metabolism of cholesterol, specifically how this steroid hormone precursor reaches the mitochondria, and its transformation into progesterone are reviewed. The role of nucleotides in steroidogenesis, as well as the mechanisms associated with signal transduction through protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of proteins is discussed. Finally, topics that require further research are identified, including the need for new techniques to study the syncytiotrophoblast in situ using non-invasive methods.

Role of protein kinase A in regulating mitochondrial function and neuronal development: implications to neurodegenerative diseases

In neurons, enhanced protein kinase A (PKA) signaling elevates synaptic plasticity, promotes neuronal development, and increases dopamine synthesis. By contrast, a decline in PKA signaling contributes to the etiology of several brain degenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, suggesting that PKA predominantly plays a neuroprotective role. A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs) are large multidomain scaffold proteins that target PKA and other signaling molecules to distinct subcellular sites to strategically localize PKA signaling at dendrites, dendritic spines, cytosol, and axons. PKA can be recruited to the outer mitochondrial membrane by associating with three different AKAPs to regulate mitochondrial dynamics, structure, mitochondrial respiration, trafficking, dendrite morphology, and neuronal survival. In this review, we survey the myriad of essential neuronal functions modulated by PKA but place a special emphasis on mitochondrially localized PKA. Finally, we offer an updated overview of how loss of PKA signaling contributes to the etiology of several brain degenerative diseases.

σ-1 Receptor Inhibition of ASIC1a Channels is Dependent on a Pertussis Toxin-Sensitive G-Protein and an AKAP150/Calcineurin Complex

ASIC1a channels play a major role in various pathophysiological conditions including depression, anxiety, epilepsy, and neurodegeneration following ischemic stroke. Sigma-1 (σ-1) receptor stimulation depresses the activity of ASIC1a channels in cortical neurons, but the mechanism(s) by which σ-1 receptors exert their influence on ASIC1a remains unknown. Experiments were undertaken to elucidate the signaling cascade linking σ-1 receptors to ASIC1a channels. Immunohistochemical studies showed that σ-1 receptors, ASIC1a and A-kinase anchoring peptide 150 colocalize in the plasma membrane of the cell body and processes of cortical neurons. Fluorometric Ca(2+) imaging experiments showed that disruption of the macromolecular complexes containing AKAP150 diminished the effects of the σ-1 on ASIC1a, as did application of the calcineurin inhibitors, cyclosporin A and FK-506. Moreover, whole-cell patch clamp experiments showed that σ-1 receptors were less effective at decreasing ASIC1a-mediated currents in the presence of the VIVIT peptide, which binds to calcineurin and prevents cellular effects dependent on AKAP150/calcineurin interaction. The coupling of σ-1 to ASIC1a was also disrupted by preincubation of the neurons in the G-protein inhibitor, pertussis toxin (PTX). Taken together, our data reveal that σ-1 receptor block of ASIC1a function is dependent on activation of a PTX-sensitive G-protein and stimulation of AKAP150 bound calcineurin.

Spatiotemporal regulation of cAMP signaling controls the human trophoblast fusion

During human placentation, mononuclear cytotrophoblasts fuse to form multinucleated syncytia ensuring hormonal production and nutrient exchanges between the maternal and fetal circulation. Syncytial formation is essential for the maintenance of pregnancy and for fetal growth. The cAMP signaling pathway is the major route to trigger trophoblast fusion and its activation results in phosphorylation of specific intracellular target proteins, in transcription of fusogenic genes and assembly of macromolecular protein complexes constituting the fusogenic machinery at the plasma membrane. Specificity in cAMP signaling is ensured by generation of localized pools of cAMP controlled by cAMP phosphodiesterases (PDEs) and by discrete spatial and temporal activation of protein kinase A (PKA) in supramolecular signaling clusters inside the cell organized by A-kinase-anchoring proteins (AKAPs) and by organization of signal termination by protein phosphatases (PPs). Here we present original observations on the available components of the cAMP signaling pathway in the human placenta including PKA, PDE, and PP isoforms as well as AKAPs. We continue to discuss the current knowledge of the spatiotemporal regulation of cAMP signaling triggering trophoblast fusion.

A dynamic interface between ubiquitylation and cAMP signaling

Phosphorylation waves drive the propagation of signals generated in response to hormones and growth factors in target cells. cAMP is an ancient second messenger implicated in key biological functions. In mammals, most of the effects elicited by cAMP are mediated by protein kinase A (PKA). Activation of the kinase by cAMP results in the phosphorylation of a variety of cellular substrates, leading to differentiation, proliferation, survival, metabolism. The identification of scaffold proteins, namely A-Kinase Anchor proteins (AKAPs), that localize PKA in specific cellular districts, provided critical cues for our understanding of the role played by cAMP in cell biology. Multivalent complexes are assembled by AKAPs and include signaling enzymes, mRNAs, adapter molecules, receptors and ion channels. A novel development derived from the molecular analysis of these complexes nucleated by AKAPs is represented by the presence of components of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS). More to it, the AKAP complex can be regulated by the UPS, eliciting relevant effects on downstream cAMP signals. This represents a novel, yet previously unpredicted interface between compartmentalized signaling and the UPS. We anticipate that impairment of these regulatory mechanisms could promote cell dysfunction and disease. Here, we will focus on the reciprocal regulation between cAMP signaling and UPS, and its relevance to human degenerative and proliferative disorders.

A Gβ protein and the TupA Co-Regulator Bind to Protein Kinase A Tpk2 to Act as Antagonistic Molecular Switches of Fungal Morphological Changes

The human pathogenic fungus Paracoccidioides brasiliensis (Pb) undergoes a morphological transition from a saprobic mycelium to pathogenic yeast that is controlled by the cAMP-signaling pathway. There is a change in the expression of the Gβ-protein PbGpb1, which interacts with adenylate cyclase, during this morphological transition. We exploited the fact that the cAMP-signaling pathway of Saccharomyces cerevisiae does not include a Gβ-protein to probe the functional role of PbGpb1. We present data that indicates that PbGpb1 and the transcriptional regulator PbTupA both bind to the PKA protein PbTpk2. PbTPK2 was able to complement a TPK2Δ strain of S. cerevisiae, XPY5a/α, which was defective in pseudohyphal growth. Whilst PbGPB1 had no effect on the parent S. cerevisiae strain, MLY61a/α, it repressed the filamentous growth of XPY5a/α transformed with PbTPK2, behaviour that correlated with a reduced expression of the floculin FLO11. In vitro, PbGpb1 reduced the kinase activity of PbTpk2, suggesting that inhibition of PbTpk2 by PbGpb1 reduces the level of expression of Flo11, antagonizing the filamentous growth of the cells. In contrast, expressing the co-regulator PbTUPA in XPY5a/α cells transformed with PbTPK2, but not untransformed cells, induced hyperfilamentous growth, which could be antagonized by co-transforming the cells with PbGPB1. PbTUPA was unable to induce the hyperfilamentous growth of a FLO8Δ strain, suggesting that PbTupA functions in conjunction with the transcription factor Flo8 to control Flo11 expression. Our data indicates that P. brasiliensis PbGpb1 and PbTupA, both of which have WD/β-propeller structures, bind to PbTpk2 to act as antagonistic molecular switches of cell morphology, with PbTupA and PbGpb1 inducing and repressing filamentous growth, respectively. Our findings define a potential mechanism for controlling the morphological switch that underpins the virulence of dimorphic fungi.

The role of mitochondrial fusion and StAR phosphorylation in the regulation of StAR activity and steroidogenesis

The steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein regulates the rate-limiting step in steroidogenesis, i.e. the delivery of cholesterol from the outer (OMM) to the inner (IMM) mitochondrial membrane. StAR is a 37-kDa protein with an N-terminal mitochondrial targeting sequence that is cleaved off during mitochondrial import to yield 30-kDa intramitochondrial StAR. StAR acts exclusively on the OMM and its activity is proportional to how long it remains on the OMM. However, the precise fashion and the molecular mechanism in which StAR remains on the OMM have not been elucidated yet. In this work we will discuss the role of mitochondrial fusion and StAR phosphorylation by the extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 (ERK1/2) as part of the mechanism that regulates StAR retention on the OMM and activity.

Neurobeachin Regulates Glutamate- and GABA-Receptor Targeting to Synapses via Distinct Pathways

Neurotransmission and synaptic strength depend on expression of post-synaptic receptors on the cell surface. Post-translational modification of receptors, trafficking to the synapse through the secretory pathway, and subsequent insertion into the synapse involves interaction of the receptor with A-kinase anchor proteins (AKAPs) and scaffolding proteins. Neurobeachin (Nbea), a brain specific AKAP, is required for synaptic surface expression of both glutamate and GABA receptors. Here, we investigated the role of Nbea-dependent targeting of postsynaptic receptors by studying Nbea interaction with synapse-associated protein 102 (SAP102/Dlg3) and protein kinase A subunit II (PKA II). A Nbea mutant lacking the PKA binding domain showed a similar distribution as wild-type Nbea in Nbea null neurons and partially restored GABA receptor surface expression. To understand the relevance of Nbea interaction with SAP102, we analysed SAP102 null mutant mice. Nbea levels were reduced by ~80 % in SAP102 null mice, but glutamatergic receptor expression was normal. A single-point mutation in the pleckstrin homology domain of Nbea (E2218R) resulted in loss of binding with SAP102. When expressed in Nbea null neurons, this mutant fully restored GABA receptor surface expression, but not glutamate receptor expression. Our results suggest that the PKA-binding domain is not essential for Nbea’s role in receptor targeting and that Nbea targets glutamate and GABA receptors to the synapse via distinct molecular pathways by interacting with specific effector proteins.

Pharmacological regulation of the cholesterol transport machinery in steroidogenic cells of the testis

Reduced serum testosterone (T), or hypogonadism, is estimated to affect about 5 million American men, including both aging and young men. Low serum T has been linked to mood changes, worsening cognition, fatigue, depression, decreased lean body mass and bone mineral density, increased visceral fat, metabolic syndrome, decreased libido, and sexual dysfunction. Administering exogenous T, known as T-replacement therapy (TRT), reverses many of the symptoms of low T levels. However, this treatment can result in luteinizing hormone suppression which, in turn, can lead to reduced sperm numbers and infertility, making TRT inappropriate for men who wish to father children. Additionally, TRT may result in supraphysiologic T levels, skin irritation, and T transfer to others upon contact; and there may be increased risk of prostate cancer and cardiovascular disease, particularly in aging men. Therefore, the development of alternate therapies for treating hypogonadism would be highly desirable. To do so requires greater understanding of the series of steps leading to T formation and how they are regulated, and the identification of key steps that are amenable to pharmacological modulation so as to induce T production. We review herein our current understanding of mechanisms underlying the pharmacological induction of T formation in hypogonadal testis.

Proteolytic control of neurite outgrowth inhibitor NOGO-A by the cAMP/PKA pathway

Protein kinase A (PKA) controls major aspects of neurite outgrowth and morphogenesis and plays an essential role in synaptic plasticity and memory. However, the molecular mechanism(s) of PKA action on neurite sprouting and activity are still unknown. Here, we report that in response to neurotrophin or cAMP stimulation the RING ligase praja2 ubiquitinates and degrades NOGO-A, a major inhibitor of neurite outgrowth in mammalian brain. Genetic silencing of praja2 severely inhibited neurite extension of differentiating neuroblastoma cells and mesencephalic neurons and axon outgrowth and sprouting of striatal terminals in developing rat brain. This phenotype was rescued when both praja2 and NOGO-A were depleted, suggesting that NOGO-A is, indeed, a biologically relevant target of praja2 in neuronal cells. Our findings unveil a novel mechanism that functionally couples cAMP signaling with the proteolytic turnover of NOGO-A, positively impacting on neurite outgrowth in mammalian brain.

Role of AKAP 149-PKA-PDE4A complex in cell survival and cell differentiation processes

The cellular localization of A-kinase anchoring proteins (AKAPs), protein kinase A (PKAs) and phosphodiesterases (PDEs) is a key step to the spatiotemporal regulation of the second messenger adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP). In this paper the cellular distribution of the mitochondrial AKAP 149-PKA-PDE4A complex and its implications in the cell death induced by YTX treatment, a known PDE modulator, was studied. K-562 cell line was incubated with YTX for 24 or 48 h. Under these conditions AKAP 149, PKA and type-4A PDE (PDE4A) levels were measured in the cytosol, in the plasma membrane and in the nucleus. Apoptotic hallmarks were also measured after the same conditions. In addition, YTX effect on cell viability was checked after AKAP 149 and PDE4A silencing. The results obtained show a decrease in AKAP 149-PKA-PDE4A levels in cytosol after YTX exposure. 24h after the toxin addition, the complex expression increased in the plasma membrane and after 48 h in the nucleus domain. Furthermore Bcl-2 levels were decreased and the expression of caspase 3 together with caspase 8 activity were increased after 24h of toxin incubation but not after 48 h. These results suggest apoptotic cell death at 24h and a non-apoptotic cell death after 48 h. When AKAP 149 and PDE4A were silenced YTX did not induce cellular death. In summary, AKAP 149-PKA-PDE4A complex localization is related with YTX effect in K-562 cell line. When this complex is mainly located in the plasma membrane apoptosis is activated while when the complex is in the nuclear domain non-apoptotic cellular death or cellular differentiation is activated. Therefore AKAP 149-PKA-PDE4A distribution and integrity have a key role in cellular survival.

Regulating the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway via cAMP-signaling: neuroprotective potential

The cAMP-signaling pathway has been under intensive investigation for decades. It is a wonder that such a small simple molecule like cAMP can modulate a vast number of diverse processes in different types of cells. The ubiquitous involvement of cAMP-signaling in a variety of cellular events requires tight spatial and temporal control of its generation, propagation, compartmentalization, and elimination. Among the various steps of the cAMP-signaling pathway, G-protein-coupled receptors, adenylate cyclases, phosphodiesterases, the two major cAMP targets, i.e., protein kinase A and exchange protein activated by cAMP, as well as the A-kinase anchoring proteins, are potential targets for drug development. Herein we review the recent progress on the regulation and manipulation of different steps of the cAMP-signaling pathway. We end by focusing on the emerging role of cAMP-signaling in modulating protein degradation via the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway. New discoveries on the regulation of the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway by cAMP-signaling support the development of new therapeutic approaches to prevent proteotoxicity in chronic neurodegenerative disorders and other human disease conditions associated with impaired protein turnover by the ubiquitin/proteasome pathway and the accumulation of ubiquitin-protein aggregates.

Beyond the mitochondrion: cytosolic PINK1 remodels dendrites through protein kinase A

The subcellular compartmentalization of kinase activity allows for regulation of distinct cellular processes involved in cell differentiation or survival. The PTEN-induced kinase 1 (PINK1), which is linked to Parkinson's disease, is a neuroprotective kinase localized to cytosolic and mitochondrial compartments. While mitochondrial targeting of PINK1 is important for its activities regulating mitochondrial homeostasis, the physiological role of the cytosolic pool of PINK1 remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate a novel role for cytosolic PINK1 in neuronal differentiation/neurite maintenance. Over-expression of wild-type PINK1, but not a catalytically inactive form of PINK1(K219M), promoted neurite outgrowth in SH-SY5Y cells and increased dendritic lengths in primary cortical and midbrain dopaminergic neurons. To identify the subcellular pools of PINK1 involved in promoting neurite outgrowth, we transiently transfected cells with PINK1 constructs designed to target PINK1 to the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM-PINK1) or restrict PINK1 to the cytosol (ΔN111-PINK1). Both constructs blocked cell death associated with loss of endogenous PINK1. However, transient expression of ΔN111-PINK1, but not of OMM-PINK1 or ΔN111-PINK1(K219M), promoted dendrite outgrowth in primary neurons, and rescued the decreased dendritic arborization of PINK1-deficient neurons. Mechanistically, the cytosolic pool of PINK1 regulated neurite morphology through enhanced anterograde transport of dendritic mitochondria and amplification of protein kinase A-related signaling pathways. Our data support a novel role for PINK1 in regulating dendritic morphogenesis.

Mitochondrial Ca²⁺ uptake induces cyclic AMP generation in the matrix and modulates organelle ATP levels

While the role of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ homeostasis in cell pathophysiology is widely accepted, the possibility that cAMP regulates mitochondrial functions has only recently received experimental support. The site of cAMP production, its targets, and its functions in the organelles remain uncertain. Using a variety of genetic/pharmacological tools, we here demonstrate that the mitochondrial inner membrane is impermeable to cytosolic cAMP, while an autonomous cAMP signaling toolkit is expressed in the matrix. We demonstrate that rises in matrix Ca²⁺ powerfully stimulate cAMP increases within mitochondria and that matrix cAMP levels regulate their ATP synthesizing efficiency. In cardiomyocyte cultures, mitochondrial cAMP can be increased by treatments that augment the frequency and amplitude of Ca²⁺ oscillations within the cytosol and organelles, revealing that mitochondria can integrate an oscillatory Ca²⁺ signal to increase cAMP in their matrix. The present data reveal the existence, within mitochondria, of a hitherto unknown crosstalk between Ca²⁺ and cAMP.

AKAP9 is essential for spermatogenesis and sertoli cell maturation in mice

Mammalian male fertility relies on complex inter- and intracellular signaling during spermatogenesis. Here we describe three alleles of the widely expressed A-kinase anchoring protein 9 (Akap9) gene, all of which cause gametogenic failure and infertility in the absence of marked somatic phenotypes. Akap9 disruption does not affect spindle nucleation or progression of prophase I of meiosis but does inhibit maturation of Sertoli cells, which continue to express the immaturity markers anti-Mullerian hormone and thyroid hormone receptor alpha in adults and fail to express the maturation marker p27(Kip1). Furthermore, gap and tight junctions essential for blood-testis barrier (BTB) organization are disrupted. Connexin43 (Cx43) and zona occludens-1 are improperly localized in Akap9 mutant testes, and Cx43 fails to compartmentalize germ cells near the BTB. These results identify and support a novel reproductive tissue-specific role for Akap9 in the coordinated regulation of Sertoli cells in the testis.

PKA and PDE4D3 anchoring to AKAP9 provides distinct regulation of cAMP signals at the centrosome

Control of cell cycle progression relies on unique regulation of centrosomal cAMP/PKA signals through PKA and PDE4D3 interaction with the A kinase anchoring protein AKAP9.

Previous work has shown that the protein kinase A (PKA)–regulated phosphodiesterase (PDE) 4D3 binds to A kinase–anchoring proteins (AKAPs). One such protein, AKAP9, localizes to the centrosome. In this paper, we investigate whether a PKA–PDE4D3–AKAP9 complex can generate spatial compartmentalization of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) signaling at the centrosome. Real-time imaging of fluorescence resonance energy transfer reporters shows that centrosomal PDE4D3 modulated a dynamic microdomain within which cAMP concentration selectively changed over the cell cycle. AKAP9-anchored, centrosomal PKA showed a reduced activation threshold as a consequence of increased autophosphorylation of its regulatory subunit at S114. Finally, disruption of the centrosomal cAMP microdomain by local displacement of PDE4D3 impaired cell cycle progression as a result of accumulation of cells in prophase. Our findings describe a novel mechanism of PKA activity regulation that relies on binding to AKAPs and consequent modulation of the enzyme activation threshold rather than on overall changes in cAMP levels. Further, we provide for the first time direct evidence that control of cell cycle progression relies on unique regulation of centrosomal cAMP/PKA signals.