Prion diseases: what is the neurotoxic molecule?

Channel Activities of the Full-Length Prion and Truncated Proteins

Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative disorders characterized by the conversion of the cellular prion protein (PrPC) into a misfolded prion form, which is believed to disrupt the cellular membranes. However, the exact mechanisms underlying prion toxicity, including the formation of membrane pores, are not fully understood. The prion protein consists of two domains: a globular domain (GD) and a flexible N-terminus (FT) domain. Although a proximal polybasic amino acid (FT(23-31) sequence of FT is a prerequisite for cellular membrane permeabilization, other functional domain regions may modulate its effects. Through single-channel electrical recordings and cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM), we discovered that the FT(23-50) fragment forms pore-shaped oligomers and plays a dominant role in membrane permeabilization within the full-length mouse prion protein (mPrP(23-230)). In contrast, the FT(51-110) domain or the C-terminal domain downregulate the channel activity of FT(23-50) and mPrP(23-230). The addition of prion mimetic antibody, POM1 significantly amplifies mPrP(23-230) membrane permeabilization, whereas POM1_Y104A, a mutant that binds to PrP but cannot elicit toxicity, has a negligible effect on membrane permeabilization. Additionally, the anti-N-terminal antibody POM2 or Cu2+ binds to the FT domain, subsequently enhancing the FT(23-110) channel activity. Importantly, our setup provides a novel approach without an external fused protein to examine the channel activity of truncated PrP in the lipid membranes. We therefore propose that the primary N-terminal residues are essential for membrane permeabilization, while other functional segments of PrP play a vital role in modulating the pathological effects of PrP-mediated neurotoxicity.

Protein Misfolding and Aggregation in Proteinopathies: Causes, Mechanism and Cellular Response

Proteins are central to life functions. Alterations in the structure of proteins are reflected in their function. Misfolded proteins and their aggregates present a significant risk to the cell. Cells have a diverse but integrated network of protection mechanisms. Streams of misfolded proteins that cells are continuously exposed to must be continually monitored by an elaborated network of molecular chaperones and protein degradation factors to control and contain protein misfolding problems. Aggregation inhibition properties of small molecules such as polyphenols are important as they possess other beneficial properties such as antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, and pro-autophagic properties and help neuroprotection. A candidate with such desired features is important for any possible treatment development for protein aggregation diseases. There is a need to study the protein misfolding phenomenon so that we can treat some of the worst kinds of human ailments related to protein misfolding and aggregation.

Distinctive Toll-like Receptors Gene Expression and Glial Response in Different Brain Regions of Natural Scrapie

Prion diseases are chronic and fatal neurodegenerative diseases characterized by the accumulation of disease-specific prion protein (PrP^Sc), spongiform changes, neuronal loss, and gliosis. Growing evidence shows that the neuroinflammatory response is a key component of prion diseases and contributes to neurodegeneration. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have been proposed as important mediators of innate immune responses triggered in the central nervous system in other human neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. However, little is known about the role of TLRs in prion diseases, and their involvement in the neuropathology of natural scrapie has not been studied. We assessed the gene expression of ovine TLRs in four anatomically distinct brain regions in natural scrapie-infected sheep and evaluated the possible correlations between gene expression and the pathological hallmarks of prion disease. We observed significant changes in TLR expression in scrapie-infected sheep that correlate with the degree of spongiosis, PrP^Sc deposition, and gliosis in each of the regions studied. Remarkably, TLR4 was the only gene upregulated in all regions, regardless of the severity of neuropathology. In the hippocampus, we observed milder neuropathology associated with a distinct TLR gene expression profile and the presence of a peculiar microglial morphology, called rod microglia, described here for the first time in the brain of scrapie-infected sheep. The concurrence of these features suggests partial neuroprotection of the hippocampus. Finally, a comparison of the findings in naturallyinfected sheep versus an ovinized mouse model (tg338 mice) revealed distinct patterns of TLRgene expression.

Doxycycline rescues recognition memory and circadian motor rhythmicity but does not prevent terminal disease in fatal familial insomnia mice

Fatal familial insomnia (FFI) is a dominantly inherited prion disease linked to the D178N mutation in the gene encoding the prion protein (PrP). Symptoms, including insomnia, memory loss and motor abnormalities, appear around 50 years of age, leading to death within two years. No treatment is available. A ten-year clinical trial of doxycycline (doxy) is under way in healthy individuals at risk of FFI to test whether presymptomatic doxy prevents or delays the onset of disease. To assess the drug's effect in a tractable disease model, we used Tg(FFI-26) mice, which accumulate aggregated and protease-resistant PrP in their brains and develop a fatal neurological illness highly reminiscent of FFI. Mice were treated daily with 10 mg/kg doxy starting from a presymptomatic stage for twenty weeks. Doxy rescued memory deficits and restored circadian motor rhythmicity in Tg(FFI-26) mice. However, it did not prevent the onset and progression of motor dysfunction, clinical signs and progression to terminal disease. Doxy did not change the amount of aggregated and protease-resistant PrP, but reduced microglial activation in the hippocampus. Presymptomatic doxy treatment rescues cognitive impairment and the motor correlates of sleep dysfunction in Tg(FFI-26) mice but does not prevent fatal disease.

Activation of Src family kinase ameliorates secretory trafficking in mutant prion protein cells

Fatal familial insomnia (FFI), genetic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (gCJD), and Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker (GSS) syndrome are neurodegenerative disorders linked to prion protein (PrP) mutations. The pathogenic mechanisms are not known, but increasing evidence points to mutant PrP misfolding and retention in the secretory pathway. We previously found that the D178N/M129 mutation associated with FFI accumulates in the Golgi of neuronal cells, impairing post-Golgi trafficking. In this study we further characterized the trafficking defect induced by the FFI mutation and tested the 178N/V129 variant linked to gCJD and a nine-octapeptide repeat insertion associated with GSS. We used transfected HeLa cells, embryonic fibroblasts and primary neurons from transgenic mice, and fibroblasts from carriers of the FFI mutation. In all these cell types, the mutant PrPs showed abnormal intracellular localizations, accumulating in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and Golgi. To test the efficiency of the membrane trafficking system, we monitored the intracellular transport of the temperature-sensitive vesicular stomatite virus glycoprotein (VSV-G), a well-established cargo reporter, and of endogenous procollagen I (PC-I). We observed marked alterations in secretory trafficking, with VSV-G accumulating mainly in the Golgi complex and PC-I in the ER and Golgi. A redacted version of mutant PrP with reduced propensity to misfold did not impair VSV-G trafficking, nor did artificial ER or Golgi retention of wild-type PrP; this indicates that both misfolding and intracellular retention were required to induce the transport defect. Pharmacological activation of Src family kinase (SFK) improved intracellular transport, suggesting that mutant PrP impairs secretory trafficking through corruption of SFK-mediated signaling.

Prion peptide-mediated calcium level alteration governs neuronal cell damage through AMPK-autophagy flux

BACKGROUND

The distinctive molecular structure of the prion protein, PrPsc, is established only in mammals with infectious prion diseases. Prion protein characterizes either the transmissible pathogen itself or a primary constituent of the disease. Our report suggested that prion protein-mediated neuronal cell death is triggered by the autophagy flux. However, the alteration of intracellular calcium levels, AMPK activity in prion models has not been described. This study is focused on the effect of the changes in intracellular calcium levels on AMPK/autophagy flux pathway and PrP (106-126)-induced neurotoxicity.

METHODS

Western blot and Immunocytochemistry was used to detect AMPK and autophagy-related protein expression. Flow cytometry and a TdT-mediated biotin-16-dUTP nick-end labeling (TUNEL) assay were used to detect the percentage of apoptotic cells. Calcium measurement was employed using fluo-4 by confocal microscope.

RESULTS

We examined the effect of calcium homeostasis alterations induced by human prion peptide on the autophagy flux in neuronal cells. Treatment with human prion peptide increased the intracellular calcium concentration and induced cell death in primary neurons as well as in a neuronal cell line. Using pharmacological inhibitors, we showed that the L-type calcium channel is involved in the cellular entry of calcium ions. Inhibition of calcium uptake prevented autophagic cell death and reduction in AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity induced by human prion peptide.

CONCLUSION

Our data demonstrated that prion peptide-mediated calcium inflow plays a pivotal role in prion peptide-induced autophagic cell death, and reduction in AMPK activity in neurons. Altogether, our results suggest that calcium influx might play a critical role in neurodegenerative diseases, including prion diseases. Video Abstract.

Review: PrP 106-126 - 25 years after

A quarter of a century ago, we proposed an innovative approach to study the pathogenesis of prion disease, one of the most intriguing biomedical problems that remains unresolved. The synthesis of a peptide homologous to residues 106-126 of the human prion protein (PrP106-126), a sequence present in the PrP amyloid protein of Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome patients, provided a tractable tool for investigating the mechanisms of neurotoxicity. Together with several other discoveries at the beginning of the 1990s, PrP106-126 contributed to underpin the role of amyloid in the pathogenesis of protein-misfolding neurodegenerative disorders. Later, the role of oligomers on one hand and of prion-like spreading of pathology on the other further clarified mechanisms shared by different neurodegenerative conditions. Our original report on PrP106-126 neurotoxicity also highlighted a role for programmed cell death in CNS diseases. In this review, we analyse the prion research context in which PrP106-126 first appeared and the advances in our understanding of prion disease pathogenesis and therapeutic perspectives 25 years later.

Prions Strongly Reduce NMDA Receptor S-Nitrosylation Levels at Pre-symptomatic and Terminal Stages of Prion Diseases

Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative disorders characterized by the cellular prion protein (PrP^C) conversion into a misfolded and infectious isoform termed prion or PrP^Sc. The neuropathological mechanism underlying prion toxicity is still unclear, and the debate on prion protein gain- or loss-of-function is still open. PrP^C participates to a plethora of physiological mechanisms. For instance, PrP^C and copper cooperatively modulate N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) activity by mediating S-nitrosylation, an inhibitory post-translational modification, hence protecting neurons from excitotoxicity. Here, NMDAR S-nitrosylation levels were biochemically investigated at pre- and post-symptomatic stages of mice intracerebrally inoculated with RML, 139A, and ME7 prion strains. Neuropathological aspects of prion disease were studied by histological analysis and proteinase K digestion. We report that hippocampal NMDAR S-nitrosylation is greatly reduced in all three prion strain infections in both pre-symptomatic and terminal stages of mouse disease. Indeed, we show that NMDAR S-nitrosylation dysregulation affecting prion-inoculated animals precedes the appearance of clinical signs of disease and visible neuropathological changes, such as PrP^Sc accumulation and deposition. The pre-symptomatic reduction of NMDAR S-nitrosylation in prion-infected mice may be a possible cause of neuronal death in prion pathology, and it might contribute to the pathology progression opening new therapeutic strategies against prion disorders.

Pharmacological Agents Targeting the Cellular Prion Protein

Prion diseases are associated with the conversion of the cellular prion protein (PrP^C), a glycoprotein expressed at the surface of a wide variety of cell types, into a misfolded conformer (the scrapie form of PrP, or PrP^Sc) that accumulates in brain tissues of affected individuals. PrP^Sc is a self-catalytic protein assembly capable of recruiting native conformers of PrP^C, and causing their rearrangement into new PrP^Sc molecules. Several previous attempts to identify therapeutic agents against prion diseases have targeted PrP^Sc, and a number of compounds have shown potent anti-prion effects in experimental models. Unfortunately, so far, none of these molecules has successfully been translated into effective therapies for prion diseases. Moreover, mounting evidence suggests that PrP^Sc might be a difficult pharmacological target because of its poorly defined structure, heterogeneous composition, and ability to generate different structural conformers (known as prion strains) that can elude pharmacological intervention. In the last decade, a less intuitive strategy to overcome all these problems has emerged: targeting PrP^C, the common substrate of any prion strain replication. This alternative approach possesses several technical and theoretical advantages, including the possibility of providing therapeutic effects also for other neurodegenerative disorders, based on recent observations indicating a role for PrP^C in delivering neurotoxic signals of different misfolded proteins. Here, we provide an overview of compounds claimed to exert anti-prion effects by directly binding to PrP^C, discussing pharmacological properties and therapeutic potentials of each chemical class.

Pharmacological activation of autophagy favors the clearing of intracellular aggregates of misfolded prion protein peptide to prevent neuronal death

According to the “gain-of-toxicity mechanism”, neuronal loss during cerebral proteinopathies is caused by accumulation of aggregation-prone conformers of misfolded cellular proteins, although it is still debated which aggregation state actually corresponds to the neurotoxic entity. Autophagy, originally described as a variant of programmed cell death, is now emerging as a crucial mechanism for cell survival in response to a variety of cell stressors, including nutrient deprivation, damage of cytoplasmic organelles, or accumulation of misfolded proteins. Impairment of autophagic flux in neurons often associates with neurodegeneration during cerebral amyloidosis, suggesting a role in clearing neurons from aggregation-prone misfolded proteins. Thus, autophagy may represent a target for innovative therapies. In this work, we show that alterations of autophagy progression occur in neurons following in vitro exposure to the amyloidogenic and neurotoxic prion protein-derived peptide PrP90-231. We report that the increase of autophagic flux represents a strategy adopted by neurons to survive the intracellular accumulation of misfolded PrP90-231. In particular, PrP90-231 internalization in A1 murine mesencephalic neurons occurs in acidic structures, showing electron microscopy hallmarks of autophagosomes and autophagolysosomes. However, these structures do not undergo resolution and accumulate in cytosol, suggesting that, in the presence of PrP90-231, autophagy is activated but its progression is impaired; the inability to clear PrP90-231 via autophagy induces cytotoxicity, causing impairment of lysosomal integrity and cytosolic diffusion of hydrolytic enzymes. Conversely, the induction of autophagy by pharmacological  blockade of mTOR kinase or trophic factor deprivation restored autophagy resolution, reducing intracellular PrP90-231 accumulation and neuronal death. Taken together, these data indicate that PrP90-231 internalization induces an autophagic defensive response in A1 neurons, although incomplete and insufficient to grant survival; the pharmacological enhancement of this process exerts neuroprotection favoring the clearing of the internalized peptide and could represents a promising neuroprotective tool for neurodegenerative proteinopathies.

Prion protein inhibits fast axonal transport through a mechanism involving casein kinase 2

Prion diseases include a number of progressive neuropathies involving conformational changes in cellular prion protein (PrP^c) that may be fatal sporadic, familial or infectious. Pathological evidence indicated that neurons affected in prion diseases follow a dying-back pattern of degeneration. However, specific cellular processes affected by PrP^c that explain such a pattern have not yet been identified. Results from cell biological and pharmacological experiments in isolated squid axoplasm and primary cultured neurons reveal inhibition of fast axonal transport (FAT) as a novel toxic effect elicited by PrP^c. Pharmacological, biochemical and cell biological experiments further indicate this toxic effect involves casein kinase 2 (CK2) activation, providing a molecular basis for the toxic effect of PrP^c on FAT. CK2 was found to phosphorylate and inhibit light chain subunits of the major motor protein conventional kinesin. Collectively, these findings suggest CK2 as a novel therapeutic target to prevent the gradual loss of neuronal connectivity that characterizes prion diseases.

Prions: Beyond a Single Protein

Since the term protein was first coined in 1838 and protein was discovered to be the essential component of fibrin and albumin, all cellular proteins were presumed to play beneficial roles in plants and mammals. However, in 1967, Griffith proposed that proteins could be infectious pathogens and postulated their involvement in scrapie, a universally fatal transmissible spongiform encephalopathy in goats and sheep. Nevertheless, this novel hypothesis had not been evidenced until 1982, when Prusiner and coworkers purified infectious particles from scrapie-infected hamster brains and demonstrated that they consisted of a specific protein that he called a "prion." Unprecedentedly, the infectious prion pathogen is actually derived from its endogenous cellular form in the central nervous system. Unlike other infectious agents, such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi, prions do not contain genetic materials such as DNA or RNA. The unique traits and genetic information of prions are believed to be encoded within the conformational structure and posttranslational modifications of the proteins. Remarkably, prion-like behavior has been recently observed in other cellular proteins-not only in pathogenic roles but also serving physiological functions. The significance of these fascinating developments in prion biology is far beyond the scope of a single cellular protein and its related disease.

Cytotoxicity of prion protein-derived cell-penetrating peptides is modulated by pH but independent of amyloid formation

Prion diseases are associated with conversion of cellular prion protein (PrP^C) into an abnormally folded and infectious scrapie isoform (PrP^Sc). We previously showed that peptides derived from the unprocessed N-termini of mouse and bovine prion proteins, mPrP_1-28 and bPrP_1-30, function as cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), and destabilize model membrane systems, which could explain the infectivity and toxicity of prion diseases. However, subsequent studies revealed that treatment with mPrP_1-28 or bPrP_1-30 significantly reduce PrP^Sc levels in prion-infected cells. To explain these seemingly contradictory results, we correlated the aggregation, membrane perturbation and cytotoxicity of the peptides with their cellular uptake and intracellular localization. Although the peptides have a similar primary sequence, mPrP_1-28 is amyloidogenic, whereas bPrP_1-30 forms smaller oligomeric or non-fibrillar aggregates. Surprisingly, bPrP_1-30 induces much higher cytotoxicity than mPrP_1-28, indicating that amyloid formation and toxicity are independent. The toxicity is correlated with prolonged residence at the plasma membrane and membrane perturbation. Both ordered aggregation and toxicity of the peptides are inhibited by low pH. Under non-toxic conditions, the peptides are internalized by lipid-raft dependent macropinocytosis and localize to acidic lysosomal compartments. Our results shed light on the antiprion mechanism of the prion protein-derived CPPs and identify a potential site for PrP^Sc formation.

A critical appraisal of the pathogenic protein spread hypothesis of neurodegeneration

There has been an explosion in the number of papers discussing the hypothesis of 'pathogenic spread' in neurodegenerative disease - the idea that abnormal forms of disease-associated proteins, such as tau or α-synuclein, physically move from neuron to neuron to induce disease progression. However, whether inter-neuronal spread of protein aggregates actually occurs in humans and, if so, whether it causes symptom onset remain uncertain. Even if pathogenic spread is proven in humans, it is unclear how much this would alter the specific therapeutic approaches that are in development. A critical appraisal of this increasingly popular hypothesis thus seems both important and timely.

Human prion protein-induced autophagy flux governs neuron cell damage in primary neuron cells

An unusual molecular structure of the prion protein, PrPsc is found only in mammals with transmissible prion diseases. Prion protein stands for either the infectious pathogen itself or a main component of it. Recent studies suggest that autophagy is one of the major functions that keep cells alive and has a protective effect against the neurodegeneration. In this study, we investigated that the effect of human prion protein on autophagy-lysosomal system of primary neuronal cells. The treatment of human prion protein induced primary neuron cell death and decreased both LC3-II and p62 protein amount indicating autophagy flux activation. Electron microscope pictures confirmed the autophagic flux activation in neuron cells treated with prion protein. Inhibition of autophagy flux using pharmacological and genetic tools prevented neuron cell death induced by human prion protein. Autophagy flux induced by prion protein is more activated in prpc expressing cells than in prpc silencing cells. These data demonstrated that prion protein-induced autophagy flux is involved in neuron cell death in prion disease and suggest that autophagy flux might play a critical role in neurodegenerative diseases including prion disease.

Prion-induced neurotoxicity: Possible role for cell cycle activity and DNA damage response

Protein misfolding neurodegenerative diseases arise through neurotoxicity induced by aggregation of host proteins. These conditions include Alzheimer’s disease, Huntington’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, motor neuron disease, tauopathies and prion diseases. Collectively, these conditions are a challenge to society because of the increasing aged population and through the real threat to human food security by animal prion diseases. It is therefore important to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie protein misfolding-induced neurotoxicity as this will form the basis for designing strategies to alleviate their burden. Prion diseases are an important paradigm for neurodegenerative conditions in general since several of these maladies have now been shown to display prion-like phenomena. Increasingly, cell cycle activity and the DNA damage response are recognised as cellular events that participate in the neurotoxic process of various neurodegenerative diseases, and their associated animal models, which suggests they are truly involved in the pathogenic process and are not merely epiphenomena. Here we review the role of cell cycle activity and the DNA damage response in neurodegeneration associated with protein misfolding diseases, and suggest that these events contribute towards prion-induced neurotoxicity. In doing so, we highlight PrP transgenic Drosophila as a tractable model for the genetic analysis of transmissible mammalian prion disease.

Transgenic fatal familial insomnia mice indicate prion infectivity-independent mechanisms of pathogenesis and phenotypic expression of disease

Fatal familial insomnia (FFI) and a genetic form of Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD¹⁷⁸) are clinically different prion disorders linked to the D178N prion protein (PrP) mutation. The disease phenotype is determined by the 129 M/V polymorphism on the mutant allele, which is thought to influence D178N PrP misfolding, leading to the formation of distinctive prion strains with specific neurotoxic properties. However, the mechanism by which misfolded variants of mutant PrP cause different diseases is not known. We generated transgenic (Tg) mice expressing the mouse PrP homolog of the FFI mutation. These mice synthesize a misfolded form of mutant PrP in their brains and develop a neurological illness with severe sleep disruption, highly reminiscent of FFI and different from that of analogously generated Tg(CJD) mice modeling CJD¹⁷⁸. No prion infectivity was detectable in Tg(FFI) and Tg(CJD) brains by bioassay or protein misfolding cyclic amplification, indicating that mutant PrP has disease-encoding properties that do not depend on its ability to propagate its misfolded conformation. Tg(FFI) and Tg(CJD) neurons have different patterns of intracellular PrP accumulation associated with distinct morphological abnormalities of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi, suggesting that mutation-specific alterations of secretory transport may contribute to the disease phenotype.

Genetic prion diseases are degenerative brain disorders caused by mutations in the gene encoding the prion protein (PrP). Different PrP mutations cause different diseases, including Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) and fatal familial insomnia (FFI). The reason for this variability is not known, but assembly of the mutant PrPs into distinct aggregates that spread in the brain by promoting PrP aggregation may contribute to the disease phenotype. We previously generated transgenic mice modeling genetic CJD, clinically identified by dementia and motor abnormalities. We have now generated transgenic mice carrying the PrP mutation associated with FFI, and found that they develop severe sleep abnormalities and other key features of the human disorder. Thus, transgenic mice recapitulate the phenotypic differences seen in humans. The mutant PrPs in FFI and CJD mice are aggregated but unable to promote PrP aggregation. They accumulate in different intracellular compartments and cause distinct morphological abnormalities of transport organelles. These results indicate that mutant PrP has disease-encoding properties that are independent of its ability to self-propagate, and suggest that the phenotypic heterogeneity may be due to different effects of aggregated PrP on intracellular transport. Our study provides new insights into the mechanisms of selective neuronal dysfunction due to protein aggregation.

Celecoxib Inhibits Prion Protein 90-231-Mediated Pro-inflammatory Responses in Microglial Cells

Activation of microglia is a central event in the atypical inflammatory response occurring during prion encephalopathies. We report that the prion protein fragment encompassing amino acids 90-231 (PrP90-231), a model of the neurotoxic activity of the pathogenic prion protein (PrP(Sc)), causes activation of both primary microglia cultures and N9 microglial cells in vitro. This effect was characterized by cell proliferation arrest and induction of a secretory phenotype, releasing prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and nitric oxide (NO). Conditioned medium from PrP90-231-treated microglia induced in vitro cytotoxicity of A1 mesencephalic neurons, supporting the notion that soluble mediators released by activated microglia contributes to the neurodegeneration during prion diseases. The neuroinflammatory role of COX activity, and its potential targeting for anti-prion therapies, was tested measuring the effects of ketoprofen and celecoxib (preferential inhibitors of COX1 and COX2, respectively) on PrP90-231-induced microglial activation. Celecoxib, but not ketoprofen significantly reverted the growth arrest as well as NO and PGE2 secretion induced by PrP90-231, indicating that PrP90-231 pro-inflammatory response in microglia is mainly dependent on COX2 activation. Taken together, these data outline the importance of microglia in the neurotoxicity occurring during prion diseases and highlight the potentiality of COX2-selective inhibitors to revert microglia as adjunctive pharmacological approach to contrast the neuroinflammation-dependent neurotoxicity.

Prion-induced and spontaneous formation of transmissible toxicity in PrP transgenic Drosophila

Prion diseases are fatal transmissible neurodegenerative diseases of various mammalian species. Central to these conditions is the conversion of the normal host prion protein PrP(C) into the abnormal prion conformer PrP(Sc). Mature PrP(C) is attached to the plasma membrane by a glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor, whereas during biosynthesis and metabolism cytosolic and secreted forms of the protein may arise. The role of topological PrP(C) variants in the mechanism of prion formation and prion-induced neurotoxicity during prion disease remains undefined. In the present study we investigated whether Drosophila transgenic for ovine PrP targeted to the plasma membrane, to the cytosol or for secretion, could produce transmissible toxicity following exposure to exogenous ovine prions. Although all three topological variants of PrP were efficiently expressed in Drosophila, cytosolic PrP was conformationally distinct and required denaturation before recognition by immunobiochemical methods. Adult Drosophila transgenic for pan neuronally expressed ovine PrP targeted to the plasma membrane, to the cytosol or for secretion exhibited a decreased locomotor activity after exposure at the larval stage to ovine prions. Proteinase K-resistant PrP(Sc) was detected by protein misfolding cyclic amplification in prion-exposed Drosophila transgenic for membrane-targeted PrP. Significantly, head homogenate from all three variants of prion-exposed PrP transgenic Drosophila induced a decreased locomotor activity when transmitted to PrP recipient flies. Drosophila transgenic for PrP targeted for secretion exhibited a spontaneous locomotor defect in the absence of prion exposure that was transmissible in PrP transgenic flies. Our data are consistent with the formation of transmissible prions in PrP transgenic Drosophila.

Structural diversity and initial oligomerization of PrP106-126 studied by replica-exchange and conventional molecular dynamics simulations

Prion diseases are marked by cerebral accumulation of the abnormal isoform of the prion protein. A fragment of prion protein composed of residues 106–126 (PrP106–126) exhibits similar properties to full length prion and plays a key role in the conformational conversion from cellular prion to its pathogenic pattern. Soluble oligomers of PrP106–126 have been proposed to be responsible for neurotoxicity. However, the monomeric conformational space and initial oligomerization of PrP106–126 are still obscure, which are very important for understanding the conformational conversion of PrP106–126. In this study, replica exchange molecular dynamics simulations were performed to investigate monomeric and dimeric states of PrP106–126 in implicit solvent. The structural diversity of PrP106–126 was observed and this peptide did not acquire stable structure. The dimeric PrP106–126 also displayed structural diversity and hydrophobic interaction drove the dimerization. To further study initial oligomerization of PrP106–126, 1 µs conventional molecular dynamics simulations of trimer and tetramer formation were carried out in implicit solvent. We have observed the spontaneous formation of several basic oligomers and stable oligomers with high β-sheet contents were sampled in the simulations of trimer and tetramer formation. The β-hairpin formed in hydrophobic tail of PrP106–126 with residues 118–120 in turn may stabilize these oligomers and seed the formation oligomers. This study can provide insight into the detailed information about the structure of PrP106–126 and the dynamics of aggregation of monomeric PrP106–126 into oligomers in atomic level.

Synaptic dysfunction in prion diseases: a trafficking problem?

Synaptic dysfunction is an important cause of neurological symptoms in prion diseases, a class of clinically heterogeneous neurodegenerative disorders caused by misfolding of the cellular prion protein (PrP^C). Experimental data suggest that accumulation of misfolded PrP^C in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) may be crucial in synaptic failure, possibly because of the activation of the translational repression pathway of the unfolded protein response. Here, we report that this pathway is not operative in mouse models of genetic prion disease, consistent with our previous observation that ER stress is not involved. Building on our recent finding that ER retention of mutant PrP^C impairs the secretory trafficking of calcium channels essential for synaptic function, we propose a model of pathogenicity in which intracellular retention of misfolded PrP^C results in loss of function or gain of toxicity of PrP^C-interacting proteins. This neurotoxic modality may also explain the phenotypic heterogeneity of prion diseases.

Epitope scanning indicates structural differences in brain-derived monomeric and aggregated mutant prion proteins related to genetic prion diseases

Genetic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome, fatal familial insomnia and prion protein cerebral amyloid angiopathy are clinically and neuropathologically distinct neurodegenerative diseases linked to mutations in the PRNP gene encoding the cellular prion protein (PrPC). How sequence variants of PRNP encode the information to specify these disease phenotypes is not known. It is suggested that each mutation produces a misfolded variant of PrPC with specific neurotoxic properties. However, structural studies of recombinant PrP did not detect major differences between wild-type and mutant molecules, pointing to the importance of investigating mutant PrPs from mammalian brains. We used surface plasmon resonance and a slot-blot immunoassay to analyse the antibody-binding profiles of soluble and insoluble PrP molecules extracted from the brains of transgenic mice modelling different prion diseases. By measuring the reactivity of monoclonal antibodies against different PrP epitopes, we obtained evidence of conformational differences between wild-type and mutant PrPs, and among different mutants. We detected structural heterogeneity in both monomeric and aggregated PrP, supporting the hypothesis that the phenotype of genetic prion diseases is encoded by mutant PrP conformation and assembly state.

Cobalamin and normal prions: a new horizon for cobalamin neurotrophism

It is known that cobalamin (Cbl) deficiency damages myelin by increasing tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and decreasing epidermal growth factor (EGF) levels in rat central nervous system (CNS), and affects the peripheral nervous system (PNS) morphologically and functionally. It is also known that some polyneuropathies not due to Cbl deficiency are connected with increased TNF-α levels, and that various cytokines (including TNF-α) and growth factors regulate the in vitro synthesis of normal prions (PrP(C)s). Given that there is extensive evidence that PrP(C)s play a key role in the maintenance of CNS and PNS myelin, we investigated whether the PrP(C) octapeptide repeat (OR) region is involved in the pathogenesis of rat Cbl-deficient (Cbl-D) polyneuropathy. After intracerebroventricularly administering antibodies (Abs) against the OR region (OR-Abs) to Cbl-D rats to prevent myelin damage and maximum nerve conduction velocity (MNCV) abnormalities, and PrP(C)s to otherwise normal rats to reproduce PNS Cbl-D-like lesions, we measured PrP(C) levels and MNCV of the sciatic and tibial nerves. PrP(C) and TNF-α levels were increased in sciatic and tibial nerves of Cbl-D and saline-treated rats, and the OR-Abs normalized the myelin ultrastructure, TNF-α levels, and MNCV values of the sciatic and tibial nerves of Cbl-D rats. The same peripheral nerves of the otherwise normal PrP(C)-treated rats showed typical Cbl-D myelin lesions, significantly increased TNF-α levels, and significantly decreased MNCV values. These findings demonstrate that Cbl deficiency induces excess PrP(C)s and thereby excess OR regions, which seem to be responsible for the PNS myelin damage, as has recently been found in the case of CNS myelin damage [66]. Furthermore, excess TNF-α is also involved in the pathogenesis of Cbl-D polyneuropathy. In conclusion, we have extended the list of prion diseases by adding one caused by excess PrP(C)s and the polyneuropathies related to excess TNF-α.

The N-terminal, polybasic region of PrP(C) dictates the efficiency of prion propagation by binding to PrP(Sc)

Prion propagation involves a templating reaction in which the infectious form of the prion protein (PrP(Sc)) binds to the cellular form (PrP(C)), generating additional molecules of PrP(Sc). While several regions of the PrP(C) molecule have been suggested to play a role in PrP(Sc) formation based on in vitro studies, the contribution of these regions in vivo is unclear. Here, we report that mice expressing PrP deleted for a short, polybasic region at the N terminus (residues 23-31) display a dramatically reduced susceptibility to prion infection and accumulate greatly reduced levels of PrP(Sc). These results, in combination with biochemical data, demonstrate that residues 23-31 represent a critical site on PrP(C) that binds to PrP(Sc) and is essential for efficient prion propagation. It may be possible to specifically target this region for treatment of prion diseases as well as other neurodegenerative disorders due to β-sheet-rich oligomers that bind to PrP(C).

Excitotoxicity through NMDA receptors mediates cerebellar granule neuron apoptosis induced by prion protein 90-231 fragment

Prion diseases recognize, as a unique molecular trait, the misfolding of CNS-enriched prion protein (PrP(C)) into an aberrant isoform (PrP(Sc)). In this work, we characterize the in vitro toxicity of amino-terminally truncated recombinant PrP fragment (amino acids 90-231, PrP90-231), on rat cerebellar granule neurons (CGN), focusing on glutamatergic receptor activation and Ca(2+) homeostasis impairment. This recombinant fragment assumes a toxic conformation (PrP90-231(TOX)) after controlled thermal denaturation (1 h at 53 °C) acquiring structural characteristics identified in PrP(Sc) (enrichment in β-structures, increased hydrophobicity, partial resistance to proteinase K, and aggregation in amyloid fibrils). By annexin-V binding assay, and evaluation of the percentage of fragmented and condensed nuclei, we show that treatment with PrP90-231(TOX), used in pre-fibrillar aggregation state, induces CGN apoptosis. This effect was associated with a delayed, but sustained elevation of [Ca(2+)]i. Both CGN apoptosis and [Ca(2+)]i increase were not observed using PrP90-231 in PrP(C)-like conformation. PrP90-231(TOX) effects were significantly reduced in the presence of ionotropic glutamate receptor antagonists. In particular, CGN apoptosis and [Ca(2+)]i increase were largely reduced, although not fully abolished, by pre-treatment with the NMDA antagonists APV and memantine, while the AMPA antagonist CNQX produced a lower, although still significant, effect. In conclusion, we report that CGN apoptosis induced by PrP90-231(TOX) correlates with a sustained elevation of [Ca(2+)]i mediated by the activation of NMDA and AMPA receptors.

Mutant PrP suppresses glutamatergic neurotransmission in cerebellar granule neurons by impairing membrane delivery of VGCC α(2)δ-1 Subunit

How mutant prion protein (PrP) leads to neurological dysfunction in genetic prion diseases is unknown. Tg(PG14) mice synthesize a misfolded mutant PrP which is partially retained in the neuronal endoplasmic reticulum (ER). As these mice age, they develop ataxia and massive degeneration of cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs). Here, we report that motor behavioral deficits in Tg(PG14) mice emerge before neurodegeneration and are associated with defective glutamate exocytosis from granule neurons due to impaired calcium dynamics. We found that mutant PrP interacts with the voltage-gated calcium channel α(2)δ-1 subunit, which promotes the anterograde trafficking of the channel. Owing to ER retention of mutant PrP, α(2)δ-1 accumulates intracellularly, impairing delivery of the channel complex to the cell surface. Thus, mutant PrP disrupts cerebellar glutamatergic neurotransmission by reducing the number of functional channels in CGNs. These results link intracellular PrP retention to synaptic dysfunction, indicating new modalities of neurotoxicity and potential therapeutic strategies.

A naturally occurring C-terminal fragment of the prion protein (PrP) delays disease and acts as a dominant-negative inhibitor of PrPSc formation

The cellular prion protein (PrPC) undergoes constitutive proteolytic cleavage between residues 111/112 to yield a soluble N-terminal fragment (N1) and a membrane-anchored C-terminal fragment (C1). The C1 fragment represents the major proteolytic fragment of PrPC in brain and several cell types. To explore the role of C1 in prion disease, we generated Tg(C1) transgenic mice expressing this fragment (PrP(Δ23-111)) in the presence and absence of endogenous PrP. In contrast to several other N-terminally deleted forms of PrP, the C1 fragment does not cause a spontaneous neurological disease in the absence of endogenous PrP. Tg(C1) mice inoculated with scrapie prions remain healthy and do not accumulate protease-resistant PrP, demonstrating that C1 is not a substrate for conversion to PrPSc (the disease-associated isoform). Interestingly, Tg(C1) mice co-expressing C1 along with wild-type PrP (either endogenous or encoded by a second transgene) become ill after scrapie inoculation, but with a dramatically delayed time course compared with mice lacking C1. In addition, accumulation of PrPSc was markedly slowed in these animals. Similar effects were produced by a shorter C-terminal fragment of PrP(Δ23-134). These results demonstrate that C1 acts as dominant-negative inhibitor of PrPSc formation and accumulation of neurotoxic forms of PrP. Thus, C1, a naturally occurring fragment of PrPC, might play a modulatory role during the course of prion diseases. In addition, enhancing production of C1, or exogenously administering this fragment, represents a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of prion diseases.

Neurotoxic effect of the complex of the ovine prion protein (OvPrP(C)) and RNA on the cultured rat cortical neurons

Prion diseases are conformational diseases, many factors are involved in altering the conformation of prion, such as RNA, DNA, pH, and copper etc. However the neurotoxic mechanism of prion diseases is not clear yet. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of the nucleoprotein complex of RNA and recombinant ovine prion protein (OvPrP(C)) on the cultured rat cortical neurons in vitro. Our previous study revealed that the nucleoprotein complex (OvPrP(C)-RNA) is characterized with high β sheet conformation and proteinase K resistance. Here we found that the OvPrP(C)-RNA induced marked neuronal cell death by the MTT (3-(4,5-dimethyl-thiazole -2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl -tetrazolium bromide) and TUNEL (TdT mediated biotin-dUTP nicked-end labeling) assay, and the neurotoxic effects were confirmed by testing the content of Bcl-2 Associated X protein (Bax) in the immunoprecipitation assay and Western blot assay. Compared to the control group, there is no significant difference of active Bax or total Bax after RNA alone treatment or OvPrP(C) alone treatment, but the OvPrP(C)-RNA induced significant increases of active Bax level, while the contents of total Bax had no obvious changes after OvPrP(C)-RNA treatment. The results suggested that OvPrP(C)-RNA is neurotoxic in vitro, which added further evidence to the current understanding of mechanism of cellular injury by RNA molecules for transformation of the PrP(C) to PrP(Sc).

Expression of mutant or cytosolic PrP in transgenic mice and cells is not associated with endoplasmic reticulum stress or proteasome dysfunction

The cellular pathways activated by mutant prion protein (PrP) in genetic prion diseases, ultimately leading to neuronal dysfunction and degeneration, are not known. Several mutant PrPs misfold in the early secretory pathway and reside longer in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) possibly stimulating ER stress-related pathogenic mechanisms. To investigate whether mutant PrP induced maladaptive responses, we checked key elements of the unfolded protein response (UPR) in transgenic mice, primary neurons and transfected cells expressing two different mutant PrPs. Because ER stress favors the formation of untranslocated PrP that might aggregate in the cytosol and impair proteasome function, we also measured the activity of the ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS). Molecular, biochemical and immunohistochemical analyses found no increase in the expression of UPR-regulated genes, such as Grp78/Bip, CHOP/GADD153, or ER stress-dependent splicing of the mRNA encoding the X-box-binding protein 1. No alterations in UPS activity were detected in mutant mouse brains and primary neurons using the Ub^G76V-GFP reporter and a new fluorogenic peptide for monitoring proteasomal proteolytic activity in vivo. Finally, there was no loss of proteasome function in neurons in which endogenous PrP was forced to accumulate in the cytosol by inhibiting cotranslational translocation. These results indicate that neither ER stress, nor perturbation of proteasome activity plays a major pathogenic role in prion diseases.

Human PrP90-231-induced cell death is associated with intracellular accumulation of insoluble and protease-resistant macroaggregates and lysosomal dysfunction

To define the mechanisms by which hPrP90-231 induces cell death, we analyzed its interaction with living cells and monitored its intracellular fate. Treatment of SH-SY5Y cells with fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated hPrP90-231 caused the accumulation of cytosolic aggregates of the prion protein fragment that increased in number and size in a time-dependent manner. The formation of large intracellular hPrP90-231 aggregates correlated with the activation of apoptosis. hPrP90-231 aggregates occurred within lysotracker-positive vesicles and induced the formation of activated cathepsin D (CD), indicating that hPrP90-231 is partitioned into the endosomal-lysosomal system structures, activating the proteolytic machinery. Remarkably, the inhibition of CD activity significantly reduced hPrP-90-231-dependent apoptosis. Internalized hPrP90-231 forms detergent-insoluble and SDS-stable aggregates, displaying partial resistance to proteolysis. By confocal microscopy analysis of lucifer yellow (LY) intracellular partition, we show that hPrP90-231 accumulation induces lysosome destabilization and loss of lysosomal membrane impermeability. In fact, although control cells evidenced a vesicular pattern of LY fluorescence (index of healthy lysosomes), hPrP90-231-treated cells showed diffuse cytosolic fluorescence, indicating LY diffusion through damaged lysosomes. In conclusion, these data indicate that exogenously added hPrP90-231 forms intralysosomal deposits having features of insoluble, protease-resistant aggregates and could trigger a lysosome-mediated apoptosis by inducing lysosome membrane permeabilization, followed by the release of hydrolytic enzymes.

The hydrophobic core region governs mutant prion protein aggregation and intracellular retention

Approx. 15% of human prion diseases have a pattern of autosomal dominant inheritance, and are linked to mutations in the gene encoding PrP (prion protein), a GPI (glycosylphosphatidylinositol)-anchored protein whose function is not clear. The cellular mechanisms by which PrP mutations cause disease are also not known. Soon after synthesis in the ER (endoplasmic reticulum), several mutant PrPs misfold and become resistant to phospholipase cleavage of their GPI anchor. The biosynthetic maturation of the misfolded molecules in the ER is delayed and, during transit in the secretory pathway, they form detergent-insoluble and protease-resistant aggregates, suggesting that intracellular PrP aggregation may play a pathogenic role. We have investigated the consequence of deleting residues 114–121 within the hydrophobic core of PrP on the aggregation and cellular localization of two pathogenic mutants that accumulate in the ER and Golgi apparatus. Compared with their full-length counterparts, the deleted molecules formed smaller protease-sensitive aggregates and were more efficiently transported to the cell surface and released by phospholipase cleavage. These results indicate that mutant PrP aggregation and intracellular retention are closely related and depend critically on the integrity of the hydrophobic core. The discovery that Δ114–121 counteracts misfolding and improves the cellular trafficking of mutant PrP provides an unprecedented model for assessing the role of intracellular aggregation in the pathogenesis of prion diseases.

Non-infectious aggregates of the prion protein react with several PrPSc-directed antibodies

The key event in the pathogenesis of prion diseases is the conformational conversion of the normal prion protein (PrP) (PrP(C)) into an infectious, aggregated isoform (PrP(Sc)) that has a high content of beta-sheet. Historically, a great deal of effort has been devoted to developing antibodies that specifically recognize PrP(Sc) but not PrP(C), as such antibodies would have enormous diagnostic and experimental value. A mouse monoclonal IgM antibody (designated 15B3) and three PrP motif-grafted monoclonal antibodies (referred to as IgG 19-33, 89-112, and 136-158) have been previously reported to react specifically with infectious PrP(Sc) but not PrP(C). In this study, we extend the characterization of these four antibodies by testing their ability to immunoprecipitate and immunostain infectious and non-infectious aggregates of wild-type, mutant, and recombinant PrP. We find that 15B3 as well as the motif-grafted antibodies recognize multiple types of aggregated PrP, both infectious and non-infectious, including forms found in brain, in transfected cells, and induced in vitro from purified recombinant protein. These antibodies are exquisitely selective for aggregated PrP, and do not react with soluble PrP even when present in vast excess. Our results suggest that 15B3 and the motif-grafted antibodies recognize structural features common to both infectious and non-infectious aggregates of PrP. Our study extends the utility of these antibodies for diagnostic and experimental purposes, and it provides new insight into the structural changes that accompany PrP oligomerization and prion propagation.

Neurotoxic mutants of the prion protein induce spontaneous ionic currents in cultured cells

The mechanisms by which prions kill neurons and the role of the cellular prion protein in this process are enigmatic. Insight into these questions is provided by the neurodegenerative phenotypes of transgenic mice expressing prion protein (PrP) molecules with deletions of conserved amino acids in the central region. We report here that expression in transfected cells of the most toxic of these PrP deletion mutants (Delta105-125) induces large, spontaneous ionic currents that can be detected by patch-clamping techniques. These currents are produced by relatively non-selective, cation-permeable channels or pores in the cell membrane and can be silenced by overexpression of wild-type PrP, as well as by treatment with a sulfated glycosaminoglycan. Similar currents are induced by PrP molecules carrying several different point mutations in the central region that cause familial prion diseases in humans. The ionic currents described here are distinct from those produced in artificial lipid membranes by synthetic peptides derived from the PrP sequence because they are induced by membrane-anchored forms of PrP that are synthesized by cells and that are found in vivo. Our results indicate that the neurotoxicity of some mutant forms of PrP is attributable to enhanced ion channel activity and that wild-type PrP possesses a channel-silencing activity. Drugs that block PrP-associated channels or pores may therefore represent novel therapeutic agents for treatment of patients with prion diseases.

Redox control of prion and disease pathogenesis

Imbalance of brain metal homeostasis and associated oxidative stress by redox-active metals like iron and copper is an important trigger of neurotoxicity in several neurodegenerative conditions, including prion disorders. Whereas some reports attribute this to end-stage disease, others provide evidence for specific mechanisms leading to brain metal dyshomeostasis during disease progression. In prion disorders, imbalance of brain-iron homeostasis is observed before end-stage disease and worsens with disease progression, implicating iron-induced oxidative stress in disease pathogenesis. This is an unexpected observation, because the underlying cause of brain pathology in all prion disorders is PrP-scrapie (PrP(Sc)), a beta-sheet-rich conformation of a normal glycoprotein, the prion protein (PrP(C)). Whether brain-iron dyshomeostasis occurs because of gain of toxic function by PrP(Sc) or loss of normal function of PrP(C) remains unclear. In this review, we summarize available evidence suggesting the involvement of oxidative stress in prion-disease pathogenesis. Subsequently, we review the biology of PrP(C) to highlight its possible role in maintaining brain metal homeostasis during health and the contribution of PrP(Sc) in inducing brain metal imbalance with disease progression. Finally, we discuss possible therapeutic avenues directed at restoring brain metal homeostasis and alleviating metal-induced oxidative stress in prion disorders.

A camelid anti-PrP antibody abrogates PrP replication in prion-permissive neuroblastoma cell lines

The development of antibodies effective in crossing the blood brain barrier (BBB), capable of accessing the cytosol of affected cells and with higher affinity for PrP^Sc would be of paramount importance in arresting disease progression in its late stage and treating individuals with prion diseases. Antibody-based therapy appears to be the most promising approach following the exciting report from White and colleagues, establishing the “proof-of-principle” for prion-immunotherapy. After passive transfer, anti-prion antibodies were shown to be very effective in curing peripheral but not central rodent prion disease, due to the fact that these anti-prion antibodies are relatively large molecules and cannot therefore cross the BBB. Here, we show that an anti-prion antibody derived from camel immunised with murine scrapie material adsorbed to immunomagnetic beads is able to prevent infection of susceptible N2a cells and cure chronically scrapie-infected neuroblastoma cultures. This antibody was also shown to transmigrate across the BBB and cross the plasma membrane of neurons to target cytosolic PrP^C. In contrast, treatment with a conventional anti-prion antibody derived from mouse immunised with recombinant PrP protein was unable to prevent recurrence of PrP^Sc replication. Furthermore, our camelid antibody did not display any neurotoxic effects following treatment of susceptible N2a cells as evidenced by TUNEL staining. These findings demonstrate the potential use of anti-prion camelid antibodies for the treatment of prion and other related diseases via non-invasive means.

Mutant prion protein expression is associated with an alteration of the Rab GDP dissociation inhibitor alpha (GDI)/Rab11 pathway

The prion protein (PrP) is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol-anchored membrane glycoprotein that plays a vital role in prion diseases, a class of fatal neurodegenerative disorders of humans and animals. Approximately 20% of human prion diseases display autosomal dominant inheritance and are linked to mutations in the PrP gene on chromosome 20. PrP mutations are thought to favor the conformational conversion of PrP into a misfolded isoform that causes disease by an unknown mechanism. The PrP mutation D178N/Met-129 is linked to fatal familial insomnia, which causes severe sleep abnormalities and autonomic dysfunction. We showed by immunoelectron microscopy that this mutant PrP accumulates abnormally in the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi of transfected neuroblastoma N2a cells. To investigate the impact of intracellular PrP accumulation on cellular homeostasis, we did a two-dimensional gel-based differential proteomics analysis. We used wide range immobilized pH gradient strips, pH 4-7 and 6-11, to analyze a large number of proteins. We found changes in proteins involved in energy metabolism, redox regulation, and vesicular transport. Rab GDP dissociation inhibitor alpha (GDI) was one of the proteins that changed most. GDI regulates vesicular protein trafficking by acting on the activity of several Rab proteins. We found a specific reduction in the level of functional Rab11 in mutant PrP-expressing cells associated with impaired post-Golgi trafficking. Our data are consistent with a model by which mutant PrP induces overexpression of GDI, activating a cytotoxic feedback loop that leads to protein accumulation in the secretory pathway.

Immunopurification of pathological prion protein aggregates

Background

Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative disorders that can arise sporadically, be genetically inherited or acquired through infection. The key event in these diseases is misfolding of the cellular prion protein (PrP^C) into a pathogenic isoform that is rich in β-sheet structure. This conformational change may result in the formation of PrP^Sc, the prion isoform of PrP, which propagates itself by imprinting its aberrant conformation onto PrP^C molecules. A great deal of effort has been devoted to developing protocols for purifying PrP^Sc for structural studies, and testing its biological properties. Most procedures rely on protease digestion, allowing efficient purification of PrP27-30, the protease-resistant core of PrP^Sc. However, protease treatment cannot be used to isolate abnormal forms of PrP lacking conventional protease resistance, such as those found in several genetic and atypical sporadic cases.

Principal Findings

We developed a method for purifying pathological PrP molecules based on sequential centrifugation and immunoprecipitation with a monoclonal antibody selective for aggregated PrP. With this procedure we purified full-length PrP^Sc and mutant PrP aggregates at electrophoretic homogeneity. PrP^Sc purified from prion-infected mice was able to seed misfolding of PrP^C in a protein misfolding cyclic amplification reaction, and mutant PrP aggregates from transgenic mice were toxic to cultured neurons.

Significance

The immunopurification protocol described here isolates biologically active forms of aggregated PrP. These preparations may be useful for investigating the structural and chemico-physical properties of infectious and neurotoxic PrP aggregates.

Prion protein with an insertional mutation accumulates on axonal and dendritic plasmalemma and is associated with distinctive ultrastructural changes

Prion diseases are fatal neurological diseases characterized by central nervous system deposition of abnormal forms of a membrane glycoprotein designated PrP (prion protein). Tg(PG14) transgenic mice express PrP that harbor a nine-octapeptide insertional mutation homologous to one described in a familial prion disease of humans. Tg(PG14) mice spontaneously develop a fatal neurological illness accompanied by massive apoptosis of cerebellar granule neurons and accumulation of an aggregated and weakly protease-resistant form of PrP that is not infectious. Previous light microscopic analyses of these mice left open questions regarding the subcellular distribution of the mutant protein and the nature of the neuropathological lesions produced. To address these questions, we undertook an immunogold electron microscopic study of Tg(PG14) mice. We found that mutant PrP is localized primarily on the plasma membrane of dendrites and unmyelinated axons in the hippocampus and cerebellum, with little labeling of either neuronal cell bodies or intracellular organelles. PrP deposits were shown to be associated with degenerative changes in dendritic structure. We also describe for the first time marked pathology in myelinated axons, and alterations in the axon/oligodendrocyte interface. Taken together, our results suggest cellular mechanisms by which mutant PrPs produce pathology. In addition, they highlight distinctions between familial and infectious prion disorders at the ultrastructural level that correlate with differences in cellular trafficking of the disease-associated PrP forms.

Getting a grip on prions: oligomers, amyloids, and pathological membrane interactions

The prion (infectious protein) concept has evolved with the discovery of new self-propagating protein states in organisms as diverse as mammals and fungi. The infectious agent of the mammalian transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) has long been considered the prototypical prion, and recent cell-free propagation and biophysical analyses of TSE infectivity have now firmly established its prion credentials. Other disease-associated protein aggregates, such as some amyloids, can also have prion-like characteristics under certain experimental conditions. However, most amyloids appear to lack the natural transmissibility of TSE prions. One feature that distinguishes the latter from the former is the glycophosphatidylinositol membrane anchor on prion protein, the molecule that is corrupted in TSE diseases. The presence of this anchor profoundly affects TSE pathogenesis, which involves major membrane distortions in the brain, and may be a key reason for the greater neurovirulence of TSE prions relative to many other autocatalytic protein aggregates.

Fishing for prion protein function

The prion protein is infamous for its role in devastating neurological diseases, but its normal, physiological function has remained mysterious. A new study uses the experimentally tractable zebrafish model to obtain fresh clues to this puzzle.

Aggregated, wild-type prion protein causes neurological dysfunction and synaptic abnormalities

The neurotoxic forms of the prion protein (PrP) that cause neurodegeneration in prion diseases remain to be conclusively identified. Considerable evidence points to the importance of noninfectious oligomers of PrP in the pathogenic process. In this study, we describe lines of Tg(WT) transgenic mice that over-express wild-type PrP by either approximately 5-fold or approximately 10-fold (depending on whether the transgene array is, respectively, hemizygous or homozygous). Homozygous but not hemizygous Tg(WT) mice develop a spontaneous neurodegenerative illness characterized clinically by tremor and paresis. Both kinds of mice accumulate large numbers of punctate PrP deposits in the molecular layer of the cerebellum as well as in several other brain regions, and they display abnormally enlarged synaptic terminals accompanied by a dramatic proliferation of membranous structures. The over-expressed PrP in Tg(WT) mice assembles into an insoluble form that is mildly protease-resistant and is recognizable by aggregation-specific antibodies, but that is not infectious in transmission experiments. Together, our results demonstrate that noninfectious aggregates of wild-type PrP are neurotoxic, particularly to synapses, and they suggest common pathogenic mechanisms shared by prion diseases and nontransmissible neurodegenerative disorders associated with protein misfolding.

Opposing roles of prion protein in oxidative stress- and ER stress-induced apoptotic signaling

Although the prion protein is abundantly expressed in the CNS, its biological functions remain unclear. To determine the endogenous function of the cellular prion protein (PrP(c)), we compared the effects of oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress inducers on apoptotic signaling in PrP(c)-expressing and PrP(ko) (knockout) neural cells. H(2)O(2), brefeldin A (BFA), and tunicamycin (TUN) induced increases in caspase-9 and caspase-3, PKCdelta proteolytic activation, and DNA fragmentation in PrP(c) and PrP(ko) cells. Interestingly, ER stress-induced activation of caspases, PKCdelta, and apoptosis was significantly exacerbated in PrP(c) cells, whereas H(2)O(2)-induced proapoptotic changes were suppressed in PrP(c) compared to PrP(ko) cells. Additionally, caspase-12 and caspase-8 were activated only in the BFA and TUN treatments. Inhibitors of caspase-9, caspase-3, and PKCdelta significantly blocked H(2)O(2)-, BFA-, and TUN-induced apoptosis, whereas the caspase-8 inhibitor attenuated only BFA- and TUN-induced cell death, and the antioxidant MnTBAP blocked only H(2)O(2)-induced apoptosis. Overexpression of the kinase-inactive PKCdelta(K376R) or the cleavage site-resistant PKCdelta(D327A) mutant suppressed both ER and oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. Thus, PrP(c) plays a proapoptotic role during ER stress and an antiapoptotic role during oxidative stress-induced cell death. Together, these results suggest that cellular PrP enhances the susceptibility of neural cells to impairment of protein processing and trafficking, but decreases the vulnerability to oxidative insults, and that PKCdelta is a key downstream mediator of cellular stress-induced neuronal apoptosis.