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Shchelkunov SN, Yakubitskiy SN, Titova KA, Pyankov SA, Shulgina IS, Starostina EV, Borgoyakova MB, Kisakov DN, Karpenko LI, Shchelkunova GA, Sergeev AA. An Attenuated and Highly Immunogenic Variant of the Vaccinia Virus. Acta Naturae 2024; 16:82-89. [PMID: 39188266 PMCID: PMC11345087 DOI: 10.32607/actanaturae.27384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/05/2024] [Indexed: 08/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The vaccinia virus (VACV) has been used for prophylactic immunization against smallpox for many decades. However, the VACV-based vaccine had been highly reactogenic. Therefore, after the eradication of smallpox, the World Health Organization in 1980 recommended that vaccination against this infection be discontinued. As a result, there has been a rise in the occurrence of orthopoxvirus infections in humans in recent years, with the most severe being the 2022 monkeypox epidemic that reached all continents. Thus, it is crucial to address the pressing matter of developing safe and highly immunogenic vaccines for new generations to combat orthopoxvirus infections. In a previous study, we created a LAD strain by modifying the LIVP (L) VACV strain, which is used as a first-generation smallpox vaccine in Russia. This modification involved introducing mutations in the A34R gene to enhance extracellular virion production and deleting the A35R gene to counteract the antibody response to the viral infection. In this study, a strain LADA was created with an additional deletion in the DNA of the LAD strain ati gene. This ati gene directs the production of a major non-virion immunogen. The findings indicate that the LADA VACV variant exhibits lower levels of reactogenicity in BALB/c mice during intranasal infection, as compared to the original L strain. Following intradermal immunization with a 105 PFU dose, both the LAD and LADA strains were found to induce a significantly enhanced cellular immune response in mice when compared to the L strain. At the same time, the highest level of virus-specific IFN-γ producing cells for the LAD variant was detected on the 7th day post-immunization (dpi), whereas for LADA, it was observed on 14 dpi. The LAD and LADA strains induced significantly elevated levels of VACV-specific IgG compared to the original L strain, particularly between 28 and 56 dpi. The vaccinated mice were intranasally infected with the cowpox virus at a dose of 460 LD50 to assess the protective immunity at 62 dpi. The LADA virus conferred complete protection to mice, with the LAD strain providing 70% protection and the parent strain L offering protection to only 60% of the animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. N. Shchelkunov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - S. N. Yakubitskiy
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - K. A. Titova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - S. A. Pyankov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - I. S. Shulgina
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - E. V. Starostina
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - M. B. Borgoyakova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - D. N. Kisakov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - L. I. Karpenko
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - G. A. Shchelkunova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
| | - A. A. Sergeev
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russian Federation
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Giorgi FM, Pozzobon D, Di Meglio A, Mercatelli D. Genomic and transcriptomic analysis of the recent Mpox outbreak. Vaccine 2024; 42:1841-1849. [PMID: 38311533 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.12.086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/06/2024]
Abstract
The Mpox (formerly named Monkeypox) virus is the etiological cause of a recent multi-country outbreak, with thousands of distinct cases detected outside the endemic areas of Africa as of December 2023. In this article, we analyze the sequences of full genomes of Mpox virus from Europe and compare them with all available Mpox sequences of historical relevance, annotated by year and geographic origin, as well as related Cowpox and Variola (smallpox) virus sequences. Our results show that the recent outbreak is most likely originating from the West African clade of Mpox, with >99 % sequence identity with sequences derived from historical and recent cases, dating from 1971 to 2017. We analyze specific mutations occurring in viral proteins between the current outbreak, previous Mpox and Cowpox sequences, and the historical Variola virus. Genome-wide sequence analysis of the recent outbreak and other Mpox/Cowpox/Variola viruses shows a very high conservation, with 97.9 % (protein-based) and 97.8 % (nucleotide-based) sequence identity. We identified significant correlation in human transcriptional responses as well, with a conserved immune pathway response induced in human cell cultures by the three families of Pox virus. The similarities identified between the major strains of Pox viruses, as well as within the Mpox clades, both at the genomic and transcriptomic levels, provide a molecular basis for the observed efficacy of Variola vaccines in other Poxviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico M Giorgi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Via Selmi 3, 40126 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Daniele Pozzobon
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Via Selmi 3, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Antonio Di Meglio
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Via Selmi 3, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Daniele Mercatelli
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, University of Bologna, Via Selmi 3, 40126 Bologna, Italy
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Shchelkunov SN, Sergeev AA, Pyankov SA, Titova KA, Yakubitskiy SN. Smallpox vaccination in a mouse model. Vavilovskii Zhurnal Genet Selektsii 2023; 27:712-718. [PMID: 37965374 PMCID: PMC10641030 DOI: 10.18699/vjgb-23-82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 05/27/2023] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The monkeypox epidemic, which became unusually widespread among humans in 2022, has brought awareness about the necessity of smallpox vaccination of patients in the risk groups. The modern smallpox vaccine variants are introduced either intramuscularly or by skin scarification. Intramuscular vaccination cannot elicit an active immune response, since tissues at the vaccination site are immunologically poor. Skin has evolved into an immunologically important organ in mammals; therefore, intradermal delivery of a vaccine can ensure reliable protective immunity. Historically, vaccine inoculation into scarified skin (the s.s. route) was the first immunization method. However, it does not allow accurate vaccine dosing, and high-dose vaccines need to be used to successfully complete this procedure. Intradermal (i.d.) vaccine injection, especially low-dose one, can be an alternative to the s.s. route. This study aimed to compare the s.s. and i.d. smallpox immunization routes in a mouse model when using prototypic second- and fourth-generation low-dose vaccines (104 pfu). Experiments were conducted using BALB/c mice; the LIVP or LIVP-GFP strains of the vaccinia virus (VACV) were administered into the tail skin via the s.s. or i.d. routes. After vaccination (7, 14, 21, 28, 42, and 56 days post inoculation (dpi)), blood samples were collected from the retro-orbital venous sinus; titers of VACV-specific IgM and IgG in the resulting sera were determined by ELISA. Both VACV strains caused more profound antibody production when injected via the i.d. route compared to s.s. inoculation. In order to assess the level of the elicited protective immunity, mice were intranasally infected with a highly lethal dose of the cowpox virus on 62 dpi. The results demonstrated that i.d. injection ensures a stronger protective immunity in mice compared to s.s. inoculation for both VACV variants.
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Affiliation(s)
- S N Shchelkunov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology "Vector", Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russia Institute of Cytology and Genetics of the Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - A A Sergeev
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology "Vector", Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russia
| | - S A Pyankov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology "Vector", Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russia
| | - K A Titova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology "Vector", Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russia
| | - S N Yakubitskiy
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology "Vector", Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, Russia
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Bruneau RC, Tazi L, Rothenburg S. Cowpox Viruses: A Zoo Full of Viral Diversity and Lurking Threats. Biomolecules 2023; 13:325. [PMID: 36830694 PMCID: PMC9953750 DOI: 10.3390/biom13020325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Cowpox viruses (CPXVs) exhibit the broadest known host range among the Poxviridae family and have caused lethal outbreaks in various zoo animals and pets across 12 Eurasian countries, as well as an increasing number of human cases. Herein, we review the history of how the cowpox name has evolved since the 1700s up to modern times. Despite early documentation of the different properties of CPXV isolates, only modern genetic analyses and phylogenies have revealed the existence of multiple Orthopoxvirus species that are currently constrained under the CPXV designation. We further chronicle modern outbreaks in zoos, domesticated animals, and humans, and describe animal models of experimental CPXV infections and how these can help shaping CPXV species distinctions. We also describe the pathogenesis of modern CPXV infections in animals and humans, the geographic range of CPXVs, and discuss CPXV-host interactions at the molecular level and their effects on pathogenicity and host range. Finally, we discuss the potential threat of these viruses and the future of CPXV research to provide a comprehensive review of CPXVs.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Stefan Rothenburg
- Department of Medial Microbiology and Immunology, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
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Shchelkunova GA, Shchelkunov SN. Smallpox, Monkeypox and Other Human Orthopoxvirus Infections. Viruses 2022; 15:103. [PMID: 36680142 PMCID: PMC9865299 DOI: 10.3390/v15010103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Revised: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Considering that vaccination against smallpox with live vaccinia virus led to serious adverse effects in some cases, the WHO, after declaration of the global eradication of smallpox in 1980, strongly recommended to discontinue the vaccination in all countries. This led to the loss of immunity against not only smallpox but also other zoonotic orthopoxvirus infections in humans over the past years. An increasing number of human infections with zoonotic orthopoxviruses and, first of all, monkeypox, force us to reconsider a possible re-emergence of smallpox or a similar disease as a result of natural evolution of these viruses. The review contains a brief analysis of the results of studies on genomic organization and evolution of human pathogenic orthopoxviruses, development of modern methods for diagnosis, vaccination, and chemotherapy of smallpox, monkeypox, and other zoonotic human orthopoxvirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sergei N. Shchelkunov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, 630559 Novosibirsk, Russia
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Liang C, Qian J, Liu L. Biological characteristics, biosafety prevention and control strategies for the 2022 multi-country outbreak of monkeypox. BIOSAFETY AND HEALTH 2022; 4:376-385. [PMID: 36406058 PMCID: PMC9643041 DOI: 10.1016/j.bsheal.2022.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 11/03/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Monkeypox is a zoonotic disease caused by the monkeypox virus (MPXV), which is a potential biological warfare agent of bioterrorism and poses the greatest threat to the world's public biosafety and health after variola virus (VARV). While the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has not ended yet, monkeypox is spreading menacingly. The first case of monkeypox in a nonendemic country was confirmed on May 6th, 2022, while the first imported case from Asia was found on June 21st. There were more than 16 thousand reported cases as of July 23rd, the day the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the global monkeypox outbreak a public health emergency of international concern (PHEIC) at the same level as smallpox and COVID-19; while there were more than 53 thousand cases as of September 1st. Therefore, we will propose relevant biosafety prevention and control strategies after analyzing the etiology of the 2022 multi-country monkeypox outbreak from the biological feature, transmissibility, epidemic, and variability of MPXV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chudan Liang
- Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China,Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510030, China
| | - Jun Qian
- Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China,Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Control (Sun Yat-sen University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou 510030, China,Corresponding authors: Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China (J. Qian); Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510440, China (L. Liu)
| | - Linna Liu
- Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510440, China,Corresponding authors: Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510080, China (J. Qian); Guangzhou Eighth People's Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510440, China (L. Liu)
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Evaluation of Rapid Dot-Immunoassay for Detection Orthopoxviruses Using Laboratory-Grown Viruses and Animal's Clinical Specimens. Viruses 2022; 14:v14112580. [PMID: 36423189 PMCID: PMC9697496 DOI: 10.3390/v14112580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 11/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of the work was an experimental evaluation of the characteristics of the kit for the rapid immunochemical detection of orthopoxviruses (OPV). The kit is based on the method of one-stage dot-immunoassay on flat protein arrays using gold conjugates and a silver developer. Rabbit polyclonal antibodies against the vaccinia virus were used as capture and detection reagents. The sensitivity of detection of OPV and the specificity of the analysis were assessed using culture crude preparations (monkeypox virus, vaccinia virus, rabbitpox virus, cowpox virus, and ectromelia virus), a suspension from a crust from a human vaccination site as well as blood and tissue suspensions of infected rabbits. It has been shown that the assay using the kit makes it possible to detect OPV within 36 min at a temperature of 18-40 °C in unpurified culture samples of the virus and clinical samples in the range of 103-104 PFU/mL. Tests of the kit did not reveal cross-reactivity with uninfected cell cultures and viral pathogens of exanthematous infections (measles, rubella and chicken pox). The kit can be used to detect or exclude the presence of a virus threat in samples and can be useful in various aspects of biosecurity. The simplicity of analysis, the possibility of visual accounting the and interpretation of the results make it possible to use the test in laboratories with a high level of biological protection and in out-of-laboratory conditions.
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Kim HR, Jang I, Song HS, Kim SH, Kim HS, Kwon YK. Genetic Diversity of Fowlpox Virus and Putative Genes Involved in Its Pathogenicity. Microbiol Spectr 2022; 10:e0141522. [PMID: 36073826 PMCID: PMC9603804 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.01415-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
To determine the genomic variations of fowlpox virus (FPV)-the largest, very ancient, and still harmful avian virus-the complete genomes of 21 FPVs were analyzed. The genomes showed low genetic diversity relative to their overall size. Our studies revealed that FPVs could phylogenetically be divided into two clades, based on their regional distribution, and comparative analysis showed that 40 putative proteins of FPV were associated with geographic differences in viruses, viral pathogenicity, or the onset of diphtheritic lesions. The strain, classified into a subgroup different from others in the genomic analysis, showed relatively low pathogenicity in chickens, and the onset of diphtheritic lesions was observed to be caused only by the specific strain. Despite genetic differences, some commercial vaccines are protective against virulent strains, and intact reticuloendotheliosis virus inserted into field FPV strains was activated but there was no enhancement of the pathogenicity of FPV. These findings will expand our knowledge of the viral proteome and help us understand the pathogenicity of FPV. IMPORTANCE This study aims at determining molecular candidates using comparative genomics to differentiate between the diphtheritic and cutaneous forms of FPV infection, in addition to their association with the pathogenicity of the virus. Full-genomic analyses of multiple fowlpox strains, including field viruses, isolated between 1960s and 2019, and vaccine strains showed the genetic diversity due to regional differences. Comparative genomic analysis offered the clues related to viral virulence. We believe that our study makes a significant contribution to the literature because we are the first to perform such an elaborate study that compares 21 FPVs to study and highlight their diversity, despite the high level of homology between them. Our results shall help provide insights for tackling FPV that has been taking a toll on the poultry for years now.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye-Ryoung Kim
- Avian Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Il Jang
- Avian Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Hye-Soon Song
- Avian Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Si-Hyeon Kim
- Avian Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyeon-Su Kim
- Avian Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Kuk Kwon
- Avian Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea
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Shchelkunov SN, Sergeev AA, Titova KA, Pyankov SA, Starostina E, Borgoyakova MB, Kisakova LA, Kisakov DN, Karpenko LI, Yakubitskiy SN. Comparison of the Effectiveness of Transepidemal and Intradermal Immunization of Mice with the Vacinia Virus. Acta Naturae 2022; 14:111-118. [PMID: 36694907 PMCID: PMC9844093 DOI: 10.32607/actanaturae.11857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The spread of the monkeypox virus infection among humans in many countries outside of Africa, which started in 2022, is now drawing the attention of the medical and scientific communities to the fact that immunization against this infection is sorely needed. According to current guidelines, immunization of people with the first-generation smallpox vaccine based on the vaccinia virus (VACV) LIVP strain, which is licensed in Russia, should be performed via transepidermal inoculation (skin scarification, s.s.). However, the long past experience of using this vaccination technique suggests that it does not ensure virus inoculation into patients' skin with enough reliability. The procedure of intradermal (i.d.) injection of a vaccine can be an alternative to s.s. inoculation. The effectiveness of i.d. vaccination can depend on the virus injection site on the body. Therefore, the aim of this study was to compare the development of the humoral and cellular immune responses in BALB/c mice immunized with the LIVP VACV strain, which was administered either by s.s. inoculation or i.d. injection into the same tail region of the animal. A virus dose of 105 pfu was used in both cases. ELISA of serum samples revealed no significant difference in the dynamics and level of production of VACV-specific IgM and IgG after i.d. or s.s. vaccination. A ELISpot analysis of splenocytes from the vaccinated mice showed that i.d. administration of VACV LIVP to mice induces a significantly greater T-cell immune response compared to s.s. inoculation. In order to assess the protective potency, on day 45 post immunization, mice were intranasally infected with lethal doses of either the cowpox virus (CPXV) or the ectromelia virus (ECTV), which is evolutionarily distant from the VACV and CPXV. Both vaccination techniques ensured complete protection of mice against infection with the CPXV. However, when mice were infected with a highly virulent strain of ECTV, 50% survived in the i.d. immunized group, whereas only 17% survived in the s.s. immunized group. It appears, therefore, that i.d. injection of the VACV can elicit a more potent protective immunity against orthopoxviruses compared to the conventional s.s. technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. N. Shchelkunov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russia
| | - A. A. Sergeev
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russia
| | - K. A. Titova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russia
| | - S. A. Pyankov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russia
| | - E.V. Starostina
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russia
| | - M. B. Borgoyakova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russia
| | - L. A. Kisakova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russia
| | - D. N. Kisakov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russia
| | - L. I. Karpenko
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russia
| | - S. N. Yakubitskiy
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559 Russia
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Genomic Sequencing and Phylogenomics of Cowpox Virus. Viruses 2022; 14:v14102134. [PMID: 36298689 PMCID: PMC9611595 DOI: 10.3390/v14102134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV; genus Orthopoxvirus; family Poxviridae) is the causative agent of cowpox, a self-limiting zoonotic infection. CPXV is endemic in Eurasia, and human CPXV infections are associated with exposure to infected animals. In the Fennoscandian region, five CPXVs isolated from cats and humans were collected and used in this study. We report the complete sequence of their genomes, which ranged in size from 220–222 kbp, containing between 215 and 219 open reading frames. The phylogenetic analysis of 87 orthopoxvirus strains, including the Fennoscandian CPXV isolates, confirmed the division of CPXV strains into at least five distinct major clusters (CPXV-like 1, CPXV-like 2, VACV-like, VARV-like and ECTV-Abatino-like) and can be further divided into eighteen sub-species based on the genetic and patristic distances. Bayesian time-scaled evolutionary history of CPXV was reconstructed employing concatenated 62 non-recombinant conserved genes of 55 CPXV. The CPXV evolution rate was calculated to be 1.65 × 10−5 substitution/site/year. Our findings confirmed that CPXV is not a single species but a polyphyletic assemblage of several species and thus, a reclassification is warranted.
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Iyer RF, Edwards DM, Kolb P, Raué HP, Nelson CA, Epperson ML, Slifka MK, Nolz JC, Hengel H, Fremont DH, Früh K. The secreted protein Cowpox Virus 14 contributes to viral virulence and immune evasion by engaging Fc-gamma-receptors. PLoS Pathog 2022; 18:e1010783. [PMID: 36121874 PMCID: PMC9521928 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1010783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The genome of cowpoxvirus (CPXV) could be considered prototypical for orthopoxviridae (OXPV) since it contains many open reading frames (ORFs) absent or lost in other OPXV, including vaccinia virus (VACV). These additional ORFs are non-essential for growth in vitro but are expected to contribute to the broad host range, virulence and immune evasion characteristics of CPXV. For instance, unlike VACV, CPXV encodes proteins that interfere with T cell stimulation, either directly or by preventing antigen presentation or co-stimulation. When studying the priming of naïve T cells, we discovered that CPXV, but not VACV, encodes a secreted factor that interferes with activation and proliferation of naïve CD8+ and CD4+ T cells, respectively, in response to anti-CD3 antibodies, but not to other stimuli. Deletion mapping revealed that the inhibitory protein is encoded by CPXV14, a small secreted glycoprotein belonging to the poxvirus immune evasion (PIE) family and containing a smallpoxvirus encoded chemokine receptor (SECRET) domain that mediates binding to chemokines. We demonstrate that CPXV14 inhibition of antibody-mediated T cell activation depends on the presence of Fc-gamma receptors (FcγRs) on bystander cells. In vitro, CPXV14 inhibits FcγR-activation by antigen/antibody complexes by binding to FcγRs with high affinity and immobilized CPXV14 can trigger signaling through FcγRs, particularly the inhibitory FcγRIIB. In vivo, CPXV14-deleted virus showed reduced viremia and virulence resulting in reduced weight loss and death compared to wildtype virus whereas both antibody and CD8+ T cell responses were increased in the absence of CPXV14. Furthermore, no impact of CPXV14-deletion on virulence was observed in mice lacking the inhibitory FcγRIIB. Taken together our results suggest that CPXV14 contributes to virulence and immune evasion by binding to host FcγRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ravi F. Iyer
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, United States of America
| | - David M. Edwards
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Philipp Kolb
- Institute of Virology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Hans-Peter Raué
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Chris A. Nelson
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Megan L. Epperson
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Mark K. Slifka
- Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey C. Nolz
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, Oregon, United States of America
| | - Hartmut Hengel
- Institute of Virology, Medical Center, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Daved H. Fremont
- Department of Pathology & Immunology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biophysics, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri, United States of America
| | - Klaus Früh
- Vaccine and Gene Therapy Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, Oregon, United States of America
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Poxviral ANKR/F-box Proteins: Substrate Adapters for Ubiquitylation and More. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11080875. [PMID: 36014996 PMCID: PMC9414399 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11080875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2022] [Revised: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Poxviruses are double-stranded DNA viruses that infect insects and a variety of vertebrate species. The large genomes of poxviruses contain numerous genes that allow these viruses to successfully establish infection, including those that help evade the host immune response and prevent cell death. Ankyrin-repeat (ANKR)/F-box proteins are almost exclusively found in poxviruses, and they function as substrate adapters for Skp1-Cullin-1-F-box protein (SCF) multi-subunit E3 ubiquitin (Ub)-ligases. In this regard, they use their C-terminal F-box domain to bind Skp1, Cullin-1, and Roc1 to recruit cellular E2 enzymes to facilitate the ubiquitylation, and subsequent proteasomal degradation, of proteins bound to their N-terminal ANKRs. However, these proteins do not just function as substrate adapters as they also have Ub-independent activities. In this review, we examine both Ub-dependent and -independent activities of ANKR/F-box proteins and discuss how poxviruses use these proteins to counteract the host innate immune response, uncoat their genome, replicate, block cell death, and influence transcription. Finally, we consider important outstanding questions that need to be answered in order to better understand the function of this versatile protein family.
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13
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Shchelkunov SN, Yakubitskiy SN, Sergeev AA, Starostina EV, Titova KA, Pyankov SA, Shchelkunova GA, Borgoyakova MB, Zadorozhny AM, Orlova LA, Kisakov DN, Karpenko LI. Enhancing the Immunogenicity of Vaccinia Virus. Viruses 2022; 14:v14071453. [PMID: 35891430 PMCID: PMC9317313 DOI: 10.3390/v14071453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2022] [Revised: 06/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The conventional live smallpox vaccine based on the vaccinia virus (VACV) cannot be widely used today because it is highly reactogenic. Therefore, there is a demand for designing VACV variants possessing enhanced immunogenicity, making it possible to reduce the vaccine dose and, therefore, significantly eliminate the pathogenic effect of the VACV on the body. In this study, we analyzed the development of the humoral and T cell-mediated immune responses elicited by immunizing mice with low-dose VACV variants carrying the mutant A34R gene (which increases production of extracellular virions) or the deleted A35R gene (whose protein product inhibits antigen presentation by the major histocompatibility complex class II). The VACV LIVP strain, which is used as a smallpox vaccine in Russia, and its recombinant variants LIVP-A34R*, LIVP-dA35R, and LIVP-A34R*-dA35R, were compared upon intradermal immunization of BALB/c mice at a dose of 104 pfu/animal. The strongest T cell-mediated immunity was detected in mice infected with the LIVP-A34R*-dA35R virus. The parental LIVP strain induced a significantly lower antibody level compared to the strains carrying the modified A34R and A35R genes. Simultaneous modification of the A34R gene and deletion of the A35R gene in VACV LIVP synergistically enhanced the immunogenic properties of the LIVP-A34R*-dA35R virus.
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14
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Malyarchuk AB, Andreeva TV, Kuznetsova IL, Kunizheva SS, Protasova MS, Uralsky LI, Tyazhelova TV, Gusev FE, Manakhov AD, Rogaev EI. Genomics of Ancient Pathogens: First Advances and Prospects. BIOCHEMISTRY. BIOKHIMIIA 2022; 87:242-258. [PMID: 35526849 PMCID: PMC8916790 DOI: 10.1134/s0006297922030051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 01/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Paleogenomics is one of the urgent and promising areas of interdisciplinary research in the today's world science. New genomic methods of ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis, such as next generation sequencing (NGS) technologies, make it possible not only to obtain detailed genetic information about historical and prehistoric human populations, but also to study individual microbial and viral pathogens and microbiomes from different ancient and historical objects. Studies of aDNA of pathogens by reconstructing their genomes have so far yielded complete sequences of the ancient pathogens that played significant role in the history of the world: Yersinia pestis (plague), Variola virus (smallpox), Vibrio cholerae (cholera), HBV (hepatitis B virus), as well as the equally important endemic human infectious agents: Mycobacterium tuberculosis (tuberculosis), Mycobacterium leprae (leprosy), and Treponema pallidum (syphilis). Genomic data from these pathogens complemented the information previously obtained by paleopathologists and allowed not only to identify pathogens from the past pandemics, but also to recognize the pathogen lineages that are now extinct, to refine chronology of the pathogen appearance in human populations, and to reconstruct evolutionary history of the pathogens that are still relevant to public health today. In this review, we describe state-of-the-art genomic research of the origins and evolution of many ancient pathogens and viruses and examine mechanisms of the emergence and spread of the ancient infections in the mankind history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra B Malyarchuk
- Center for Genetics and Genetic Technologies, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia.
| | - Tatiana V Andreeva
- Center for Genetics and Genetic Technologies, Faculty of Biology, Lomonosov Moscow State University, Moscow, 119234, Russia
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119333, Russia
| | - Irina L Kuznetsova
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119333, Russia
- Center for Genetics and Life Science, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, 354340, Russia
| | - Svetlana S Kunizheva
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119333, Russia
- Center for Genetics and Life Science, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, 354340, Russia
| | - Maria S Protasova
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119333, Russia
| | - Lev I Uralsky
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119333, Russia
- Center for Genetics and Life Science, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, 354340, Russia
| | - Tatiana V Tyazhelova
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119333, Russia
| | - Fedor E Gusev
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119333, Russia
| | - Andrey D Manakhov
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119333, Russia
- Center for Genetics and Life Science, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, 354340, Russia
| | - Evgeny I Rogaev
- Vavilov Institute of General Genetics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow, 119333, Russia.
- Center for Genetics and Life Science, Sirius University of Science and Technology, Sochi, 354340, Russia
- Department of Psychiatry, UMass Chan Medical School, Shrewsbury, MA 01545, USA
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15
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Adaptive Immune Response to Vaccinia Virus LIVP Infection of BALB/c Mice and Protection against Lethal Reinfection with Cowpox Virus. Viruses 2021; 13:v13081631. [PMID: 34452494 PMCID: PMC8402668 DOI: 10.3390/v13081631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mass vaccination has played a critical role in the global eradication of smallpox. Various vaccinia virus (VACV) strains, whose origin has not been clearly documented in most cases, have been used as live vaccines in different countries. These VACV strains differed in pathogenicity towards various laboratory animals and in reactogenicity exhibited upon vaccination of humans. In this work, we studied the development of humoral and cellular immune responses in BALB/c mice inoculated intranasally (i.n.) or intradermally (i.d.) with the VACV LIVP strain at a dose of 105 PFU/mouse, which was used in Russia as the first generation smallpox vaccine. Active synthesis of VACV-specific IgM in the mice occurred on day 7 after inoculation, reached a maximum on day 14, and decreased by day 29. Synthesis of virus-specific IgG was detected only from day 14, and the level increased significantly by day 29 after infection of the mice. Immunization (i.n.) resulted in significantly higher production of VACV-specific antibodies compared to that upon i.d. inoculation of LIVP. There were no significant differences in the levels of the T cell response in mice after i.n. or i.d. VACV administration at any time point. The maximum level of VACV-specific T-cells was detected on day 14. By day 29 of the experiment, the level of VACV-specific T-lymphocytes in the spleen of mice significantly decreased for both immunization procedures. On day 30 after immunization with LIVP, mice were infected with the cowpox virus at a dose of 46 LD50. The i.n. immunized mice were resistant to this infection, while 33% of i.d. immunized mice died. Our findings indicate that the level of the humoral immune response to vaccination may play a decisive role in protection of animals from orthopoxvirus reinfection.
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Shchelkunov SN, Shchelkunova GA. [We should be prepared to smallpox re-emergence.]. Vopr Virusol 2021; 64:206-214. [PMID: 32167685 DOI: 10.36233/0507-4088-2019-64-5-206-214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The review contains a brief analysis of the results of investigations conducted during 40 years after smallpox eradication and directed to study genomic organization and evolution of variola virus (VARV) and development of modern diagnostics, vaccines and chemotherapies of smallpox and other zoonotic orthopoxviral infections of humans. Taking into account that smallpox vaccination in several cases had adverse side effects, WHO recommended ceasing this vaccination after 1980 in all countries of the world. The result of this decision is that the mankind lost the collective immunity not only to smallpox, but also to other zoonotic orthopoxvirus infections. The ever more frequently recorded human cases of zoonotic orthopoxvirus infections force to renew consideration of the problem of possible smallpox reemergence resulting from natural evolution of these viruses. Analysis of the available archive data on smallpox epidemics, the history of ancient civilizations, and the newest data on the evolutionary relationship of orthopoxviruses has allowed us to hypothesize that VARV could have repeatedly reemerged via evolutionary changes in a zoonotic ancestor virus and then disappeared because of insufficient population size of isolated ancient civilizations. Only the historically last smallpox pandemic continued for a long time and was contained and stopped in the 20th century thanks to the joint efforts of medics and scientists from many countries under the aegis of WHO. Thus, there is no fundamental prohibition on potential reemergence of smallpox or a similar human disease in future in the course of natural evolution of the currently existing zoonotic orthopoxviruses. Correspondingly, it is of the utmost importance to develop and widely adopt state-of-the-art methods for efficient and rapid species-specific diagnosis of all orthopoxvirus species pathogenic for humans, VARV included. It is also most important to develop new safe methods for prevention and therapy of human orthopoxvirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- S N Shchelkunov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559, Russia
| | - G A Shchelkunova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559, Russia
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17
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Enhancing the Protective Immune Response to Administration of a LIVP-GFP Live Attenuated Vaccinia Virus to Mice. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10030377. [PMID: 33801026 PMCID: PMC8004012 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10030377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Following the WHO announcement of smallpox eradication, discontinuation of smallpox vaccination with vaccinia virus (VACV) was recommended. However, interest in VACV was soon renewed due to the opportunity of genetic engineering of the viral genome by directed insertion of foreign genes or introduction of mutations or deletions into selected viral genes. This genomic technology enabled production of stable attenuated VACV strains producing antigens of various infectious agents. Due to an increasing threat of human orthopoxvirus re-emergence, the development of safe highly immunogenic live orthopoxvirus vaccines using genetic engineering methods has been the challenge in recent years. In this study, we investigated an attenuated VACV LIVP-GFP (TK-) strain having an insertion of the green fluorescent protein gene into the viral thymidine kinase gene, which was generated on the basis of the LIVP (Lister-Institute for Viral Preparations) strain used in Russia as the first generation smallpox vaccine. We studied the effect of A34R gene modification and A35R gene deletion on the immunogenic and protective properties of the LIVP-GFP strain. The obtained data demonstrate that intradermal inoculation of the studied viruses induces higher production of VACV-specific antibodies compared to their levels after intranasal administration. Introduction of two point mutations into the A34R gene, which increase the yield of extracellular enveloped virions, and deletion of the A35R gene, the protein product of which inhibits presentation of antigens by MHC II, enhances protective potency of the created LIVP-TK--A34R*-dA35R virus against secondary lethal orthopoxvirus infection of BALB/c mice even at an intradermal dose as low as 103 plaque forming units (PFU)/mouse. This virus may be considered not only as a candidate attenuated live vaccine against smallpox and other human orthopoxvirus infections but also as a vector platform for development of safe multivalent live vaccines against other infectious diseases using genetic engineering methods.
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Sinha A, Singh AK, Kadni TS, Mullick J, Sahu A. Virus-Encoded Complement Regulators: Current Status. Viruses 2021; 13:v13020208. [PMID: 33573085 PMCID: PMC7912105 DOI: 10.3390/v13020208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2020] [Revised: 01/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses require a host for replication and survival and hence are subjected to host immunological pressures. The complement system, a crucial first response of the host immune system, is effective in targeting viruses and virus-infected cells, and boosting the antiviral innate and acquired immune responses. Thus, the system imposes a strong selection pressure on viruses. Consequently, viruses have evolved multiple countermeasures against host complement. A major mechanism employed by viruses to subvert the complement system is encoding proteins that target complement. Since viruses have limited genome size, most of these proteins are multifunctional in nature. In this review, we provide up to date information on the structure and complement regulatory functions of various viral proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anwesha Sinha
- Complement Biology Laboratory, National Centre for Cell Science, S. P. Pune University Campus, Ganeskhind, Pune 411007, India; (A.S.); (A.K.S.); (T.S.K.)
| | - Anup Kumar Singh
- Complement Biology Laboratory, National Centre for Cell Science, S. P. Pune University Campus, Ganeskhind, Pune 411007, India; (A.S.); (A.K.S.); (T.S.K.)
| | - Trupti Satish Kadni
- Complement Biology Laboratory, National Centre for Cell Science, S. P. Pune University Campus, Ganeskhind, Pune 411007, India; (A.S.); (A.K.S.); (T.S.K.)
| | - Jayati Mullick
- Polio Virology Group, Microbial Containment Complex, ICMR-National Institute of Virology, Pune 411021, India;
| | - Arvind Sahu
- Complement Biology Laboratory, National Centre for Cell Science, S. P. Pune University Campus, Ganeskhind, Pune 411007, India; (A.S.); (A.K.S.); (T.S.K.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +91-20-2570-8083; Fax: +91-20-2569-2259
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19
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Khalafalla AI, Al Hosani MA, Ishag HZA, Al Muhairi SS. More cell culture passaged Camelpox virus sequences found resembling those of vaccinia virus. Open Vet J 2020; 10:144-156. [PMID: 32821659 PMCID: PMC7419068 DOI: 10.4314/ovj.v10i2.4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Camelpox is the most infectious and economically important disease of camelids that causes significant morbidity and mortality rates. Several live attenuated vaccines against Camelpox virus (CMLV) are produced worldwide by passaging field isolates in cell culture. Sequence of a high passage Saudi isolate of CMLV was previously found closely resembled Vaccinia virus (VACV). AIM To determine whether other high cell culture passage CMLV isolates are genetically resemble VACV and further to explore the possible mechanism of the resemblance. METHODS We performed polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequence analysis of A-type inclusion body protein (ATIP), L1R, and open reading frame (ORF) 185 genes on different cell culture passage levels of a field isolate, two high passage vaccines, wild-type, and reference strains of CMLV. RESULTS We demonstrate that additional two high passage attenuated vaccine candidate from Sudan and UAE likewise contain sequences resembling VACV more than CMLV. Furthermore, sequence analysis of the ATIP gene of selected virus passages in cell culture revealed that the shift to VACV-like occurred between passage 11 and 20 and up to the 10th passage the genome still resembles wild-type virus. This observation was further confirmed by recombination analysis which indicated recombination events at ATIP and ORF185 genes occurred at higher passages. CONCLUSION We confirmed that the cell culture passage CMLV turns to resemble VACV after cell culture passage and concluded that the resemblance may not be a result of contamination or misidentification as previously thought but could be due to recombination events that occurred during the passage process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelmalik I. Khalafalla
- Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum, Shambat, Khartoum North Sudan
- Corresponding Author: Abdelmalik Ibrahim Khalafalla. Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE.
| | - Mohamed A. Al Hosani
- Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Hassan Zackaria Ali Ishag
- Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE
| | - Salama S. Al Muhairi
- Veterinary Laboratories Division, Animal Health Sector, Abu Dhabi Agriculture and Food Safety Authority (ADAFSA), Abu Dhabi, UAE
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20
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Shchelkunov SN, Yakubitskiy SN, Sergeev AA, Kabanov AS, Bauer TV, Bulychev LE, Pyankov SA. Effect of the Route of Administration of the Vaccinia Virus Strain LIVP to Mice on Its Virulence and Immunogenicity. Viruses 2020; 12:E795. [PMID: 32722032 PMCID: PMC7472337 DOI: 10.3390/v12080795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The mass smallpox vaccination campaign has played a crucial role in smallpox eradication. Various strains of the vaccinia virus (VACV) were used as a live smallpox vaccine in different countries, their origin being unknown in most cases. The VACV strains differ in terms of pathogenicity exhibited upon inoculation of laboratory animals and reactogenicity exhibited upon vaccination of humans. Therefore, each generated strain or clonal variant of VACV needs to be thoroughly studied in in vivo systems. The clonal variant 14 of LIVP strain (LIVP-14) was the study object in this work. A comparative analysis of the virulence and immunogenicity of LIVP-14 inoculated intranasally (i.n.), intradermally (i.d.), or subcutaneously (s.c.) to BALB/c mice at doses of 108, 107, and 106 pfu was carried out. Adult mice exhibited the highest sensitivity to the i.n. administered LIVP-14 strain, although the infection was not lethal. The i.n. inoculated LIVP-14 replicated efficiently in the lungs. Furthermore, this virus was accumulated in the brain at relatively high concentrations. Significantly lower levels of LIVP-14 were detected in the liver, kidneys, and spleen of experimental animals. No clinical manifestations of the disease were observed after i.d. or s.c. injection of LIVP-14 to mice. After s.c. inoculation, the virus was detected only at the injection site, while it could disseminate to the liver and lungs when delivered via i.d. administration. A comparative analysis of the production of virus-specific antibodies by ELISA and PRNT revealed that the highest level of antibodies was induced in i.n. inoculated mice; a lower level of antibodies was observed after i.d. administration of the virus and the lowest level after s.c. injection. Even at the lowest studied dose (106 pfu), i.n. or i.d. administered LIVP-14 completely protected mice against infection with the cowpox virus at the lethal dose. Our findings imply that, according to the ratio between such characteristics as pathogenicity/immunogenicity/protectivity, i.d. injection is the optimal method of inoculation with the VACV LIVP-14 strain to ensure the safe formation of immune defense after vaccination against orthopoxviral infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei N. Shchelkunov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Rospotrebnadzor, Koltsovo 630559, Novosibirsk Region, Russia; (S.N.Y.); (A.A.S.); (A.S.K.); (T.V.B.); (L.E.B.); (S.A.P.)
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What a Difference a Gene Makes: Identification of Virulence Factors of Cowpox Virus. J Virol 2020; 94:JVI.01625-19. [PMID: 31645446 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01625-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) is a zoonotic orthopoxvirus (OPV) that causes spillover infections from its animal hosts to humans. In 2009, several human CPXV cases occurred through transmission from pet rats. An isolate from a diseased rat, RatPox09, exhibited significantly increased virulence in Wistar rats and caused high mortality compared to that caused by the mildly virulent laboratory strain Brighton Red (BR). The RatPox09 genome encodes four genes which are absent in the BR genome. We hypothesized that their gene products could be major factors influencing the high virulence of RatPox09. To address this hypothesis, we employed several BR-RatPox09 chimeric viruses. Using Red-mediated mutagenesis, we generated BR-based knock-in mutants with single or multiple insertions of the respective RatPox09 genes. High-throughput sequencing was used to verify the genomic integrity of all recombinant viruses, and transcriptomic analyses confirmed that the expression profiles of the genes that were adjacent to the modified ones were unaltered. While the in vitro growth kinetics were comparable to those of BR and RatPox09, we discovered that a knock-in BR mutant containing the four RatPox09-specific genes was as virulent as the RatPox09 isolate, causing death in over 75% of infected Wistar rats. Unexpectedly, the insertion of gCPXV0030 (g7tGP) alone into the BR genome resulted in significantly higher clinical scores and lower survival rates matching the rate for rats infected with RatPox09. The insertion of gCPXV0284, encoding the BTB (broad-complex, tramtrack, and bric-à-brac) domain protein D7L, also increased the virulence of BR, while the other two open reading frames failed to rescue virulence independently. In summary, our results confirmed our hypothesis that a relatively small set of four genes can contribute significantly to CPXV virulence in the natural rat animal model.IMPORTANCE With the cessation of vaccination against smallpox and its assumed cross-protectivity against other OPV infections, waning immunity could open up new niches for related poxviruses. Therefore, the identification of virulence mechanisms in CPXV is of general interest. Here, we aimed to identify virulence markers in an experimental rodent CPXV infection model using bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-based virus recombineering. We focused our work on the recent zoonotic CPXV isolate RatPox09, which is highly pathogenic in Wistar rats, unlike the avirulent BR reference strain. In several animal studies, we were able to identify a novel set of CPXV virulence genes. Two of the identified virulence genes, encoding a putative BTB/POZ protein (CPXVD7L) and a B22R-family protein (CPXV7tGP), respectively, have not yet been described to be involved in CPXV virulence. Our results also show that single genes can significantly affect virulence, thus facilitating adaptation to other hosts.
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Shchelkunov SN, Shchelkunova GA. Genes that Control Vaccinia Virus Immunogenicity. Acta Naturae 2020; 12:33-41. [PMID: 32477596 PMCID: PMC7245956 DOI: 10.32607/actanaturae.10935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The live smallpox vaccine was a historical first and highly effective vaccine. However, along with high immunogenicity, the vaccinia virus (VACV) caused serious side effects in vaccinees, sometimes with lethal outcomes. Therefore, after global eradication of smallpox, VACV vaccination was stopped. For this reason, most of the human population worldwide lacks specific immunity against not only smallpox, but also other zoonotic orthopoxviruses. Outbreaks of diseases caused by these viruses have increasingly occurred in humans on different continents. However, use of the classical live VACV vaccine for prevention against these diseases is unacceptable because of potential serious side effects, especially in individuals with suppressed immunity or immunodeficiency (e.g., HIV-infected patients). Therefore, highly attenuated VACV variants that preserve their immunogenicity are needed. This review discusses current ideas about the development of a humoral and cellular immune response to orthopoxvirus infection/vaccination and describes genetic engineering approaches that could be utilized to generate safe and highly immunogenic live VACV vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. N. Shchelkunov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Novosibirsk region, Koltsovo, 630559 Russia
- The Federal Research Center Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk, 630090 Russia
- Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, 630090 Russia
| | - G. A. Shchelkunova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology “Vector”, Rospotrebnadzor, Novosibirsk region, Koltsovo, 630559 Russia
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Wei M, Wang D, Li Z, Song S, Kong X, Mo X, Yang Y, He M, Li Z, Huang B, Lin Z, Pan H, Zheng Q, Yu H, Gu Y, Zhang J, Li S, Xia N. N-terminal truncations on L1 proteins of human papillomaviruses promote their soluble expression in Escherichia coli and self-assembly in vitro. Emerg Microbes Infect 2018; 7:160. [PMID: 30254257 PMCID: PMC6156512 DOI: 10.1038/s41426-018-0158-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2018] [Revised: 08/24/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Human papillomavirus (HPV) is the causative agent in genital warts and nearly all cervical, anogenital, and oropharyngeal cancers. Nine HPV types (6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58) are associated with about 90% of cervical cancers and 90% of genital warts. HPV neutralization by vaccine-elicited neutralizing antibodies can block viral infection and prevent HPV-associated diseases. However, there is only one commercially available HPV vaccine, Gardasil 9, produced from Saccharomyces cerevisiae that covers all nine types, raising the need for microbial production of broad-spectrum HPV vaccines. Here, we investigated whether N-terminal truncations of the major HPV capsid proteins L1, improve their soluble expression in Escherichia coli. We found that N-terminal truncations promoted the soluble expression of HPV 33 (truncated by 10 amino acids [aa]), 52 (15 aa), and 58 (10 aa). The resultant HPV L1 proteins were purified in pentamer form and extensively characterized with biochemical, biophysical, and immunochemical methods. The pentamers self-assembled into virus-like particles (VLPs) in vitro, and 3D cryo-EM reconstructions revealed that all formed T = 7 icosahedral particles having 50–60-nm diameters. Moreover, we formulated a nine-valent HPV vaccine candidate with aluminum adjuvant and L1 VLPs from four genotypes used in this study and five from previous work. Immunogenicity assays in mice and non-human primates indicated that this HPV nine-valent vaccine candidate elicits neutralizing antibody titers comparable to those induced by Gardasil 9. Our study provides a method for producing a nine-valent HPV vaccine in E. coli and may inform strategies for the soluble expression of other vaccine candidates. • N-terminal truncations promote the soluble expression of HPV L1 proteins in E. coli and their self-assembly of T = 7 icosahedral particle in vitro • An HPV 9-valent vaccine candidate was formulated with E. coli-derived HPV 6, 11, 16, 18, 31, 33, 45, 52, and 58 VLPs, and conferred comparable immunogenicity with Gardasil 9
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Affiliation(s)
- Minxi Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Daning Wang
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Disease, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Zhihai Li
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Shuo Song
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Xianglin Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Xiaobing Mo
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Yurou Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Maozhou He
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Disease, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Zhongyi Li
- Xiamen Innovax Biotech Company, Ltd, 361022, Xiamen, China
| | - Bo Huang
- Xiamen Innovax Biotech Company, Ltd, 361022, Xiamen, China
| | - Zhijie Lin
- Xiamen Innovax Biotech Company, Ltd, 361022, Xiamen, China
| | - Huirong Pan
- Xiamen Innovax Biotech Company, Ltd, 361022, Xiamen, China
| | - Qingbing Zheng
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Disease, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Hai Yu
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Disease, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Ying Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China.,National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Disease, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Jun Zhang
- National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Disease, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China
| | - Shaowei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China. .,National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Disease, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China.
| | - Ningshao Xia
- State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Life Sciences, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China. .,National Institute of Diagnostics and Vaccine Development in Infectious Disease, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, 361102, Xiamen, China.
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Esparza J, Schrick L, Damaso CR, Nitsche A. Equination (inoculation of horsepox): An early alternative to vaccination (inoculation of cowpox) and the potential role of horsepox virus in the origin of the smallpox vaccine. Vaccine 2017; 35:7222-7230. [PMID: 29137821 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2017.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2017] [Revised: 10/18/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
For almost 150 years after Edward Jenner had published the "Inquiry" in 1798, it was generally assumed that the cowpox virus was the vaccine against smallpox. It was not until 1939 when it was shown that vaccinia, the smallpox vaccine virus, was serologically related but different from the cowpox virus. In the absence of a known natural host, vaccinia has been considered to be a laboratory virus that may have originated from mutational or recombinational events involving cowpox virus, variola viruses or some unknown ancestral Orthopoxvirus. A favorite candidate for a vaccinia ancestor has been the horsepox virus. Edward Jenner himself suspected that cowpox derived from horsepox and he also believed that "matter" obtained from either disease could be used as preventative of smallpox. During the 19th century, inoculation with cowpox (vaccination) was used in Europe alongside with inoculation with horsepox (equination) to prevent smallpox. Vaccine-manufacturing practices during the 19th century may have resulted in the use of virus mixtures, leading to different genetic modifications that resulted in present-day vaccinia strains. Horsepox, a disease previously reported only in Europe, has been disappearing on that continent since the beginning of the 20th century and now seems to have become extinct, although the virus perhaps remains circulating in an unknown reservoir. Genomic sequencing of a horsepox virus isolated in Mongolia in 1976 indicated that, while closely related to vaccinia, this horsepox virus contained additional, potentially ancestral sequences absent in vaccinia. Recent genetic analyses of extant vaccinia viruses have revealed that some strains contain ancestral horsepox virus genes or are phylogenetically related to horsepox virus. We have recently reported that a commercially produced smallpox vaccine, manufactured in the United States in 1902, is genetically highly similar to horsepox virus, providing a missing link in this 200-year-old mystery.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Esparza
- Institute of Human Virology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.
| | - Livia Schrick
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 - Highly Pathogenic Viruses & German Consultant Laboratory for Poxviruses & WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Clarissa R Damaso
- Laboratório de Biologia Molecular de Virus, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Andreas Nitsche
- Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens 1 - Highly Pathogenic Viruses & German Consultant Laboratory for Poxviruses & WHO Collaborating Centre for Emerging Infections and Biological Threats, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
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Olson VA, Shchelkunov SN. Are We Prepared in Case of a Possible Smallpox-Like Disease Emergence? Viruses 2017; 9:E242. [PMID: 32962316 PMCID: PMC5618008 DOI: 10.3390/v9090242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 08/23/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Smallpox was the first human disease to be eradicated, through a concerted vaccination campaign led by the World Health Organization. Since its eradication, routine vaccination against smallpox has ceased, leaving the world population susceptible to disease caused by orthopoxviruses. In recent decades, reports of human disease from zoonotic orthopoxviruses have increased. Furthermore, multiple reports of newly identified poxviruses capable of causing human disease have occurred. These facts raise concerns regarding both the opportunity for these zoonotic orthopoxviruses to evolve and become a more severe public health issue, as well as the risk of Variola virus (the causative agent of smallpox) to be utilized as a bioterrorist weapon. The eradication of smallpox occurred prior to the development of the majority of modern virological and molecular biological techniques. Therefore, there is a considerable amount that is not understood regarding how this solely human pathogen interacts with its host. This paper briefly recounts the history and current status of diagnostic tools, vaccines, and anti-viral therapeutics for treatment of smallpox disease. The authors discuss the importance of further research to prepare the global community should a smallpox-like virus emerge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria A. Olson
- Poxvirus and Rabies Branch, Division of High Consequence Pathogens and Pathology, National Center for Emerging and Zoonotic Infectious Diseases, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA 30333, USA
| | - Sergei N. Shchelkunov
- Department of Genomic Research and Development of DNA Diagnostics of Poxviruses, State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Koltsovo, 630559 Novosibirsk Region, Russia
- Department of Molecular Biology, Novosibirsk State University, 630090 Novosibirsk, Russia
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Ricordel M, Foloppe J, Pichon C, Sfrontato N, Antoine D, Tosch C, Cochin S, Cordier P, Quemeneur E, Camus-Bouclainville C, Bertagnoli S, Erbs P. Cowpox Virus: A New and Armed Oncolytic Poxvirus. MOLECULAR THERAPY-ONCOLYTICS 2017; 7:1-11. [PMID: 28951885 PMCID: PMC5607123 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2017.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Oncolytic virus therapy has recently been recognized as a promising new therapeutic approach for cancer treatment. In this study, we are proposing for the first time to evaluate the in vitro and in vivo oncolytic capacities of the Cowpox virus (CPXV). To improve the tumor selectivity and oncolytic activity, we developed a thymidine kinase (TK)-deleted CPXV expressing the suicide gene FCU1, which converts the non-toxic prodrug 5-fluorocytosine (5-FC) into cytotoxic 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and 5-fluorouridine-5′-monophosphate (5-FUMP). This TK-deleted virus replicated efficiently in human tumor cell lines; however, it was notably attenuated in normal primary cells, thus displaying a good therapeutic index. Furthermore, this new recombinant poxvirus rendered cells sensitive to 5-FC. In vivo, after systemic injection in mice, the TK-deleted variant caused significantly less mortality than the wild-type strain. A biodistribution study demonstrated high tumor selectivity and low accumulation in normal tissues. In human xenograft models of solid tumors, the recombinant CPXV also displayed high replication, inducing relevant tumor growth inhibition. This anti-tumor effect was improved by 5-FC co-administration. These results demonstrated that CPXV is a promising oncolytic vector capable of expressing functional therapeutic transgenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Ricordel
- TRANSGENE S.A, 400 Boulevard Gonthier d'Andernach, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Johann Foloppe
- TRANSGENE S.A, 400 Boulevard Gonthier d'Andernach, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Christelle Pichon
- TRANSGENE S.A, 400 Boulevard Gonthier d'Andernach, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Nathalie Sfrontato
- TRANSGENE S.A, 400 Boulevard Gonthier d'Andernach, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Delphine Antoine
- TRANSGENE S.A, 400 Boulevard Gonthier d'Andernach, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Caroline Tosch
- TRANSGENE S.A, 400 Boulevard Gonthier d'Andernach, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Sandrine Cochin
- TRANSGENE S.A, 400 Boulevard Gonthier d'Andernach, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Pascale Cordier
- TRANSGENE S.A, 400 Boulevard Gonthier d'Andernach, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | - Eric Quemeneur
- TRANSGENE S.A, 400 Boulevard Gonthier d'Andernach, 67400 Illkirch, France
| | | | | | - Philippe Erbs
- TRANSGENE S.A, 400 Boulevard Gonthier d'Andernach, 67400 Illkirch, France
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Triad of human cellular proteins, IRF2, FAM111A, and RFC3, restrict replication of orthopoxvirus SPI-1 host-range mutants. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2017; 114:3720-3725. [PMID: 28320935 PMCID: PMC5389286 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1700678114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Viruses and their hosts can reach balanced states of evolution ensuring mutual survival, which makes it difficult to appreciate the underlying dynamics. To uncover hidden interactions, virus mutants that have lost defense genes may be used. Deletion of the gene that encodes serine protease inhibitor 1 (SPI-1) of rabbitpox virus and vaccinia virus, two closely related orthopoxviruses, prevents their efficient replication in human cells, whereas certain other mammalian cells remain fully permissive. Our high-throughput genome-wide siRNA screen identified host factors that prevent reproduction and spread of the mutant viruses in human cells. More than 20,000 genes were interrogated with individual siRNAs and those that prominently increased replication of the SPI-1 deletion mutant were subjected to a secondary screen. The top hits based on the combined data-replication factor C3 (RFC3), FAM111A, and interferon regulatory factor 2 (IRF2)-were confirmed by custom assays. The siRNAs to RFC1, RFC2, RFC4, and RFC5 mRNAs also enhanced spread of the mutant virus, strengthening the biological significance of the RFC complex as a host restriction factor for poxviruses. Whereas association with proliferating cell nuclear antigen and participation in processive genome replication are common features of FAM111A and RFC, IRF2 is a transcriptional regulator. Microarray analysis, quantitative RT-PCR, and immunoblotting revealed that IRF2 regulated the basal level expression of FAM111A, suggesting that the enhancing effect of depleting IRF2 on replication of the SPI-1 mutant was indirect. Thus, the viral SPI-1 protein and the host IRF2, FAM111A, and RFC complex likely form an interaction network that influences the ability of poxviruses to replicate in human cells.
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Tamošiūnaitė A, Hoffmann D, Franke A, Schluckebier J, Tauscher K, Tischer BK, Beer M, Klopfleisch R, Osterrieder N. Histopathological and Immunohistochemical Studies of Cowpox Virus Replication in a Three-Dimensional Skin Model. J Comp Pathol 2016; 155:55-61. [PMID: 27291992 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2016.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Revised: 04/18/2016] [Accepted: 05/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Human cowpox virus (CPXV) infections are rare, but can result in severe and sometimes fatal outcomes. The majority of recent cases were traced back to contacts with infected domestic cats or pet rats. The aim of the present study was to evaluate a three-dimensional (3D) skin model as a possible replacement for animal experiments. We monitored CPXV lesion formation, viral gene expression and cell cycle patterns after infection of 3D skin cultures with two CPXV strains of different pathogenic potential: a recent pet rat isolate (RatPox09) and the reference Brighton red strain. Infected 3D skin cultures exhibited histological alterations that were similar to those of mammal skin infections, but there were no differences in gene expression patterns and tissue damage between the two CPXV strains in the model system. In conclusion, 3D skin cultures reflect the development of pox lesions in the skin very well, but seem not to allow differentiation between more or less virulent virus strains, a distinction that is made possible by experimental infection in suitable animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Tamošiūnaitė
- Institut für Virologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - D Hoffmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - A Franke
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - J Schluckebier
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - K Tauscher
- Department of Experimental Animal Facilities and Biorisk Management, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - B K Tischer
- Institut für Virologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - M Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - R Klopfleisch
- Institute for Veterinary Pathology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - N Osterrieder
- Institut für Virologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Zentrum für Infektionsmedizin, Berlin, Germany.
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Lin J, Eggensperger S, Hank S, Wycisk AI, Wieneke R, Mayerhofer PU, Tampé R. A negative feedback modulator of antigen processing evolved from a frameshift in the cowpox virus genome. PLoS Pathog 2014; 10:e1004554. [PMID: 25503639 PMCID: PMC4263761 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 11/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Coevolution of viruses and their hosts represents a dynamic molecular battle between the immune system and viral factors that mediate immune evasion. After the abandonment of smallpox vaccination, cowpox virus infections are an emerging zoonotic health threat, especially for immunocompromised patients. Here we delineate the mechanistic basis of how cowpox viral CPXV012 interferes with MHC class I antigen processing. This type II membrane protein inhibits the coreTAP complex at the step after peptide binding and peptide-induced conformational change, in blocking ATP binding and hydrolysis. Distinct from other immune evasion mechanisms, TAP inhibition is mediated by a short ER-lumenal fragment of CPXV012, which results from a frameshift in the cowpox virus genome. Tethered to the ER membrane, this fragment mimics a high ER-lumenal peptide concentration, thus provoking a trans-inhibition of antigen translocation as supply for MHC I loading. These findings illuminate the evolution of viral immune modulators and the basis of a fine-balanced regulation of antigen processing. Virus-infected or malignant transformed cells are eliminated by cytotoxic T lymphocytes, which recognize antigenic peptide epitopes in complex with major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules at the cell surface. The majority of such peptides are derived from proteasomal degradation in the cytosol and are then translocated into the ER lumen in an energy-consuming reaction via the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP), which delivers the peptides onto MHC I molecules as final acceptors. Viruses have evolved sophisticated strategies to escape this immune surveillance. Here we show that the cowpox viral protein CPXV012 inhibits the ER peptide translocation machinery by allosterically blocking ATP binding and hydrolysis by TAP. The short ER resident active domain of the viral protein evolved from a reading frame shift in the cowpox virus genome and exploits the ER-lumenal negative feedback peptide sensor of TAP. This CPXV012-induced conformational arrest of TAP is signaled by a unique communication across the ER membrane to the cytosolic motor domains of the peptide pump. Furthermore, this study provides the rare opportunity to decipher on a molecular level how nature plays hide and seek with a pathogen and its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiacheng Lin
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Sabine Eggensperger
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Susanne Hank
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Agnes I. Wycisk
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Ralph Wieneke
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Peter U. Mayerhofer
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
- * E-mail: (PUM); (RT)
| | - Robert Tampé
- Institute of Biochemistry, Biocenter, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence – Macromolecular Complexes, Goethe-University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
- * E-mail: (PUM); (RT)
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Hatcher EL, Hendrickson RC, Lefkowitz EJ. Identification of nucleotide-level changes impacting gene content and genome evolution in orthopoxviruses. J Virol 2014; 88:13651-68. [PMID: 25231308 PMCID: PMC4248964 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02015-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Poxviruses are composed of large double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) genomes coding for several hundred genes whose variation has supported virus adaptation to a wide variety of hosts over their long evolutionary history. Comparative genomics has suggested that the Orthopoxvirus genus in particular has undergone reductive evolution, with the most recent common ancestor likely possessing a gene complement consisting of all genes present in any existing modern-day orthopoxvirus species, similar to the current Cowpox virus species. As orthopoxviruses adapt to new environments, the selection pressure on individual genes may be altered, driving sequence divergence and possible loss of function. This is evidenced by accumulation of mutations and loss of protein-coding open reading frames (ORFs) that progress from individual missense mutations to gene truncation through the introduction of early stop mutations (ESMs), gene fragmentation, and in some cases, a total loss of the ORF. In this study, we have constructed a whole-genome alignment for representative isolates from each Orthopoxvirus species and used it to identify the nucleotide-level changes that have led to gene content variation. By identifying the changes that have led to ESMs, we were able to determine that short indels were the major cause of gene truncations and that the genome length is inversely proportional to the number of ESMs present. We also identified the number and types of protein functional motifs still present in truncated genes to assess their functional significance. IMPORTANCE This work contributes to our understanding of reductive evolution in poxviruses by identifying genomic remnants such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and indels left behind by evolutionary processes. Our comprehensive analysis of the genomic changes leading to gene truncation and fragmentation was able to detect some of the remnants of these evolutionary processes still present in orthopoxvirus genomes and suggests that these viruses are under continual adaptation due to changes in their environment. These results further our understanding of the evolutionary mechanisms that drive virus variation, allowing orthopoxviruses to adapt to particular environmental niches. Understanding the evolutionary history of these virus pathogens may help predict their future evolutionary potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eneida L Hatcher
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
| | | | - Elliot J Lefkowitz
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA
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Evolution of and evolutionary relationships between extant vaccinia virus strains. J Virol 2014; 89:1809-24. [PMID: 25410873 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02797-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Although vaccinia virus (VACV) was once used as a vaccine to eradicate smallpox on a worldwide scale, the biological origins of VACV are uncertain, as are the historical relationships between the different strains once used as smallpox vaccines. Here, we sequenced additional VACV strains that either represent relatively pristine examples of old vaccines (e.g., Dryvax, Lister, and Tashkent) or have been subjected to additional laboratory passage (e.g., IHD-W and WR). These genome sequences were compared with those previously reported for other VACVs as well as other orthopoxviruses. These extant VACVs do not always cluster in simple phylogenetic trees that are aligned with the known historical relationships between these strains. Rather, the pattern of deletions suggests that all existing strains likely come from a complex stock of viruses that has been passaged, distributed, and randomly sampled over time, thus obscuring simple historical or geographic links. We examined surviving nonclonal vaccine stocks, like Dryvax, which continue to harbor larger and now rare variants, including one that we have designated "clone DPP25." DPP25 encodes genes not found in most VACV strains, including an ankyrin-F-box protein, a homolog of the variola virus (Bangladesh) B18R gene which we show can be deleted without affecting virulence in mice. We propose a simple common mechanism by which recombination of a larger and hypothetical DPP25-like ancestral strain, combined with selection for retention of critically important genes near the terminal inverted repeat boundaries (vaccinia virus growth factor gene and an interferon alpha/beta receptor homolog), could produce all known VACV variants. IMPORTANCE Smallpox was eradicated by using a combination of intensive disease surveillance and vaccination using vaccinia virus (VACV). Interestingly, little is known about the historical relationships between different strains of VACV and how these viruses may have evolved from a common ancestral strain. To understand these relationships, additional strains were sequenced and compared to existing strains of VACV as well as other orthopoxviruses by using whole-genome sequence alignments. Extant strains of VACV did not always cluster in simple phylogenetic trees based on known historical relationships between these strains. Based on these findings, it is possible that all existing strains of VACV are derived from a single complex stock of viruses that has been passaged, distributed, and sampled over time.
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Maksyutov RA, Gavrilova EV, Meyer H, Shchelkunov SN. Real-time PCR assay for specific detection of cowpox virus. J Virol Methods 2014; 211:8-11. [PMID: 25455900 DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2014.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2014] [Revised: 10/06/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The species cowpox virus (CPXV), genus Orthopoxvirus (OPV), consists of isolates highly variable in their biological properties and their genotypes. A TaqMan PCR assay for the specific detection of CPXV DNA based on sequences of the ORF D11L has been developed recently. (Gavrilova et al., 2010; Shchelkunov et al., 2011); however, a rather limited panel of CPXV stains has been used. When a much larger panel of 47 CPXV DNAs has been tested, three strains could not be amplified at all because of large deletions in their respective ORF D11L. In addition, a deletion of 23bp led to low-efficiency detection of five other CPXV strains. To solve this problem a new primer/probe combinations was selected based on sequences of ORF D8L, and a new real-time PCR method for (i) a genus-specific detection of OPVs and (ii) a simultaneous CPXV-specific differentiation is described in this study. The specificity and sensitivity were assessed by analyzing DNA of 67 strains belonging to human-pathogenic OPV species, including variola virus, as well as specimens of CPXV-infected mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rinat A Maksyutov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology "VECTOR", Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Region 630559, Russia.
| | - Elena V Gavrilova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology "VECTOR", Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Region 630559, Russia.
| | - Hermann Meyer
- Institut für Mikrobiologie der Bundeswehr, München 80937, Germany.
| | - Sergei N Shchelkunov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology "VECTOR", Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Region 630559, Russia.
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Identification of 10 cowpox virus proteins that are necessary for induction of hemorrhagic lesions (red pocks) on chorioallantoic membranes. J Virol 2014; 88:8615-28. [PMID: 24850732 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00901-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Cowpox viruses (CPXV) cause hemorrhagic lesions ("red pocks") on infected chorioallantoic membranes (CAM) of embryonated chicken eggs, while most other members of the genus Orthopoxvirus produce nonhemorrhagic lesions ("white pocks"). Cytokine response modifier A (CrmA) of CPXV strain Brighton Red (BR) is necessary but not sufficient for the induction of red pocks. To identify additional viral proteins involved in the induction of hemorrhagic lesions, a library of single-gene CPXV knockout mutants was screened. We identified 10 proteins that are required for the formation of hemorrhagic lesions, which are encoded by CPXV060, CPXV064, CPXV068, CPXV069, CPXV074, CPXV136, CPXV168, CPXV169, CPXV172, and CPXV199. The genes are the homologues of F12L, F15L, E2L, E3L, E8R, A4L, A33R, A34R, A36R, and B5R of vaccinia virus (VACV). Mutants with deletions in CPXV060, CPXV168, CPXV169, CPXV172, or CPXV199 induced white pocks with a comet-like shape on the CAM. The homologues of these five genes in VACV encode proteins that are involved in the production of extracellular enveloped viruses (EEV) and the repulsion of superinfecting virions by actin tails. The homologue of CPXV068 in VACV is also involved in EEV production but is not related to actin tail induction. The other genes encode immunomodulatory proteins (CPXV069 and crmA) and viral core proteins (CPXV074 and CPXV136), and the function of the product of CPXV064 is unknown. IMPORTANCE It has been known for a long time that cowpox virus induces hemorrhagic lesions on chicken CAM, while most of the other orthopoxviruses produce nonhemorrhagic lesions. Although cowpox virus CrmA has been proved to be responsible for the hemorrhagic phenotype, other proteins causing this phenotype remain unknown. Recently, we generated a complete single-gene knockout bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) library of cowpox virus Brighton strain. Out of 183 knockout BAC clones, 109 knockout viruses were reconstituted. The knockout library makes possible high-throughput screening for studying poxvirus replication and pathogenesis. In this study, we screened all 109 single-gene knockout viruses and identified 10 proteins necessary for inducing hemorrhagic lesions. The identification of these genes gives a new perspective for studying the hemorrhagic phenotype and may give a better understanding of poxvirus virulence.
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Bhanuprakash V, Prabhu M, Venkatesan G, Balamurugan V, Hosamani M, Pathak KML, Singh RK. Camelpox: epidemiology, diagnosis and control measures. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 8:1187-201. [DOI: 10.1586/eri.10.105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Abstract
On May 8, 1980, the World Health Assembly at its 33rd session solemnly declared that the world and all its peoples had won freedom from smallpox and recommended ceasing the vaccination of the population against smallpox. Currently, a larger part of the world population has no immunity not only against smallpox but also against other zoonotic orthopoxvirus infections. Recently, recorded outbreaks of orthopoxvirus diseases not only of domestic animals but also of humans have become more frequent. All this indicates a new situation in the ecology and evolution of zoonotic orthopoxviruses. Analysis of state-of-the-art data on the phylogenetic relationships, ecology, and host range of orthopoxviruses—etiological agents of smallpox (variola virus, VARV), monkeypox (MPXV), cowpox (CPXV), vaccinia (VACV), and camelpox (CMLV)—as well as the patterns of their evolution suggests that a VARV-like virus could emerge in the course of natural evolution of modern zoonotic orthopoxviruses. Thus, there is an insistent need for organization of the international control over the outbreaks of zoonotic orthopoxvirus infections in various countries to provide a rapid response and prevent them from developing into epidemics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei N. Shchelkunov
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology VECTOR, Koltsovo, Novosibirsk Oblast, Russia
- Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
- * E-mail: ,
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37
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Generation of a complete single-gene knockout bacterial artificial chromosome library of cowpox virus and identification of its essential genes. J Virol 2013; 88:490-502. [PMID: 24155400 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02385-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) belongs to the genus Orthopoxvirus in the Poxviridae family. It infects a broad range of vertebrates and can cause zoonotic infections. CPXV has the largest genome among the orthopoxviruses and is therefore considered to have the most complete set of genes of all members of the genus. Since CPXV has also become a model for studying poxvirus genetics and pathogenesis, we created and characterized a complete set of single gene knockout bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) clones of the CPXV strain Brighton Red. These mutants allow a systematic assessment of the contribution of single CPXV genes to the outcome of virus infection and replication, as well as to the virus host range. A full-length BAC clone of CPXV strain Brighton Red (pBRF) harboring the gene expressing the enhanced green fluorescent protein under the control of a viral late promoter was modified by introducing the mrfp1 gene encoding the monomeric red fluorescent protein driven by a synthetic early vaccinia virus promoter. Based on the modified BAC (pBRFseR), a library of targeted knockout mutants for each single viral open reading frame (ORF) was generated. Reconstitution of infectious virus was successful for 109 of the 183 mutant BAC clones, indicating that the deleted genes are not essential for virus replication. In contrast, 74 ORFs were identified as essential because no virus progeny was obtained upon transfection of the mutant BAC clones and in the presence of a helper virus. More than 70% of all late CPXV genes belonged to this latter group of essential genes.
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38
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López D, Lorente E, Barriga A, Johnstone C, Mir C. Vaccination and the TAP-independent antigen processing pathways. Expert Rev Vaccines 2013; 12:1077-83. [PMID: 24053400 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2013.825447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The cytotoxic CD8(+) T lymphocyte-mediated cellular response is important for the elimination of virus-infected cells and requires the prior recognition of short viral peptide antigens previously translocated to the endoplasmic reticulum by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP). However, individuals with nonfunctional TAP complexes or infected cells with TAP molecules blocked by specific viral proteins, such as the cowpoxvirus, a component of the first source of early empirical vaccination against smallpox, are still able to present several HLA class I ligands generated by the TAP-independent antigen processing pathways to specific cytotoxic CD8(+) T lymphocytes. Currently, bioterrorism and emerging infectious diseases have renewed interest in poxviruses. Recent works that have identified HLA class I ligands and epitopes in virus-infected TAP-deficient cells have implications for the study of both the effectiveness of early empirical vaccination and the analysis of HLA class I antigen processing in TAP-deficient subjects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel López
- From Centro Nacional de Microbiología, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, 28220 Majadahonda (Madrid), Spain
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39
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Bourquain D, Nitsche A. Cowpox virus but not Vaccinia virus induces secretion of CXCL1, IL-8 and IL-6 and chemotaxis of monocytes in vitro. Virus Res 2012. [PMID: 23207068 PMCID: PMC9533815 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Orthopoxviruses are large DNA viruses which can cause disease in numerous host species. Today, after eradication of Variola virus and the end of vaccination against smallpox, zoonotic Orthopoxvirus infections are emerging as potential threat to human health. The most common causes of zoonotic Orthopoxvirus infections are Cowpox virus in Europe, Monkeypox virus in Africa and Vaccinia virus in South America. Although all three viruses are genetically and antigenically closely related, the human diseases caused by each virus differ considerably. This observation may reflect different capabilities of these viruses to modulate the hosts' immune response. Therefore, we aimed at characterizing the specific cytokine response induced by Orthopoxvirus infection in vitro. We analysed the gene expression of nine human pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in response to infection of HeLa cells and could identify an upregulation of cytokine gene expression following Cowpox virus and Monkeypox virus infection but not following Vaccinia virus infection. This was verified by a strong induction of especially IL-6, IL-8 and CXCL1 secretion into the cell culture supernatant following Cowpox virus infection. We could further show that supernatants derived from Cowpox virus-infected cells exhibit an increased chemotactic activity towards monocytic and macrophage-like cells. On the one hand, increased cytokine secretion by Cowpox virus-infected cells and subsequent monocyte/macrophage recruitment may contribute to host defence and facilitate clearance of the infection. On the other hand, given the assumed important role of circulating macrophages in viral spread, this may also point towards a mechanism facilitating delivery of the virus to further tissues in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Bourquain
- Centre for Biological Security 1, Robert Koch Institute, Nordufer 20, 13353 Berlin, Germany.
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40
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Orthopoxvirus genes that mediate disease virulence and host tropism. Adv Virol 2012; 2012:524743. [PMID: 22899927 PMCID: PMC3413996 DOI: 10.1155/2012/524743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2012] [Accepted: 05/31/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the course of evolution, viruses have developed various molecular mechanisms to evade the defense reactions of the host organism. When understanding the mechanisms used by viruses to overcome manifold defense systems of the animal organism, represented by molecular factors and cells of the immune system, we would not only comprehend better but also discover new patterns of organization and function of these most important reactions directed against infectious agents. Here, study of the orthopoxviruses pathogenic for humans, such as variola (smallpox), monkeypox, cowpox, and vaccinia viruses, may be most important. Analysis of the experimental data, presented in this paper, allows to infer that variola virus and other orthopoxviruses possess an unexampled set of genes whose protein products efficiently modulate the manifold defense mechanisms of the host organisms compared with the viruses from other families.
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41
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Schuenadel L, Tischer BK, Nitsche A. Generation and characterization of a Cowpox virus mutant lacking host range factor CP77. Virus Res 2012; 168:23-32. [PMID: 22705200 DOI: 10.1016/j.virusres.2012.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2012] [Revised: 06/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) host range factor CP77 was identified to be required for virus replication in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, but the underlying molecular mechanism by which CP77 modulates host range has remained unclear. Therefore, a CPXVΔCP77 deletion mutant was constructed by applying bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) technology. Integrity of BAC-derived viral DNA was confirmed by whole genome sequencing. In vitro growth characteristics of CPXV wild type (WT), BAC-derived vCPXV WT and vCPXVΔCP77 were virtually indistinguishable in HEK293T cells, whereas in CHO-K1 cells replication of virus lacking CP77 was unambiguously attenuated. This block of viral replication was confirmed by lack of late viral protein expression. The replication defect of various Orthopoxviruses lacking CP77 in CHO cells could be restored by recombinant expression of CP77. Thus, for the first time, the described CP77-dependent host range effect in CHO cells was shown in the background of CPXV as well as Camelpox virus. To further characterize the mutant virus, cells of several different species were comparably infected with vCPXV WT and vCPXVΔCP77, respectively. Interestingly, except for CHO-K1 cells, vCPXV WT and vCPXVΔCP77 showed no significant difference in terms of morphology of cytopathic effects, expression of a late transcribed virus-encoded green fluorescent protein and virus reproduction, even in other hamster-derived cells. Additionally, in ovo inoculation with either virus revealed the same red-pock phenotype on chicken egg chorioallantoic membranes. Since the data presented indicate a CP77-dependent host range effect only for CHO cells, we conclude that the protein might mediate additional functions not identified yet. The vCPXVΔCP77 deletion mutant generated can now be applied as a useful tool to investigate the function of the putative host range protein CP77.
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Affiliation(s)
- Livia Schuenadel
- Robert Koch-Institut, Zentrum für Biologische Sicherheit 1, Nordufer 20, 13353 Berlin, Germany
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42
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Shchelkunov SN. Emergence and reemergence of smallpox: the need for development of a new generation smallpox vaccine. Vaccine 2011; 29 Suppl 4:D49-53. [PMID: 22185833 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.05.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2010] [Revised: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 05/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The review summarizes the archive data on smallpox, history of ancient civilizations, and the most recent data on the genome organization of orthopoxviruses, their evolutionary relationships, and the time points of smallpox emergence. The performed analysis provides the grounds for the hypothesis that smallpox could have emerged several times as a result of evolutionary changes in the zoonotic ancestor virus and disappeared due to insufficient population size of ancient civilizations. Smallpox reemerged in the Indian subcontinent approximately 2500-3000 years before present, which resulted in endemization of this anthroponotic infection, which had been preserved until the smallpox eradication in the 20th century AD. The conclusion suggests a potential possibility of future variola virus reemergence, presenting a great menace for mankind, as well as the need for development of new safe smallpox vaccines, design of anti-smallpox drugs, and activation of the control of zoonotic human orthopoxvirus infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei N Shchelkunov
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Novosibirsk 630090, Russia.
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43
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Chasing Jenner's vaccine: revisiting cowpox virus classification. PLoS One 2011; 6:e23086. [PMID: 21858000 PMCID: PMC3152555 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0023086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2011] [Accepted: 07/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cowpox virus (CPXV) is described as the source of the first vaccine used to prevent the onset and spread of an infectious disease. It is one of the earliest described members of the genus Orthopoxvirus, which includes the viruses that cause smallpox and monkeypox in humans. Both the historic and current literature describe “cowpox” as a disease with a single etiologic agent. Genotypic data presented herein indicate that CPXV is not a single species, but a composite of several (up to 5) species that can infect cows, humans, and other animals. The practice of naming agents after the host in which the resultant disease manifests obfuscates the true taxonomic relationships of “cowpox” isolates. These data support the elevation of as many as four new species within the traditional “cowpox” group and suggest that both wild and modern vaccine strains of Vaccinia virus are most closely related to CPXV of continental Europe rather than the United Kingdom, the homeland of the vaccine.
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44
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Shchelkunov SN, Shcherbakov DN, Maksyutov RA, Gavrilova EV. Species-specific identification of variola, monkeypox, cowpox, and vaccinia viruses by multiplex real-time PCR assay. J Virol Methods 2011; 175:163-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jviromet.2011.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2011] [Revised: 04/26/2011] [Accepted: 05/03/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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45
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Sonnberg S, Fleming SB, Mercer AA. Phylogenetic analysis of the large family of poxvirus ankyrin-repeat proteins reveals orthologue groups within and across chordopoxvirus genera. J Gen Virol 2011; 92:2596-2607. [PMID: 21752962 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.033654-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Ankyrin-repeat (ANK) protein-interaction domains are common in cellular proteins but are relatively rare in viruses. Chordopoxviruses, however, encode a large number of ANK domain-containing ORFs of largely unknown function. Recently, a second protein-interaction domain, an F-box-like motif, was identified in several poxvirus ANK proteins. Cellular F-box proteins recruit substrates to the ubiquitination machinery of the cell, a putative function for ANK/poxviral F-box proteins. Using publicly available genome sequence data we examined all 328 predicted ANK proteins encoded by 27 chordopoxviruses that represented the eight vertebrate poxvirus genera whose members encode ANK proteins. Within these we identified 15 putative ANK protein orthologue groups within orthopoxviruses, five within parapoxviruses, 23 within avipoxviruses and seven across members of the genera Leporipoxvirus, Capripoxvirus, Yatapoxvirus, Suipoxvirus and Cervidpoxvirus. Sequence comparisons showed that members of each of these four clusters of orthologues were not closely related to members of any of the other clusters. Of these ORFs, 67% encoded a C-terminal poxviral F-box-like motif, whose absence could largely be attributed to fragmentation of ORFs. Our findings suggest that the large family of poxvirus ANK proteins arose by extensive gene duplication and divergence that occurred independently in four major genus-based groups after the groups diverged from each other. It seems likely that the ancestor ANK proteins of poxviruses contained both the N-terminal ANK repeats and a C-terminal F-box-like domain, with the latter domain subsequently being lost in a small subset of these proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Sonnberg
- Virus Research Unit, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Stephen B Fleming
- Virus Research Unit, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
| | - Andrew A Mercer
- Virus Research Unit, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Otago, PO Box 56, Dunedin 9016, New Zealand
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47
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Roth SJ, Höper D, Beer M, Feineis S, Tischer BK, Osterrieder N. Recovery of infectious virus from full-length cowpox virus (CPXV) DNA cloned as a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC). Vet Res 2011; 42:3. [PMID: 21314965 PMCID: PMC3031225 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-42-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2010] [Accepted: 09/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Transmission from pet rats and cats to humans as well as severe infection in felids and other animal species have recently drawn increasing attention to cowpox virus (CPXV). We report the cloning of the entire genome of cowpox virus strain Brighton Red (BR) as a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) in Escherichia coli and the recovery of infectious virus from cloned DNA. Generation of a full-length CPXV DNA clone was achieved by first introducing a mini-F vector, which allows maintenance of large circular DNA in E. coli, into the thymidine kinase locus of CPXV by homologous recombination. Circular replication intermediates were then electroporated into E. coli DH10B cells. Upon successful establishment of the infectious BR clone, we modified the full-length clone such that recombination-mediated excision of bacterial sequences can occur upon transfection in eukaryotic cells. This self-excision of the bacterial replicon is made possible by a sequence duplication within mini-F sequences and allows recovery of recombinant virus progeny without remaining marker or vector sequences. The in vitro growth properties of viruses derived from both BAC clones were determined and found to be virtually indistinguishable from those of parental, wild-type BR. Finally, the complete genomic sequence of the infectious clone was determined and the cloned viral genome was shown to be identical to that of the parental virus. In summary, the generated infectious clone will greatly facilitate studies on individual genes and pathogenesis of CPXV. Moreover, the vector potential of CPXV can now be more systematically explored using this newly generated tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swaantje J Roth
- Institut für Virologie, Freie Universität Berlin; Philippstrasse 13, Haus 18; 10115 Berlin, Germany.
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48
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Barry M, van Buuren N, Burles K, Mottet K, Wang Q, Teale A. Poxvirus exploitation of the ubiquitin-proteasome system. Viruses 2010; 2:2356-2380. [PMID: 21994622 PMCID: PMC3185573 DOI: 10.3390/v2102356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2010] [Revised: 09/27/2010] [Accepted: 09/30/2010] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Ubiquitination plays a critical role in many cellular processes. A growing number of viruses have evolved strategies to exploit the ubiquitin-proteasome system, including members of the Poxviridae family. Members of the poxvirus family have recently been shown to encode BTB/kelch and ankyrin/F-box proteins that interact with cullin-3 and cullin-1 based ubiquitin ligases, respectively. Multiple members of the poxvirus family also encode ubiquitin ligases with intrinsic activity. This review describes the numerous mechanisms that poxviruses employ to manipulate the ubiquitin-proteasome system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michele Barry
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed: E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1 780 492-0702; Fax: +1 780 492-7521
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49
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Hendrickson RC, Wang C, Hatcher EL, Lefkowitz EJ. Orthopoxvirus genome evolution: the role of gene loss. Viruses 2010; 2:1933-1967. [PMID: 21994715 PMCID: PMC3185746 DOI: 10.3390/v2091933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 125] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2010] [Revised: 08/25/2010] [Accepted: 09/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Poxviruses are highly successful pathogens, known to infect a variety of hosts. The family Poxviridae includes Variola virus, the causative agent of smallpox, which has been eradicated as a public health threat but could potentially reemerge as a bioterrorist threat. The risk scenario includes other animal poxviruses and genetically engineered manipulations of poxviruses. Studies of orthologous gene sets have established the evolutionary relationships of members within the Poxviridae family. It is not clear, however, how variations between family members arose in the past, an important issue in understanding how these viruses may vary and possibly produce future threats. Using a newly developed poxvirus-specific tool, we predicted accurate gene sets for viruses with completely sequenced genomes in the genus Orthopoxvirus. Employing sensitive sequence comparison techniques together with comparison of syntenic gene maps, we established the relationships between all viral gene sets. These techniques allowed us to unambiguously identify the gene loss/gain events that have occurred over the course of orthopoxvirus evolution. It is clear that for all existing Orthopoxvirus species, no individual species has acquired protein-coding genes unique to that species. All existing species contain genes that are all present in members of the species Cowpox virus and that cowpox virus strains contain every gene present in any other orthopoxvirus strain. These results support a theory of reductive evolution in which the reduction in size of the core gene set of a putative ancestral virus played a critical role in speciation and confining any newly emerging virus species to a particular environmental (host or tissue) niche.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Curtis Hendrickson
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, BBRB 276/11, 845 19th St S, Birmingham, AL 35222, USA; E-Mails: (R.C.H.); (E.L.H.)
| | - Chunlin Wang
- Stanford Genome Technology Center, Stanford University, 855 California Ave, Palo Alto, CA 94304, USA; E-Mail:
| | - Eneida L. Hatcher
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, BBRB 276/11, 845 19th St S, Birmingham, AL 35222, USA; E-Mails: (R.C.H.); (E.L.H.)
| | - Elliot J. Lefkowitz
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, BBRB 276/11, 845 19th St S, Birmingham, AL 35222, USA; E-Mails: (R.C.H.); (E.L.H.)
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Shchelkunov SN. Interaction of orthopoxviruses with the cellular ubiquitin-ligase system. Virus Genes 2010; 41:309-18. [PMID: 20703935 DOI: 10.1007/s11262-010-0519-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2010] [Accepted: 07/28/2010] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Protein modification by ubiquitin or ubiquitin-like polypeptides is important for the fate and functions of the majority of proteins in the eukaryotic cell and can be involved in regulation of various biological processes, including protein metabolism (degradation), protein transport to several cellular compartments, rearrangement of cytoskeleton, and transcription of cytoprotective genes. The accumulated experimental data suggest that the ankyrin-F-box-like and BTB-kelch-like proteins of orthopoxviruses, represented by the largest viral multigene families, interact with the cellular Cullin-1- and Cullin-3-containing ubiquitin-protein ligases, respectively. In addition, orthopoxviruses code for their own RING-domain-containing ubiquitin ligase. In this review, this author discusses the differences between variola (smallpox), monkeypox, cowpox, vaccinia, and ectromelia (mousepox) viruses in the organization of ankyrin-F-box and BTB-kelch protein families and their likely functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sergei N Shchelkunov
- Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Lavrentiev Ave. 10, Novosibirsk, Russia.
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