1
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de Oliveira EG, Filho CADC, Rodrigues RAL. An overview of viral chitinases: General properties and biotechnological potential. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2023; 248:2053-2061. [PMID: 38057942 PMCID: PMC10800131 DOI: 10.1177/15353702231208408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Chitin is a biopolymer profusely present in nature and of pivotal importance as a structural component in cells. It is degraded by chitinases, enzymes naturally produced by different organisms. Chitinases are proteins enrolled in many cellular mechanisms, including the remodeling process of the fungal cell wall, the cell growth process, the autolysis of filamentous fungi, and cell separation of yeasts, among others. These enzymes also have properties with different biotechnological applications. They are used to produce polymers, for biological control, biofilm formation, and as antitumor and anti-inflammatory target molecules. Chitinases are classified into different glycoside hydrolase (GH) families and are widespread in microorganisms, including viruses. Among them, the GH18 family is highly predominant in the viral genomes, being present and active enzymes in baculoviruses and nucleocytoplasmic large DNA viruses (NCLDV), especially chloroviruses from the Phycodnaviridae family. These viral enzymes contain one or more GH domains and seem to be involved during the viral replication cycle. Curiously, only a few DNA viruses have these enzymes, and studying their properties could be a key feature for biological and biotechnological novelties. Here, we provide an overview of viral chitinases and their probable function in viral infection, showing evidence of at least two distinct origins for these enzymes. Finally, we discuss how these enzymes can be applied as biotechnological tools and what one can expect for the coming years on these GHs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Gonçalves de Oliveira
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Clécio Alonso da Costa Filho
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Araújo Lima Rodrigues
- Laboratório de Vírus, Departamento de Microbiologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte 31270-901, Brazil
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2
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Doan CT, Tran TN, Tran TPH, Nguyen TT, Nguyen HK, Tran TKT, Vu BT, Trinh THT, Nguyen AD, Wang SL. Chitosanase Production from the Liquid Fermentation of Squid Pens Waste by Paenibacillus elgii. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3724. [PMID: 37765578 PMCID: PMC10537793 DOI: 10.3390/polym15183724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2023] [Revised: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Chitosanases play a significant part in the hydrolysis of chitosan to form chitooligosaccharides (COS) that possess diverse biological activities. This study aimed to enhance the productivity of Paenibacillus elgii TKU051 chitosanase by fermentation from chitinous fishery wastes. The ideal parameters for achieving maximum chitosanase activity were determined: a squid pens powder amount of 5.278% (w/v), an initial pH value of 8.93, an incubation temperature of 38 °C, and an incubation duration of 5.73 days. The resulting chitosanase activity of the culture medium was 2.023 U/mL. A chitosanase with a molecular weight of 25 kDa was isolated from the culture medium of P. elgii TKU051 and was biochemically characterized. Liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry analysis revealed that P. elgii TKU051 chitosanase exhibited a maximum amino acid identity of 43% with a chitosanase of Bacillus circulans belonging to the glycoside hydrolase (GH) family 46. P. elgii TKU051 chitosanase demonstrated optimal activity at pH 5.5 while displaying remarkable stability within the pH range of 5.0 to 9.0. The enzyme displayed maximum efficiency at 60 °C and demonstrated considerable stability at temperatures ≤40 °C. The presence of Mn2+ positively affected the activity of the enzyme, while the presence of Cu2+ had a negative effect. Thin-layer chromatography analysis demonstrated that P. elgii TKU051 chitosanase exhibited an endo-type cleavage pattern and hydrolyzed chitosan with 98% degree of deacetylation to yield (GlcN)2 and (GlcN)3. The enzymatic properties of P. elgii TKU051 chitosanase render it a promising candidate for application in the production of COS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien Thang Doan
- Faculty of Natural Science and Technology, Tay Nguyen University, Buon Ma Thuot 630000, Vietnam; (C.T.D.); (T.N.T.); (T.P.H.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.K.N.); (T.K.T.T.); (B.T.V.); (T.H.T.T.)
| | - Thi Ngoc Tran
- Faculty of Natural Science and Technology, Tay Nguyen University, Buon Ma Thuot 630000, Vietnam; (C.T.D.); (T.N.T.); (T.P.H.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.K.N.); (T.K.T.T.); (B.T.V.); (T.H.T.T.)
| | - Thi Phuong Hanh Tran
- Faculty of Natural Science and Technology, Tay Nguyen University, Buon Ma Thuot 630000, Vietnam; (C.T.D.); (T.N.T.); (T.P.H.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.K.N.); (T.K.T.T.); (B.T.V.); (T.H.T.T.)
| | - Thi Thanh Nguyen
- Faculty of Natural Science and Technology, Tay Nguyen University, Buon Ma Thuot 630000, Vietnam; (C.T.D.); (T.N.T.); (T.P.H.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.K.N.); (T.K.T.T.); (B.T.V.); (T.H.T.T.)
| | - Huu Kien Nguyen
- Faculty of Natural Science and Technology, Tay Nguyen University, Buon Ma Thuot 630000, Vietnam; (C.T.D.); (T.N.T.); (T.P.H.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.K.N.); (T.K.T.T.); (B.T.V.); (T.H.T.T.)
| | - Thi Kim Thi Tran
- Faculty of Natural Science and Technology, Tay Nguyen University, Buon Ma Thuot 630000, Vietnam; (C.T.D.); (T.N.T.); (T.P.H.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.K.N.); (T.K.T.T.); (B.T.V.); (T.H.T.T.)
| | - Bich Thuy Vu
- Faculty of Natural Science and Technology, Tay Nguyen University, Buon Ma Thuot 630000, Vietnam; (C.T.D.); (T.N.T.); (T.P.H.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.K.N.); (T.K.T.T.); (B.T.V.); (T.H.T.T.)
| | - Thi Huyen Trang Trinh
- Faculty of Natural Science and Technology, Tay Nguyen University, Buon Ma Thuot 630000, Vietnam; (C.T.D.); (T.N.T.); (T.P.H.T.); (T.T.N.); (H.K.N.); (T.K.T.T.); (B.T.V.); (T.H.T.T.)
| | - Anh Dzung Nguyen
- Institute of Biotechnology and Environment, Tay Nguyen University, Buon Ma Thuot 630000, Vietnam;
| | - San-Lang Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Tamkang University, New Taipei City 25137, Taiwan
- Life Science Development Center, Tamkang University, New Taipei City 25137, Taiwan
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3
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Meng LH, Ke F, Zhang QY, Zhao Z. Biological and Genomic Characteristics of MaMV-DH01, a Novel Freshwater Myoviridae Cyanophage Strain. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0288822. [PMID: 36602358 PMCID: PMC9927357 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.02888-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The genomic traits of cyanophages and their potential for metabolic reprogramming of the host cell remain unknown due to the limited number of studies on cyanophage isolates. In the present study, a lytic Microcystis cyanophage, MaMV-DH01, was isolated and identified. MaMV-DH01 has an icosahedral head approximately 100 nm in diameter and a tail 260 nm in length. Its burst size is large, with approximately 145 phage particles/infected cell; it has a latent period of 2 days, and it shows high stability under pH and temperature stresses. Multiple infection (multiplicity of infection [MOI] 0.0001 to 100) results showed that when the MOI was 0.0001, MaMV-DH01 needed a longer time to lyse host cells. Cyanophage MaMV-DH01 has a double-stranded DNA genome of 182,372 bp, with a GC content of 45.35% and 210 predicted open reading frames (ORFs). These ORFs are related to DNA metabolism, structural proteins, lysis, host-derived metabolic genes, and DNA packaging. Phylogenetic trees based on the whole genome and two conserved genes (TerL and capsid) indicate that MaMV-DH01 is clustered with Ma-LMM01 and MaMV-DC, which are independent of other cyanophages. Collinearity analysis showed that the complete genome of MaMV-DH01 was longer than those of Ma-LMM01 and MaMV-DC, with lengths of 20,263 bp and 13,139 bp, respectively. We verified the authenticity of these excess DNA fragments and found that they are involved to various degrees in the MaMV-DH01 transcription process. Map overlays of environmental virus macrogenomic reads onto the MaMV-DH01 genome revealed that viral sequences similar to that of MaMV-DH01 are widespread in the environment. IMPORTANCE A novel freshwater Myoviridae cyanophage strain, MaMV-DH01, was isolated; this strain infects Microcystis aeruginosa FACHB-524, and the biological and genomic characteristics of MaMV-DH01 provide new insights for understanding the mechanism by which cyanophages infect cyanobacterial blooms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Hui Meng
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center for Marine Bio-resources Sustainable Utilization, College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Fei Ke
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Qi-Ya Zhang
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center for Marine Bio-resources Sustainable Utilization, College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
- State Key Laboratory of Freshwater Ecology and Biotechnology, Institute of Hydrobiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhe Zhao
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center for Marine Bio-resources Sustainable Utilization, College of Oceanography, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
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4
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Su H, Sun J, Jia Z, Zhao H, Mao X. Insights into promiscuous chitosanases: the known and the unknown. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2022; 106:6887-6898. [PMID: 36178516 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-022-12198-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Revised: 09/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Chitosanase, a glycoside hydrolase (GH), catalyzes the cleavage of β-1,4-glycosidic bonds in polysaccharides and is widely distributed in nature. Many organisms produce chitosanases, and numerous chitosanases in the GH families have been intensely studied. The reported chitosanases mainly cleaved the inter-glucosamine glycosidic bonds, while substrate specificity is not strictly unique due to the existence of bifunctional or multifunctional activity profiles. The promiscuity of chitosanases is essential for the different pathways of biomass polysaccharide conversion and understanding of the chitosanase evolutionary process. However, the reviews for this aspect are completely unknown. This review provides an overview of the promiscuous activities, also considering the substrate and product specificity of chitosanases observed to date. These contribute to important implications for the future discovery and research of promiscuous chitosanases and applications related to biomass conversion. KEY POINTS: • The promiscuity of chitosanases is reviewed for the first time. • The current review provides insights into the substrate specificity of chitosanases. • The mode-product relationship and prospect of promiscuous chitosanases are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haipeng Su
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No. 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Jianan Sun
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No. 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Zhenrong Jia
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No. 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Hongjun Zhao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No. 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, 266003, China
| | - Xiangzhao Mao
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Ocean University of China, No. 5 Yushan Road, Qingdao, 266003, China. .,Laboratory for Marine Drugs and Bioproducts, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao, 266237, China.
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5
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Speciale I, Notaro A, Abergel C, Lanzetta R, Lowary TL, Molinaro A, Tonetti M, Van Etten JL, De Castro C. The Astounding World of Glycans from Giant Viruses. Chem Rev 2022; 122:15717-15766. [PMID: 35820164 PMCID: PMC9614988 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Viruses are a heterogeneous ensemble of entities, all
sharing the
need for a suitable host to replicate. They are extremely diverse,
varying in morphology, size, nature, and complexity of their genomic
content. Typically, viruses use host-encoded glycosyltransferases
and glycosidases to add and remove sugar residues from their glycoproteins.
Thus, the structure of the glycans on the viral proteins have, to
date, typically been considered to mimick those of the host. However,
the more recently discovered large and giant viruses differ from this
paradigm. At least some of these viruses code for an (almost) autonomous
glycosylation pathway. These viral genes include those that encode
the production of activated sugars, glycosyltransferases, and other
enzymes able to manipulate sugars at various levels. This review focuses
on large and giant viruses that produce carbohydrate-processing enzymes.
A brief description of those harboring these features at the genomic
level will be discussed, followed by the achievements reached with
regard to the elucidation of the glycan structures, the activity of
the proteins able to manipulate sugars, and the organic synthesis
of some of these virus-encoded glycans. During this progression, we
will also comment on many of the challenging questions on this subject
that remain to be addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Immacolata Speciale
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Napoli, Via Università 100, 80055 Portici, Italy
| | - Anna Notaro
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Napoli, Via Università 100, 80055 Portici, Italy.,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Information Génomique & Structurale, Aix-Marseille University, Unité Mixte de Recherche 7256, IMM, IM2B, 13288 Marseille, Cedex 9, France
| | - Chantal Abergel
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Information Génomique & Structurale, Aix-Marseille University, Unité Mixte de Recherche 7256, IMM, IM2B, 13288 Marseille, Cedex 9, France
| | - Rosa Lanzetta
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Napoli, Via Cintia 4, 80126 Napoli, Italy
| | - Todd L Lowary
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Academia Road, Section 2, Nangang 11529, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Antonio Molinaro
- Department of Chemical Sciences, University of Napoli, Via Cintia 4, 80126 Napoli, Italy
| | - Michela Tonetti
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genova, 16132 Genova, Italy
| | - James L Van Etten
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0900, United States.,Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0722, United States
| | - Cristina De Castro
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Napoli, Via Università 100, 80055 Portici, Italy
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6
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Brahim Belhaouari D, Pires De Souza GA, Lamb DC, Kelly SL, Goldstone JV, Stegeman JJ, Colson P, La Scola B, Aherfi S. Metabolic arsenal of giant viruses: Host hijack or self-use? eLife 2022; 11:e78674. [PMID: 35801640 PMCID: PMC9270025 DOI: 10.7554/elife.78674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses generally are defined as lacking the fundamental properties of living organisms in that they do not harbor an energy metabolism system or protein synthesis machinery. However, the discovery of giant viruses of amoeba has fundamentally challenged this view because of their exceptional genome properties, particle sizes and encoding of the enzyme machinery for some steps of protein synthesis. Although giant viruses are not able to replicate autonomously and still require a host for their multiplication, numerous metabolic genes involved in energy production have been recently detected in giant virus genomes from many environments. These findings have further blurred the boundaries that separate viruses and living organisms. Herein, we summarize information concerning genes and proteins involved in cellular metabolic pathways and their orthologues that have, surprisingly, been discovered in giant viruses. The remarkable diversity of metabolic genes described in giant viruses include genes encoding enzymes involved in glycolysis, gluconeogenesis, tricarboxylic acid cycle, photosynthesis, and β-oxidation. These viral genes are thought to have been acquired from diverse biological sources through lateral gene transfer early in the evolution of Nucleo-Cytoplasmic Large DNA Viruses, or in some cases more recently. It was assumed that viruses are capable of hijacking host metabolic networks. But the giant virus auxiliary metabolic genes also may represent another form of host metabolism manipulation, by expanding the catalytic capabilities of the host cells especially in harsh environments, providing the infected host cells with a selective evolutionary advantage compared to non-infected cells and hence favoring the viral replication. However, the mechanism of these genes' functionality remains unclear to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- Djamal Brahim Belhaouari
- Microbes, Evolution, Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), UM63, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), IHU Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France, Aix-Marseille UniversitéMarseilleFrance
| | - Gabriel Augusto Pires De Souza
- Microbes, Evolution, Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), UM63, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), IHU Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France, Aix-Marseille UniversitéMarseilleFrance
| | - David C Lamb
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences, Institute of Life Science, Swansea UniversitySwanseaUnited Kingdom
| | - Steven L Kelly
- Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Sciences, Institute of Life Science, Swansea UniversitySwanseaUnited Kingdom
| | - Jared V Goldstone
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionWoods HoleUnited States
| | - John J Stegeman
- Biology Department, Woods Hole Oceanographic InstitutionWoods HoleUnited States
| | - Philippe Colson
- Microbes, Evolution, Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), UM63, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), IHU Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France, Aix-Marseille UniversitéMarseilleFrance
- Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM)MarseilleFrance
| | - Bernard La Scola
- Microbes, Evolution, Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), UM63, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), IHU Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France, Aix-Marseille UniversitéMarseilleFrance
- Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM)MarseilleFrance
| | - Sarah Aherfi
- Microbes, Evolution, Phylogeny and Infection (MEPHI), UM63, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), IHU Méditerranée Infection, Marseille, France, Aix-Marseille UniversitéMarseilleFrance
- Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Marseille (AP-HM)MarseilleFrance
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Sushytskyi L, Synytsya A, Mirzayeva T, Kalouskova T, Bleha R, Čopíková J, Kubač D, Grivalský T, Ulbrich P, Kaštánek P. Fractionation of the water insoluble part of the heterotrophic mutant green microalga Parachlorella kessleri HY1 (Chlorellaceae) biomass: Identification and structure of polysaccharides. Int J Biol Macromol 2022; 213:27-42. [PMID: 35623455 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.05.108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 05/13/2022] [Accepted: 05/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The water-insoluble part of Parachlorella kessleri HY1 biomass was subjected to the extraction of cell-wall polysaccharides using polar aprotic solvents (DMSO, LiCl/DMSO) and aqueous alkaline solutions (0.1, 1 and 4 mol·l-1 of NaOH). Proteins predominated in all the crude extracts and in the insoluble residues were partially removed by treatment with proteolytic enzymes (pepsin and pronase), and in some cases with the HCl/H2O2 reagent, yielding purified polysaccharide-enriched fractions. These treatments led to the solubilisation of some products in water. The composition and structure of isolated polysaccharides were characterised based on monosaccharide composition, glycosidic linkage and spectroscopic analyses. The DMSO extract contained mainly proteins, and polysaccharides were not detected. The water-soluble parts isolated from the LiCl/DMSO extract contained α-l-rhamnan, α-d-glucan and β-d-glucogalactan; the water-insoluble part contained (1 → 4)-β-d-xylan, first isolated from the biomass of green microalgae. The alkali extracts contained polysaccharides of similar structure, and also water-insoluble (1 → 4)-β-d-mannan. The insoluble part after all extractions contained α-chitin as the main polysaccharide, which was confirmed by spectroscopic methods. All these polysaccharides can play a certain role in the cell wall structure of this microalga.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonid Sushytskyi
- Department of Carbohydrates and Cereals, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague, Czech Republic.
| | - Andriy Synytsya
- Department of Carbohydrates and Cereals, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tamilla Mirzayeva
- Department of Carbohydrates and Cereals, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tereza Kalouskova
- Department of Carbohydrates and Cereals, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Roman Bleha
- Department of Carbohydrates and Cereals, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jana Čopíková
- Department of Carbohydrates and Cereals, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - David Kubač
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre Algatech, Novohradská 237 - Opatovický mlýn, 379 81 Třebon, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Grivalský
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Centre Algatech, Novohradská 237 - Opatovický mlýn, 379 81 Třebon, Czech Republic
| | - Pavel Ulbrich
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Prague 6 Dejvice, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Kaštánek
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Food and Biochemical Technology, University of Chemistry and Technology in Prague, Technická 5, 166 28 Prague 6 Dejvice, Czech Republic; EcoFuel Laboratories s.r.o, Ocelářská 9, Prague 9 Libeň 190 00, Czech Republic
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8
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Ori F, Menotta M, Leonardi M, Amicucci A, Zambonelli A, Covès H, Selosse MA, Schneider-Maunoury L, Pacioni G, Iotti M. Effect of slug mycophagy on Tuber aestivum spores. Fungal Biol 2021; 125:796-805. [PMID: 34537175 DOI: 10.1016/j.funbio.2021.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 05/05/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Truffles in the genus Tuber produce subterranean fruiting bodies that are not able to actively discharge their spores in the environment. For this reason, truffles depend on mycophagous animals for reproduction. Fungus consumption (mycophagy) is a behaviour typical of both vertebrates and invertebrates. Mammals, especially rodents, are the most studied group of mycophagists and have been found to consume a great variety of fungi. Among invertebrates, mycophagy is documented in arthropods, but rarely in molluscs. In our study we assessed the effect on the morphology and mycorrhizal colonization of Tuber aestivum spores after passage through the gut of slugs (Deroceras invadens) and, for comparison, of a house mouse (Mus musculus). Light, scanning electron and atomic force microscopy revealed that the digestion, especially by slugs, freed spores from the asci and modified their morphology. These are believed to be the reasons why we observed an improvement in oak mycorrhization with the slug and rodent ingested spores in comparison to a fresh spore inoculation. We also demonstrated by molecular barcoding that slugs' guts sampled on a Tuber melanosporum truffle ground contain spores from this species and Tuber brumale, further suggesting that some invertebrates are efficient Tuber spore dispersers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Ori
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Science, University of L'Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100, Coppito, L'Aquila, Italy.
| | - Michele Menotta
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Via Saffi 2, 61029, Urbino, Italy.
| | - Marco Leonardi
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Science, University of L'Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100, Coppito, L'Aquila, Italy.
| | - Antonella Amicucci
- Department of Biomolecular Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Via Saffi 2, 61029, Urbino, Italy.
| | - Alessandra Zambonelli
- Department of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Bologna, Viale G. Fanin 44, 40127, Bologna, Italy.
| | - Hervé Covès
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité (UMR 7205 - CNRS, MNHN, UPMC, EPHE), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, 57 rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France; Arbre et Paysage 32, 93 Route de Pessan, 32000, Auch, France.
| | - Marc-André Selosse
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité (UMR 7205 - CNRS, MNHN, UPMC, EPHE), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, 57 rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France; Department of Plant Taxonomy and Nature Conservation, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308, Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Laure Schneider-Maunoury
- Institut de Systématique, Évolution, Biodiversité (UMR 7205 - CNRS, MNHN, UPMC, EPHE), Muséum national d'Histoire naturelle, Sorbonne Universités, 57 rue Cuvier, 75005, Paris, France.
| | - Giovanni Pacioni
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Science, University of L'Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100, Coppito, L'Aquila, Italy.
| | - Mirco Iotti
- Department of Life, Health and Environmental Science, University of L'Aquila, Via Vetoio, 67100, Coppito, L'Aquila, Italy.
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9
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Mart Nez-Cruz JS, Romero D, Hierrezuelo JS, Thon M, de Vicente A, P Rez-Garc A A. Effectors with chitinase activity (EWCAs), a family of conserved, secreted fungal chitinases that suppress chitin-triggered immunity. THE PLANT CELL 2021; 33:1319-1340. [PMID: 33793825 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koab011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
In plants, chitin-triggered immunity is one of the first lines of defense against fungi, but phytopathogenic fungi have developed different strategies to prevent the recognition of chitin. Obligate biotrophs such as powdery mildew fungi suppress the activation of host responses; however, little is known about how these fungi subvert the immunity elicited by chitin. During epiphytic growth, the cucurbit powdery mildew fungus Podosphaera xanthii expresses a family of candidate effector genes comprising nine members with an unknown function. In this work, we examine the role of these candidates in the infection of melon (Cucumis melo L.) plants, using gene expression analysis, RNAi silencing assays, protein modeling and protein-ligand predictions, enzymatic assays, and protein localization studies. Our results show that these proteins are chitinases that are released at pathogen penetration sites to break down immunogenic chitin oligomers, thus preventing the activation of chitin-triggered immunity. In addition, these effectors, designated effectors with chitinase activity (EWCAs), are widely distributed in pathogenic fungi. Our findings reveal a mechanism by which fungi suppress plant immunity and reinforce the idea that preventing the perception of chitin by the host is mandatory for survival and development of fungi in plant environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jes S Mart Nez-Cruz
- Departamento de Microbiolog�a, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de M�laga, M�laga 29071, Spain
- Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterr�nea "La Mayora", Universidad de M�laga, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient�ficas (IHSM‒UMA‒CSIC), M�laga 29071, Spain
| | - Diego Romero
- Departamento de Microbiolog�a, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de M�laga, M�laga 29071, Spain
- Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterr�nea "La Mayora", Universidad de M�laga, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient�ficas (IHSM‒UMA‒CSIC), M�laga 29071, Spain
| | - Jes S Hierrezuelo
- Departamento de Microbiolog�a, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de M�laga, M�laga 29071, Spain
- Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterr�nea "La Mayora", Universidad de M�laga, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient�ficas (IHSM‒UMA‒CSIC), M�laga 29071, Spain
| | - Michael Thon
- Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), Universidad de Salamanca, Salamanca 37185, Spain
| | - Antonio de Vicente
- Departamento de Microbiolog�a, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de M�laga, M�laga 29071, Spain
- Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterr�nea "La Mayora", Universidad de M�laga, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient�ficas (IHSM‒UMA‒CSIC), M�laga 29071, Spain
| | - Alejandro P Rez-Garc A
- Departamento de Microbiolog�a, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de M�laga, M�laga 29071, Spain
- Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterr�nea "La Mayora", Universidad de M�laga, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cient�ficas (IHSM‒UMA‒CSIC), M�laga 29071, Spain
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10
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Kang BR, Song YS, Jung WJ. Differential expression of bio-active metabolites produced by chitosan polymers-based Bacillus amyloliquefaciens fermentation. Carbohydr Polym 2021; 260:117799. [PMID: 33712147 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.117799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 02/01/2021] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain PPL shows a potential for the control of phytopathogenic fungi. In the present study, upon growing the strain PPL on various forms of chitosan (0.5 % powder, 0.1 % soluble, and 0.15 % colloidal) as the carbon source, the antifungal activity on tomato Fusarium wilt correlated with the activity of chitosanase and β-1,3-glucanase. The colloidal substrate-based strain PPL fermentation displayed the highest degree of spore germination inhibition (79.5 %) and biocontrol efficiency (76.0 %) in tomato by increased biofilm formation. The colloidal culture upregulated the expression of chitosanase gene (5.9-fold), and the powder attributed to the expression of cyclic lipopeptides-genes (2.5-5.7 fold). Moreover, the three chitosan cultures induced the morphological changes of Fusarium oxysporum. These results suggest that the choice of growth substrate synergistically affects the production of secondary metabolites by PPL strain, and consequently its antifungal activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beom Ryong Kang
- Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61186, Republic of Korea
| | - Yong-Su Song
- Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61186, Republic of Korea
| | - Woo-Jin Jung
- Department of Agricultural Chemistry, Institute of Environmentally-Friendly Agriculture, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju, 61186, Republic of Korea.
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11
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Identification of a Chlorovirus PBCV-1 Protein Involved in Degrading the Host Cell Wall during Virus Infection. Viruses 2021; 13:v13050782. [PMID: 33924931 PMCID: PMC8145301 DOI: 10.3390/v13050782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Revised: 04/25/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Chloroviruses are unusual among viruses infecting eukaryotic organisms in that they must, like bacteriophages, penetrate a rigid cell wall to initiate infection. Chlorovirus PBCV-1 infects its host, Chlorella variabilis NC64A by specifically binding to and degrading the cell wall of the host at the point of contact by a virus-packaged enzyme(s). However, PBCV-1 does not use any of the five previously characterized virus-encoded polysaccharide degrading enzymes to digest the Chlorella host cell wall during virus entry because none of the enzymes are packaged in the virion. A search for another PBCV-1-encoded and virion-associated protein identified protein A561L. The fourth domain of A561L is a 242 amino acid C-terminal domain, named A561LD4, with cell wall degrading activity. An A561LD4 homolog was present in all 52 genomically sequenced chloroviruses, infecting four different algal hosts. A561LD4 degraded the cell walls of all four chlorovirus hosts, as well as several non-host Chlorella spp. Thus, A561LD4 was not cell-type specific. Finally, we discovered that exposure of highly purified PBCV-1 virions to A561LD4 increased the specific infectivity of PBCV-1 from about 25–30% of the particles forming plaques to almost 50%. We attribute this increase to removal of residual host receptor that attached to newly replicated viruses in the cell lysates.
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12
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Pilot-Scale Production of Chito-Oligosaccharides Using an Innovative Recombinant Chitosanase Preparation Approach. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13020290. [PMID: 33477553 PMCID: PMC7831125 DOI: 10.3390/polym13020290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2020] [Revised: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
For pilot-scale production of chito-oligosaccharides, it must be cost-effective to prepare designable recombinant chitosanase. Herein, an efficient method for preparing recombinant Bacillus chitosanase from Escherichia coli by elimination of undesirable substances as a precipitate is proposed. After an optimized culture with IPTG (Isopropyl β-d-1-thiogalactopyranoside) induction, the harvested cells were resuspended, disrupted by sonication, divided by selective precipitation, and stored using the same solution conditions. Several factors involved in these procedures, including ion types, ionic concentration, pH, and bacterial cell density, were examined. The optimal conditions were inferred to be pH = 4.5, 300 mM sodium dihydrogen phosphate, and cell density below 1011 cells/mL. Finally, recombinant chitosanase was purified to >70% homogeneity with an activity recovery and enzyme yield of 90% and 106 mg/L, respectively. When 10 L of 5% chitosan was hydrolyzed with 2500 units of chitosanase at ambient temperature for 72 h, hydrolyzed products having molar masses of 833 ± 222 g/mol with multiple degrees of polymerization (chito-dimer to tetramer) were obtained. This work provided an economical and eco-friendly preparation of recombinant chitosanase to scale up the hydrolysis of chitosan towards tailored oligosaccharides in the near future.
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Sun TW, Yang CL, Kao TT, Wang TH, Lai MW, Ku C. Host Range and Coding Potential of Eukaryotic Giant Viruses. Viruses 2020; 12:E1337. [PMID: 33233432 PMCID: PMC7700475 DOI: 10.3390/v12111337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Giant viruses are a group of eukaryotic double-stranded DNA viruses with large virion and genome size that challenged the traditional view of virus. Newly isolated strains and sequenced genomes in the last two decades have substantially advanced our knowledge of their host diversity, gene functions, and evolutionary history. Giant viruses are now known to infect hosts from all major supergroups in the eukaryotic tree of life, which predominantly comprises microbial organisms. The seven well-recognized viral clades (taxonomic families) have drastically different host range. Mimiviridae and Phycodnaviridae, both with notable intrafamilial genome variation and high abundance in environmental samples, have members that infect the most diverse eukaryotic lineages. Laboratory experiments and comparative genomics have shed light on the unprecedented functional potential of giant viruses, encoding proteins for genetic information flow, energy metabolism, synthesis of biomolecules, membrane transport, and sensing that allow for sophisticated control of intracellular conditions and cell-environment interactions. Evolutionary genomics can illuminate how current and past hosts shape viral gene repertoires, although it becomes more obscure with divergent sequences and deep phylogenies. Continued works to characterize giant viruses from marine and other environments will further contribute to our understanding of their host range, coding potential, and virus-host coevolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsu-Wang Sun
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan; (T.-W.S.); (C.-L.Y.); (T.-T.K.); (T.-H.W.); (M.-W.L.)
- Genome and Systems Biology Degree Program, National Taiwan University and Academia Sinica, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Ling Yang
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan; (T.-W.S.); (C.-L.Y.); (T.-T.K.); (T.-H.W.); (M.-W.L.)
| | - Tzu-Tong Kao
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan; (T.-W.S.); (C.-L.Y.); (T.-T.K.); (T.-H.W.); (M.-W.L.)
| | - Tzu-Haw Wang
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan; (T.-W.S.); (C.-L.Y.); (T.-T.K.); (T.-H.W.); (M.-W.L.)
| | - Ming-Wei Lai
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan; (T.-W.S.); (C.-L.Y.); (T.-T.K.); (T.-H.W.); (M.-W.L.)
| | - Chuan Ku
- Institute of Plant and Microbial Biology, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan; (T.-W.S.); (C.-L.Y.); (T.-T.K.); (T.-H.W.); (M.-W.L.)
- Genome and Systems Biology Degree Program, National Taiwan University and Academia Sinica, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
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Van Etten JL, Agarkova IV, Dunigan DD. Chloroviruses. Viruses 2019; 12:E20. [PMID: 31878033 PMCID: PMC7019647 DOI: 10.3390/v12010020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 12/13/2019] [Accepted: 12/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Chloroviruses are large dsDNA, plaque-forming viruses that infect certain chlorella-like green algae; the algae are normally mutualistic endosymbionts of protists and metazoans and are often referred to as zoochlorellae. The viruses are ubiquitous in inland aqueous environments throughout the world and occasionally single types reach titers of thousands of plaque-forming units per ml of native water. The viruses are icosahedral in shape with a spike structure located at one of the vertices. They contain an internal membrane that is required for infectivity. The viral genomes are 290 to 370 kb in size, which encode up to 16 tRNAs and 330 to ~415 proteins, including many not previously seen in viruses. Examples include genes encoding DNA restriction and modification enzymes, hyaluronan and chitin biosynthetic enzymes, polyamine biosynthetic enzymes, ion channel and transport proteins, and enzymes involved in the glycan synthesis of the virus major capsid glycoproteins. The proteins encoded by many of these viruses are often the smallest or among the smallest proteins of their class. Consequently, some of the viral proteins are the subject of intensive biochemical and structural investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- James L. Van Etten
- Department of Plant Pathology, Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA; (I.V.A.); (D.D.D.)
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15
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Microbial and viral chitinases: Attractive biopesticides for integrated pest management. Biotechnol Adv 2018; 36:818-838. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2018.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2017] [Revised: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
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16
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17
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Van Etten JL, Agarkova I, Dunigan DD, Tonetti M, De Castro C, Duncan GA. Chloroviruses Have a Sweet Tooth. Viruses 2017; 9:E88. [PMID: 28441734 PMCID: PMC5408694 DOI: 10.3390/v9040088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2017] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/14/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Chloroviruses are large double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses that infect certain isolates of chlorella-like green algae. They contain up to approximately 400 protein-encoding genes and 16 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes. This review summarizes the unexpected finding that many of the chlorovirus genes encode proteins involved in manipulating carbohydrates. These include enzymes involved in making extracellular polysaccharides, such as hyaluronan and chitin, enzymes that make nucleotide sugars, such as GDP-L-fucose and GDP-D-rhamnose and enzymes involved in the synthesis of glycans attached to the virus major capsid proteins. This latter process differs from that of all other glycoprotein containing viruses that traditionally use the host endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi machinery to synthesize and transfer the glycans.
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Affiliation(s)
- James L Van Etten
- Department of Plant Pathology and Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA.
| | - Irina Agarkova
- Department of Plant Pathology and Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA.
| | - David D Dunigan
- Department of Plant Pathology and Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA.
| | - Michela Tonetti
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genova Viale Benedetto XV/1, 16132 Genova, Italy.
| | - Christina De Castro
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, University of Napoli, Via Università 100, 80055 Portici, NA, Italy.
| | - Garry A Duncan
- Department of Biology, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, NE 68504-2796, USA.
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18
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Patel S, Goyal A. Chitin and chitinase: Role in pathogenicity, allergenicity and health. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 97:331-338. [PMID: 28093332 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.01.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Revised: 01/05/2017] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Chitin, a polysaccharide with particular abundance in fungi, nematodes and arthropods is immunogenic. It acts as a threat to other organisms, to tackle which they have been endowed with chitinase enzyme. Even if this enzyme is not present in all organisms, they possess proteins having chitin-binding domain(s) (ChtBD). Many lethal viruses like Ebola, and HCV (Hepatitis C virus) have these domains to manipulate their carriers and target organisms. In keeping with the basic rule of survival, the self-origin (own body component) chitins and chitinases are protective, but that of non-self origin (from other organisms) are detrimental to health. The exogenous chitins and chitinases provoke human innate immunity to generate a deluge of inflammatory cytokines, which injure organs (leading to asthma, atopic dermatitis etc.), and in persistent situations lead to death (multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythromatosus (SLE), cancer, etc.). Unfortunately, chitin-chitinase-stimulated hypersensitivity is a common cause of occupational allergy. On the other hand, chitin, and its deacetylated derivative chitosan are increasingly proving useful in pharmaceutical, agriculture, and biocontrol applications. This critical review discusses the complex nexus of chitin and chitinase and assesses both their pathogenic as well as utilitarian aspects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seema Patel
- Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics Research Center, San Diego State University, 5500 Campanile Dr, San Diego, CA 92182, USA.
| | - Arun Goyal
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Guwahati 781039, Assam, India.
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Blank CE, Hinman NW. Cyanobacterial and algal growth on chitin as a source of nitrogen; ecological, evolutionary, and biotechnological implications. ALGAL RES 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2016.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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20
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Chitosanases from Family 46 of Glycoside Hydrolases: From Proteins to Phenotypes. Mar Drugs 2015; 13:6566-87. [PMID: 26516868 PMCID: PMC4663542 DOI: 10.3390/md13116566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2015] [Revised: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Chitosanases, enzymes that catalyze the endo-hydrolysis of glycolytic links in chitosan, are the subject of numerous studies as biotechnological tools to generate low molecular weight chitosan (LMWC) or chitosan oligosaccharides (CHOS) from native, high molecular weight chitosan. Glycoside hydrolases belonging to family GH46 are among the best-studied chitosanases, with four crystallography-derived structures available and more than forty enzymes studied at the biochemical level. They were also subjected to numerous site-directed mutagenesis studies, unraveling the molecular mechanisms of hydrolysis. This review is focused on the taxonomic distribution of GH46 proteins, their multi-modular character, the structure-function relationships and their biological functions in the host organisms.
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Demuez M, González-Fernández C, Ballesteros M. Algicidal microorganisms and secreted algicides: New tools to induce microalgal cell disruption. Biotechnol Adv 2015; 33:1615-25. [PMID: 26303095 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2015.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Revised: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Cell disruption is one of the most critical steps affecting the economy and yields of biotechnological processes for producing biofuels from microalgae. Enzymatic cell disruption has shown competitive results compared to mechanical or chemical methods. However, the addition of enzymes implies an associated cost in the overall production process. Recent studies have employed algicidal microorganisms to perform enzymatic cell disruption and degradation of microalgae biomass in order to reduce this associated cost. Algicidal microorganisms induce microalgae growth inhibition, death and subsequent lysis. Secreted algicidal molecules and enzymes produced by bacteria, cyanobacteria, viruses and the microalga themselves that are capable of inducing algal death are classified, and the known modes of action are described along with insights into cell-to-cell interaction and communication. This review aims to provide information regarding microalgae degradation by microorganisms and secreted algicidal substances that would be useful for microalgae cell breakdown in biofuels production processes. A better understanding of algae-to-algae communication and the specific mechanisms of algal cell lysis is expected to be an important breakthrough for the broader application of algicidal microorganisms in biological cell disruption and the production of biofuels from microalgae biomass.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie Demuez
- IMDEA Energy Institute, Biotechnological Processes for Energy Production Unit, Av. Ramón de la Sagra 3, 28935 Móstoles, Spain.
| | - Cristina González-Fernández
- IMDEA Energy Institute, Biotechnological Processes for Energy Production Unit, Av. Ramón de la Sagra 3, 28935 Móstoles, Spain.
| | - Mercedes Ballesteros
- IMDEA Energy Institute, Biotechnological Processes for Energy Production Unit, Av. Ramón de la Sagra 3, 28935 Móstoles, Spain; CIEMAT, Renewable Energy Division, Biofuels Unit, Av. Complutense 40, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
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Zhou Z, Zhao S, Wang S, Li X, Su L, Ma Y, Li J, Song J. Extracellular overexpression of chitosanase from Bacillus sp. TS in Escherichia coli. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2015; 175:3271-86. [PMID: 25637506 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-015-1494-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2015] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The chitosanase gene from a Bacillus sp. strain isolated from soil in East China was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. The gene had 1224 nucleotides and encoded a mature protein of 407 amino acid residues. The optimum pH and temperature of the purified recombinant chitosanase were 5.0 and 60 °C, respectively, and the enzyme was stable below 40 °C. The K m, V max, and specific activity of the enzyme were 1.19 mg mL(-1), 674.71 μmol min(-1) at 50 °C, and 555.3 U mg(-1), respectively. Mn(2+) was an activator of the recombinant chitosanase, while Co(2+) was an inhibitor. Hg(2+) and Cu(2+) inhibited the enzyme at 1 mM. The highest level of enzyme activity (186 U mL(-1)) was achieved in culture medium using high cell-density cultivation in a 7-L fermenter. The main products of chitosan hydrolyzed by recombinant chitosanase were (GlcN)3-6. The chitosanases was successfully secreted to the culture media through the widely used SecB-dependent type II pathway in E. coli. The high yield of the extracellular overexpression, relevant thermostability, and effective hydrolysis of commercial grade chitosan showed that this recombinant enzyme had a great potential for industrial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhanping Zhou
- National Engineering Laboratory for Industrial Enzymes and Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, Tianjin, 300308, China,
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Abstract
We present the first chitosanase–substrate complex structure, and, in combination with a mutagenesis and thermal stability assay, we elucidate the chitosanase–substrate binding mechanism precisely for the first time. The structural basis for chitosanase cleavage specificity is analysed as well.
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Blanc G, Mozar M, Agarkova IV, Gurnon JR, Yanai-Balser G, Rowe JM, Xia Y, Riethoven JJ, Dunigan DD, Van Etten JL. Deep RNA sequencing reveals hidden features and dynamics of early gene transcription in Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1. PLoS One 2014; 9:e90989. [PMID: 24608750 PMCID: PMC3946568 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0090989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 (PBCV-1) is the prototype of the genus Chlorovirus (family Phycodnaviridae) that infects the unicellular, eukaryotic green alga Chlorella variabilis NC64A. The 331-kb PBCV-1 genome contains 416 major open reading frames. A mRNA-seq approach was used to analyze PBCV-1 transcriptomes at 6 progressive times during the first hour of infection. The alignment of 17 million reads to the PBCV-1 genome allowed the construction of single-base transcriptome maps. Significant transcription was detected for a subset of 50 viral genes as soon as 7 min after infection. By 20 min post infection (p.i.), transcripts were detected for most PBCV-1 genes and transcript levels continued to increase globally up to 60 min p.i., at which time 41% or the poly (A+)-containing RNAs in the infected cells mapped to the PBCV-1 genome. For some viral genes, the number of transcripts in the latter time points (20 to 60 min p.i.) was much higher than that of the most highly expressed host genes. RNA-seq data revealed putative polyadenylation signal sequences in PBCV-1 genes that were identical to the polyadenylation signal AAUAAA of green algae. Several transcripts have an RNA fragment excised. However, the frequency of excision and the resulting putative shortened protein products suggest that most of these excision events have no functional role but are probably the result of the activity of misled splicesomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Blanc
- Laboratoire Information Structurale and Génomique UMR7256 CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
- * E-mail:
| | - Michael Mozar
- Laboratoire Information Structurale and Génomique UMR7256 CNRS, Aix-Marseille Université, Marseille, France
| | - Irina V. Agarkova
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - James R. Gurnon
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Giane Yanai-Balser
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Janet M. Rowe
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Yuannan Xia
- Center for Biotechnology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - Jean-Jack Riethoven
- Center for Biotechnology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - David D. Dunigan
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
| | - James L. Van Etten
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
- Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska, United States of America
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Slocombe SP, Zhang Q, Black KD, Day JG, Stanley MS. Comparison of screening methods for high-throughput determination of oil yields in micro-algal biofuel strains. JOURNAL OF APPLIED PHYCOLOGY 2013; 25:961-972. [PMID: 23853418 PMCID: PMC3705143 DOI: 10.1007/s10811-012-9947-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2012] [Revised: 11/06/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The phenotypic and phylogenetic diversity of micro-algae capable of accumulating triacylglycerols provides a challenge for the accurate determination of biotechnological potential. High-yielding strains are needed to improve economic viability and their compositional information is required for optimizing biodiesel properties. To facilitate a high-throughput screening programme, a very rapid direct-derivatization procedure capable of extracting lyophilized material for GC analysis was compared with a scaled-down Folch-based method. This was carried out on ten micro-algal strains from 6 phyla where the more rapid direct-derivatization approach was found to provide a more reliable measure of yield. The modified Folch-based procedure was found to substantially underestimate oil yield in one Chlorella species (P < 0.01). In terms of fatty acid composition however, the Folch procedure proved to be slightly better in recovering polyunsaturated fatty acids, in six out of the ten strains. Therefore, direct-derivatization is recommended for rapid determination of yields in screening approaches but can provide slightly less compositional accuracy than solvent-based extraction methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P. Slocombe
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll PA37 1QA UK
| | - QianYi Zhang
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll PA37 1QA UK
| | - Kenneth D. Black
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll PA37 1QA UK
| | - John G. Day
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll PA37 1QA UK
| | - Michele S. Stanley
- Scottish Association for Marine Science, Scottish Marine Institute, Oban, Argyll PA37 1QA UK
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Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 proteome reveals novel architectural and regulatory features of a giant virus. J Virol 2012; 86:8821-34. [PMID: 22696644 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00907-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The 331-kbp chlorovirus Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 (PBCV-1) genome was resequenced and annotated to correct errors in the original 15-year-old sequence; 40 codons was considered the minimum protein size of an open reading frame. PBCV-1 has 416 predicted protein-encoding sequences and 11 tRNAs. A proteome analysis was also conducted on highly purified PBCV-1 virions using two mass spectrometry-based protocols. The mass spectrometry-derived data were compared to PBCV-1 and its host Chlorella variabilis NC64A predicted proteomes. Combined, these analyses revealed 148 unique virus-encoded proteins associated with the virion (about 35% of the coding capacity of the virus) and 1 host protein. Some of these proteins appear to be structural/architectural, whereas others have enzymatic, chromatin modification, and signal transduction functions. Most (106) of the proteins have no known function or homologs in the existing gene databases except as orthologs with proteins of other chloroviruses, phycodnaviruses, and nuclear-cytoplasmic large DNA viruses. The genes encoding these proteins are dispersed throughout the virus genome, and most are transcribed late or early-late in the infection cycle, which is consistent with virion morphogenesis.
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Recombinant expression of chitosanase from Bacillus subtilis HD145 in Pichia pastoris. Carbohydr Res 2012; 352:37-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2012.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2011] [Revised: 01/26/2012] [Accepted: 01/29/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Zhu XF, Tan HQ, Zhu C, Liao L, Zhang XQ, Wu M. Cloning and overexpression of a new chitosanase gene from Penicillium sp. D-1. AMB Express 2012; 2:13. [PMID: 22339878 PMCID: PMC3308211 DOI: 10.1186/2191-0855-2-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2011] [Accepted: 02/16/2012] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
A chitosanase gene, csn, was cloned from Penicillium sp. D-1 by inverse PCR. The cDNA sequence analysis revealed that csn had no intron. The deduced CSN protein consists of 250 amino acids including a 20-amino acid signal peptide, and shared 83.6% identity with the family 75 chitosanase from Talaromyces stipitatus (B8M2R4). The mature protein was overexpressed in Escherichia coli and purified with the affinity chromatography of Ni2+-NTA. The novel recombinant chitosanase showed maximal catalytic activity at pH 4.0 and 48°C. Moreover, the activity of CSN was stable over a broad pH range of 3.0-8.0, and the enzymatic activity was significantly enhanced by Mg2+ and Mn2+. The CSN could effectively hydrolyze colloidal chitosan and chitosan, while could not hydrolyze chitin and carboxymethylcellulose (CMC). Due to the particular acidophily, CSN has the potential application in the recycling of chitosan wastes. The GenBank/EMBL/DDBJ accession numbers for the 18S rRNA gene and chitosanase gene of strain D-1 are JF950269 and JF950270, respectively.
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Piacente F, Marin M, Molinaro A, De Castro C, Seltzer V, Salis A, Damonte G, Bernardi C, Claverie JM, Abergel C, Tonetti M. Giant DNA virus mimivirus encodes pathway for biosynthesis of unusual sugar 4-amino-4,6-dideoxy-D-glucose (Viosamine). J Biol Chem 2012; 287:3009-18. [PMID: 22157758 PMCID: PMC3270958 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.314559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Mimivirus is one the largest DNA virus identified so far, infecting several Acanthamoeba species. Analysis of its genome revealed the presence of a nine-gene cluster containing genes potentially involved in glycan formation. All of these genes are co-expressed at late stages of infection, suggesting their role in the formation of the long fibers covering the viral surface. Among them, we identified the L136 gene as a pyridoxal phosphate-dependent sugar aminotransferase. This enzyme was shown to catalyze the formation of UDP-4-amino-4,6-dideoxy-D-glucose (UDP-viosamine) from UDP-4-keto-6-deoxy-D-glucose, a key compound involved also in the biosynthesis of L-rhamnose. This finding further supports the hypothesis that Mimivirus encodes a glycosylation system that is completely independent of the amoebal host. Viosamine, together with rhamnose, (N-acetyl)glucosamine, and glucose, was found as a major component of the viral glycans. Most of the sugars were associated with the fibers, confirming a capsular-like nature of the viral surface. Phylogenetic analysis clearly indicated that L136 was not a recent acquisition from bacteria through horizontal gene transfer, but it was acquired very early during evolution. Implications for the origin of the glycosylation machinery in giant DNA virus are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Piacente
- Department of Experimental Medicine and Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genova, Viale Benedetto XV/1, 16132 Genova, Italy
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Van Etten JL, Dunigan DD. Chloroviruses: not your everyday plant virus. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2012; 17:1-8. [PMID: 22100667 PMCID: PMC3259250 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2011.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2011] [Revised: 10/20/2011] [Accepted: 10/25/2011] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Viruses infecting higher plants are among the smallest viruses known and typically have four to ten protein-encoding genes. By contrast, many viruses that infect algae (classified in the virus family Phycodnaviridae) are among the largest viruses found to date and have up to 600 protein-encoding genes. This brief review focuses on one group of plaque-forming phycodnaviruses that infect unicellular chlorella-like green algae. The prototype chlorovirus PBCV-1 has more than 400 protein-encoding genes and 11 tRNA genes. About 40% of the PBCV-1 encoded proteins resemble proteins of known function including many that are completely unexpected for a virus. In many respects, chlorovirus infection resembles bacterial infection by tailed bacteriophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- James L Van Etten
- Department of Plant Pathology and Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA.
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31
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Ghinet MG, Roy S, Poulin-Laprade D, Lacombe-Harvey MÈ, Morosoli R, Brzezinski R. Chitosanase from Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2): biochemical properties and role in protection against antibacterial effect of chitosan. Biochem Cell Biol 2011; 88:907-16. [PMID: 21102653 DOI: 10.1139/o10-109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Chitosan, an N-deacetylated derivative of chitin, has attracted much attention as an antimicrobial agent against fungi, bacteria, and viruses. Chitosanases, the glycoside hydrolases responsible for chitosan depolymerisation, are intensively studied as tools for biotechnological transformation of chitosan. The chitosanase CsnA (SCO0677) from Streptomyces coelicolor A3(2) was purified and characterized. CsnA belongs to the GH46 family of glycoside hydrolases. However, it is secreted efficiently by the Tat translocation pathway despite its similarity to the well-studied chitosanase from Streptomyces sp. N174 (CsnN174), which is preferentially secreted through the Sec pathway. Melting point determination, however, revealed substantial differences between these chitosanases, both in the absence and in the presence of chitosan. We further assessed the role of CsnA as a potential protective enzyme against the antimicrobial effect of chitosan. A Streptomyces lividans TK24 strain in which the csnA gene was inactivated by gene disruption was more sensitive to chitosan than the wild-type strain or a chitosanase-overproducing strain. This is the first genetic evidence for the involvement of chitosanases in the protection of bacteria against the antimicrobial effect of chitosan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana Gabriela Ghinet
- Centre d'Étude et de Valorisation de la Diversité Microbienne, Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada
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Blanc G, Duncan G, Agarkova I, Borodovsky M, Gurnon J, Kuo A, Lindquist E, Lucas S, Pangilinan J, Polle J, Salamov A, Terry A, Yamada T, Dunigan DD, Grigoriev IV, Claverie JM, Van Etten JL. The Chlorella variabilis NC64A genome reveals adaptation to photosymbiosis, coevolution with viruses, and cryptic sex. THE PLANT CELL 2010; 22:2943-55. [PMID: 20852019 PMCID: PMC2965543 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.110.076406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 327] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2010] [Revised: 07/15/2010] [Accepted: 09/01/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Chlorella variabilis NC64A, a unicellular photosynthetic green alga (Trebouxiophyceae), is an intracellular photobiont of Paramecium bursaria and a model system for studying virus/algal interactions. We sequenced its 46-Mb nuclear genome, revealing an expansion of protein families that could have participated in adaptation to symbiosis. NC64A exhibits variations in GC content across its genome that correlate with global expression level, average intron size, and codon usage bias. Although Chlorella species have been assumed to be asexual and nonmotile, the NC64A genome encodes all the known meiosis-specific proteins and a subset of proteins found in flagella. We hypothesize that Chlorella might have retained a flagella-derived structure that could be involved in sexual reproduction. Furthermore, a survey of phytohormone pathways in chlorophyte algae identified algal orthologs of Arabidopsis thaliana genes involved in hormone biosynthesis and signaling, suggesting that these functions were established prior to the evolution of land plants. We show that the ability of Chlorella to produce chitinous cell walls likely resulted from the capture of metabolic genes by horizontal gene transfer from algal viruses, prokaryotes, or fungi. Analysis of the NC64A genome substantially advances our understanding of the green lineage evolution, including the genomic interplay with viruses and symbiosis between eukaryotes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Blanc
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Laboratoire Information Génomique et Structurale UPR2589, Aix-Marseille Université, Institut de Microbiologie de la Méditerranée, 13009 Marseille, France.
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Chlorella viruses encode most, if not all, of the machinery to glycosylate their glycoproteins independent of the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2010; 1800:152-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2009.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2009] [Revised: 07/15/2009] [Accepted: 07/18/2009] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Yanai-Balser GM, Duncan GA, Eudy JD, Wang D, Li X, Agarkova IV, Dunigan DD, Van Etten JL. Microarray analysis of Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 transcription. J Virol 2010; 84:532-42. [PMID: 19828609 PMCID: PMC2798440 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01698-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2009] [Accepted: 10/07/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 (PBCV-1), a member of the family Phycodnaviridae, is a large double-stranded DNA, plaque-forming virus that infects the unicellular green alga Chlorella sp. strain NC64A. The 330-kb PBCV-1 genome is predicted to encode 365 proteins and 11 tRNAs. To monitor global transcription during PBCV-1 replication, a microarray containing 50-mer probes to the PBCV-1 365 protein-encoding genes (CDSs) was constructed. Competitive hybridization experiments were conducted by using cDNAs from poly(A)-containing RNAs obtained from cells at seven time points after virus infection. The results led to the following conclusions: (i) the PBCV-1 replication cycle is temporally programmed and regulated; (ii) 360 (99%) of the arrayed PBCV-1 CDSs were expressed at some time in the virus life cycle in the laboratory; (iii) 227 (62%) of the CDSs were expressed before virus DNA synthesis begins; (iv) these 227 CDSs were grouped into two classes: 127 transcripts disappeared prior to initiation of virus DNA synthesis (considered early), and 100 transcripts were still detected after virus DNA synthesis begins (considered early/late); (v) 133 (36%) of the CDSs were expressed after virus DNA synthesis begins (considered late); and (vi) expression of most late CDSs is inhibited by adding the DNA replication inhibitor, aphidicolin, prior to virus infection. This study provides the first comprehensive evaluation of virus gene expression during the PBCV-1 life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giane M. Yanai-Balser
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0722, Biology Department, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, Nebraska 68504-2794, Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-5455, Statistics Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0963, Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0900
| | - Garry A. Duncan
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0722, Biology Department, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, Nebraska 68504-2794, Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-5455, Statistics Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0963, Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0900
| | - James D. Eudy
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0722, Biology Department, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, Nebraska 68504-2794, Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-5455, Statistics Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0963, Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0900
| | - Dong Wang
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0722, Biology Department, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, Nebraska 68504-2794, Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-5455, Statistics Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0963, Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0900
| | - Xiao Li
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0722, Biology Department, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, Nebraska 68504-2794, Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-5455, Statistics Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0963, Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0900
| | - Irina V. Agarkova
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0722, Biology Department, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, Nebraska 68504-2794, Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-5455, Statistics Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0963, Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0900
| | - David D. Dunigan
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0722, Biology Department, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, Nebraska 68504-2794, Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-5455, Statistics Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0963, Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0900
| | - James L. Van Etten
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0722, Biology Department, Nebraska Wesleyan University, Lincoln, Nebraska 68504-2794, Department of Genetics, Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska 68198-5455, Statistics Department, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0963, Biomedical Engineering and Biotechnology, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, Massachusetts 01854, Nebraska Center for Virology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0900
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Raafat D, Sahl HG. Chitosan and its antimicrobial potential--a critical literature survey. Microb Biotechnol 2009; 2:186-201. [PMID: 21261913 PMCID: PMC3815839 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-7915.2008.00080.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 432] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2008] [Revised: 12/02/2008] [Accepted: 12/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Chitosan, an aminopolysaccharide biopolymer, has a unique chemical structure as a linear polycation with a high charge density, reactive hydroxyl and amino groups as well as extensive hydrogen bonding. It displays excellent biocompatibility, physical stability and processability. The term 'chitosan' describes a heterogeneous group of polymers combining a group of physicochemical and biological characteristics, which allow for a wide scope of applications that are both fascinating and as yet uncharted. The increased awareness of the potentials and industrial value of this biopolymer lead to its utilization in many applications of technical interest, and increasingly in the biomedical arena. Although not primarily used as an antimicrobial agent, its utility as an ingredient in both food and pharmaceutical formulations lately gained more interest, when a scientific understanding of at least some of the pharmacological activities of this versatile carbohydrate began to evolve. However, understanding the various factors that affect its antimicrobial activity has become a key issue for a better usage and a more efficient optimization of chitosan formulations. Moreover, the use of chitosan in antimicrobial systems should be based on sufficient knowledge of the complex mechanisms of its antimicrobial mode of action, which in turn would help to arrive at an appreciation of its entire antimicrobial potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dina Raafat
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology (IMMIP), Pharmaceutical Microbiology Unit, University of Bonn, D-53115 Bonn, Germany.
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Lohtander K, Pasonen HL, Aalto MK, Palva T, Pappinen A, Rikkinen J. Phylogeny of chitinases and its implications for estimating horizontal gene transfer from chitinase-transgenic silver birch (Betula pendula). ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 7:227-39. [PMID: 19081010 DOI: 10.1051/ebr:2008019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Chitinases are hydrolytic enzymes that have been employed in biotechnology in attempts to increase plants' resistance against fungal pathogens. Genetically modified plants have given rise to concerns of the spreading of transgenes into the environment through vertical or horizontal gene transfer (HGT). In this study, chitinase-like sequences from silver birch (Betula pendula) EST-libraries were identified and their phylogenetic relationships to other chitinases were studied. Phylogenetic analyses were used to estimate the frequency of historical gene transfer events of chitinase genes between plants and other organisms, and the usefulness of phylogenetic analyses as a source of information for the risk assessment of transgenic silver birch carrying a sugar beet chitinase IV gene was evaluated. Thirteen partial chitinase-like sequences, with an approximate length of 600 bp, were obtained from the EST-libraries. The sequences belonged to five chitinase classes. Some bacterial chitinases from Streptomyces and Burkholderia, as well as a chitinase from an oomycete, Phytophthora infestans, grouped together with the class IV chitinases of plants, supporting the hypothesis that some class IV chitinases in bacteria have evolved from eukaryotic chitinases via horizontal gene transfer. According to our analyses, HGT of a chitinase IV gene from eukaryotes to bacteria has presumably occurred only once. Based on this, the likelihood for the HGT of chitinase IV gene from transgenic birch to other organisms is extremely low. However, as risk is a function of both the likelihood and consequences of an event, the effects of rare HGT event(s) will finally determine the level of the risk.
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Agarkova I, Dunigan D, Gurnon J, Greiner T, Barres J, Thiel G, Van Etten JL. Chlorovirus-mediated membrane depolarization of Chlorella alters secondary active transport of solutes. J Virol 2008; 82:12181-90. [PMID: 18842725 PMCID: PMC2593333 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01687-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2008] [Accepted: 09/30/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 (PBCV-1) is the prototype of a family of large, double-stranded DNA, plaque-forming viruses that infect certain eukaryotic chlorella-like green algae from the genus Chlorovirus. PBCV-1 infection results in rapid host membrane depolarization and potassium ion release. One interesting feature of certain chloroviruses is that they code for functional potassium ion-selective channel proteins (Kcv) that are considered responsible for the host membrane depolarization and, as a consequence, the efflux of potassium ions. This report examines the relationship between cellular depolarization and solute uptake. Annotation of the virus host Chlorella strain NC64A genome revealed 482 putative transporter-encoding genes; 224 are secondary active transporters. Solute uptake experiments using seven radioactive compounds revealed that virus infection alters the transport of all the solutes. However, the degree of inhibition varied depending on the solute. Experiments with nystatin, a drug known to depolarize cell membranes, produced changes in solute uptake that are similar but not identical to those that occurred during virus infection. Therefore, these studies indicate that chlorovirus infection causes a rapid and sustained depolarization of the host plasma membrane and that this depolarization leads to the inhibition of secondary active transporters that changes solute uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina Agarkova
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583-0900, USA
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38
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Characterization of a novel fungal chitosanase Csn2 from Gongronella sp. JG. Carbohydr Res 2008; 343:2583-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2008.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2008] [Revised: 07/28/2008] [Accepted: 08/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Zhou W, Yuan H, Wang J, Yao J. Production, purification and characterization of chitosanase produced by Gongronella sp. JG. Lett Appl Microbiol 2007; 46:49-54. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.2007.02262.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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40
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Onimatsu H, Suganuma K, Uenoyama S, Yamada T. C-terminal repetitive motifs in Vp130 present at the unique vertex of the Chlorovirus capsid are essential for binding to the host Chlorella cell wall. Virology 2006; 353:433-42. [PMID: 16870225 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2006] [Revised: 04/29/2006] [Accepted: 06/14/2006] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Previously, Vp130, a chloroviral structural protein, was found to have host-cell-wall-binding activity for NC64A-viruses (PBCV-1 and CVK2). In this study, we have isolated and characterized the corresponding protein from chlorovirus CVGW1, one of Pbi-viruses that have a different host range. In NC64A-viruses, Vp130 consists of a highly conserved N-terminal domain, internal repeats of 70-73 aa motifs and a C-terminal domain occupied by 23-26 tandem repeats of a PAPK motif. However, CVGW1 was found to have a slightly different Vp130 construction where the PAPK repeats were not in the C-terminus but internal. Immunofluorescence microscopy with a specific antibody revealed that the C-terminal region containing the Vp130 repetitive motifs from PBCV-1 and CVK2 was responsible for binding to Chlorella cell walls. Furthermore, by immunoelectron microscopy and immunofluorescence microscopy, Vp130 was localized at a unique vertex of the chlorovirus particle and was found to be masked through binding to the host cells. These results suggested that Vp130 is localized at a unique vertex on the virion, with the C-terminal repetitive units outside for cell wall binding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideki Onimatsu
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Graduate School of Advanced Sciences of Matter, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8530, Japan
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Abstract
Chlorella viruses or chloroviruses are large, icosahedral, plaque-forming, double-stranded-DNA-containing viruses that replicate in certain strains of the unicellular green alga Chlorella. DNA sequence analysis of the 330-kbp genome of Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 (PBCV-1), the prototype of this virus family (Phycodnaviridae), predict approximately 366 protein-encoding genes and 11 tRNA genes. The predicted gene products of approximately 50% of these genes resemble proteins of known function, including many that are completely unexpected for a virus. In addition, the chlorella viruses have several features and encode many gene products that distinguish them from most viruses. These products include: (1) multiple DNA methyltransferases and DNA site-specific endonucleases, (2) the enzymes required to glycosylate their proteins and synthesize polysaccharides such as hyaluronan and chitin, (3) a virus-encoded K(+) channel (called Kcv) located in the internal membrane of the virions, (4) a SET domain containing protein (referred to as vSET) that dimethylates Lys27 in histone 3, and (5) PBCV-1 has three types of introns; a self-splicing intron, a spliceosomal processed intron, and a small tRNA intron. Accumulating evidence indicates that the chlorella viruses have a very long evolutionary history. This review mainly deals with research on the virion structure, genome rearrangements, gene expression, cell wall degradation, polysaccharide synthesis, and evolution of PBCV-1 as well as other related viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Yamada
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Graduate School of Advanced Sciences of Matter, Hiroshima University, Higashi, Japan
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Cheng CY, Chang CH, Wu YJ, Li YK. Exploration of glycosyl hydrolase family 75, a chitosanase from Aspergillus fumigatus. J Biol Chem 2005; 281:3137-44. [PMID: 16330537 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m512506200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A powerful endo-chitosanase (CSN) previously described for a large scale preparation of chito-oligosaccharides (Cheng, C.-Y., and Li, Y.-K. (2000) Biotechnol. Appl. Biochem. 32, 197-203) was cloned from Aspergillus fumigatus and further identified as a member of glycosyl hydrolase family 75. We report here a study of gene expression, functional characterization, and mutation analysis of this enzyme. Gene cloning was accomplished by reverse transcription-PCR and inverse PCR. Within the 1382-bp Aspergillus gene (GenBank accession number AY190324), two introns (67 and 82 bp) and an open reading frame encoding a 238-residue protein containing a 17-residue signal peptide were characterized. The recombinant mature protein was overexpressed as an inclusion body in Escherichia coli, rescued by treatment with 5 m urea, and subsequently purified by cation exchange chromatography. A time course 1H NMR study on the enzymatic formation of chito-oligosaccharides confirmed that this A. fumigatus CSN is an inverting enzyme. Tandem mass spectrum analysis of the enzymatic hydrolysate revealed that the recombinant CSN can cleave linkages of GlcNAc-GlcN and GlcN-GlcN in its substrate, suggesting that it is a subclass I chitosanase. In addition, an extensive site-directed mutagenesis study on 10 conserved carboxylic amino acids of glycosyl hydrolase family 75 was performed. This showed that among these various mutants, D160N and E169Q lost nearly all activity. Further investigation using circular dichroism measurements of D160N, E169Q, wild-type CSN, and other active mutants showed similar spectra, indicating that the loss of enzymatic activity in D160N and E169Q was not because of changes in protein structure but was caused by loss of the catalytic essential residue. We conclude that Asp160 and Glu169 are the essential residues for the action of A. fumigatus endo-chitosanase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chih-Yu Cheng
- Center for Interdisciplinary Molecular Science and Department of Applied Chemistry, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
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Yun C, Amakata D, Matsuo Y, Matsuda H, Kawamukai M. New chitosan-degrading strains that produce chitosanases similar to ChoA of Mitsuaria chitosanitabida. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005; 71:5138-44. [PMID: 16151097 PMCID: PMC1214613 DOI: 10.1128/aem.71.9.5138-5144.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The betaproteobacterium Mitsuaria chitosanitabida (formerly Matsuebacter chitosanotabidus) 3001 produces a chitosanase (ChoA) that is classified in glycosyl hydrolase family 80. While many chitosanase genes have been isolated from various bacteria to date, they show limited homology to the M. chitosanitabida 3001 chitosanase gene (choA). To investigate the phylogenetic distribution of chitosanases analogous to ChoA in nature, we identified 67 chitosan-degrading strains by screening and investigated their physiological and biological characteristics. We then searched for similarities to ChoA by Western blotting and Southern hybridization and selected 11 strains whose chitosanases showed the most similarity to ChoA. PCR amplification and sequencing of the chitosanase genes from these strains revealed high deduced amino acid sequence similarities to ChoA ranging from 77% to 99%. Analysis of the 16S rRNA gene sequences of the 11 selected strains indicated that they are widely distributed in the beta and gamma subclasses of Proteobacteria and the Flavobacterium group. These observations suggest that the ChoA-like chitosanases that belong to family 80 occur widely in a broad variety of bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- ChoongSoo Yun
- Department of Life Science and Biotechnology, Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Shimane University, 1060 Nishikawatsu, Matsue, Shimane 690-8504, Japan
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Kang M, Dunigan DD, VAN Etten JL. Chlorovirus: a genus of Phycodnaviridae that infects certain chlorella-like green algae. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2005; 6:213-224. [PMID: 20565652 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2005.00281.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
SUMMARY Taxonomy: Chlorella viruses are assigned to the family Phycodnaviridae, genus Chlorovirus, and are divided into three species: Chlorella NC64A viruses, Chlorella Pbi viruses and Hydra viridis Chlorella viruses. Chlorella viruses are large, icosahedral, plaque-forming, dsDNA viruses that infect certain unicellular, chlorella-like green algae. The type member is Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus 1 (PBCV-1). Physical properties: Chlorella virus particles are large (molecular weight approximately 1 x 10(9) Da) and complex. The virion of PBCV-1 contains more than 100 different proteins; the major capsid protein, Vp54, comprises approximately 40% of the virus protein. Cryoelectron microscopy and three-dimensional image reconstruction of PBCV-1 virions indicate that the outer glycoprotein-containing capsid shell is icosahedral and surrounds a lipid bilayered membrane. The diameter of the viral capsid ranges from 1650 A along the two- and three-fold axes to 1900 A along the five-fold axis. The virus contains 5040 copies of Vp54, and the triangulation number is 169. The PBCV-1 genome is a linear, 330 744-bp, non-permuted dsDNA with covalently closed hairpin ends. The PBCV-1 genome contains approximately 375 protein-encoding genes and 11 tRNA genes. About 50% of the protein-encoding genes match proteins in the databases. Hosts: Chlorella NC64A and Chlorella Pbi, the hosts for NC64A viruses and Pbi viruses, respectively, are endosymbionts of the protozoan Paramecium bursaria. However, they can be grown in the laboratory free of both the paramecium and the virus. These two chlorella species are hosts to viruses that have been isolated from fresh water collected around the world. The host for hydra chlorella virus, a symbiotic chlorella from Hydra viridis, has not been grown independently of its host; thus the virus can only be obtained from chlorella cells freshly released from hydra.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Kang
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583-0722, USA
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Kang M, Graves M, Mehmel M, Moroni A, Gazzarrini S, Thiel G, Gurnon JR, Van Etten JL. Genetic diversity in chlorella viruses flanking kcv, a gene that encodes a potassium ion channel protein. Virology 2004; 326:150-9. [PMID: 15262503 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2004.05.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2004] [Accepted: 05/27/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The chlorella virus PBCV-1 encodes a 94-amino acid protein named Kcv that produces a K+-selective and slightly voltage-sensitive conductance when expressed in heterologous systems. As reported herein, (i) Northern analysis of kcv expression in PBCV-1-infected cells revealed a complicated pattern suggesting that the gene might be transcribed as a di- or tri-cistronic mRNA both at early and late times after virus infection. (ii) The protein kinase inhibitors H-89, A3, and staurosporine inhibited PBCV-1 Kcv activity in Xenopus oocytes, suggesting that Kcv activity might be controlled by phosphorylation or dephosphorylation. (iii) The PBCV-1 genomic sequence revealed a gene encoding a putative protein kinase (pkx) adjacent to kcv. These findings prompted us to examine the kcv flanking regions in 16 additional chlorella viruses and transcription in two of these viruses, as well as the effect of the three protein kinase inhibitors on two Kcv homologs in Xenopus oocytes. The results indicate (i) pkx is always located 5' to kcv, but the spacing between the two genes varies from 31 to 1588 nucleotides. More variation occurs in the kcv 3' flanking region of the 16 viruses. (ii) The kcv gene is expressed as a late mono-cistronic mRNA. (iii) Unlike the affect on PBCV-1 Kcv, the three protein kinase inhibitors have little or no effect on the activity of the two Kcv homologs in oocytes. (iv) A comparison of the kcv 5' upstream sequences from the 16 viruses identified a highly conserved 10-nucleotide sequence that is present in the promoter region of all of the viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming Kang
- Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0722, USA
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Sugimoto I, Onimatsu H, Fujie M, Usami S, Yamada T. vAL-1, a novel polysaccharide lyase encoded by chlorovirus CVK2. FEBS Lett 2004; 559:51-6. [PMID: 14960306 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-5793(04)00022-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2003] [Revised: 11/25/2003] [Accepted: 12/08/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Cell wall materials isolated from Chlorella cells were degraded by the polysaccharide-degrading enzyme vAL-1 encoded by chlorovirus CVK2. Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometric analyses of the degradation products (oligosaccharides) revealed major oligosaccharides contain unsaturated GlcA at the reducing terminus, and a side chain attached at C2 or C3 of GlcA(C4?C5), which mainly consisted of Ara, GlcNAc and Gal. The results indicated that vAL-1 is a novel polysaccharide lyase, cleaving chains of beta- or alpha-1,4-linked GlcAs. The unique structures of Chlorella cell wall were also revealed. Studies on the complicated structures of naturally occurring polysaccharides will be greatly facilitated by using vAL-1 as a tool in structural analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ichiro Sugimoto
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Graduate School of Advanced Sciences of Matter, Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8530, Japan
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Onimatsu H, Sugimoto I, Fujie M, Usami S, Yamada T. Vp130, a chloroviral surface protein that interacts with the host Chlorella cell wall. Virology 2004; 319:71-80. [PMID: 14967489 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2003.10.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2003] [Revised: 10/16/2003] [Accepted: 10/16/2003] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A protein, Vp130, that interacts with the host cell wall was isolated from Chlorovirus CVK2. From its peptide sequence, the gene for Vp130 was identified on the PBCV-1 genomic sequence as an ORF combining A140R and A145R. In Vp130, the N-terminus was somehow modified and the C-terminus was occupied by 23-26 tandem repeats of a PAPK motif. In the internal region, Vp130 contained seven repeats of 70-73 amino acids, each copy of which was separated by PAPK sequences. This protein was well conserved among NC64A viruses. A recombinant rVp130N protein formed in Escherichia coli was shown not only to bind directly to the host cell wall in vitro but also to specifically bind to the host cells, as demonstrated by fluorescence microscopy. Because externally added rVp130N competed with CVK2 to bind to host cells, Vp130 is most likely to be a host-recognizing protein on the virion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hideki Onimatsu
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology, Graduate School of Advanced Sciences of Matter, Hiroshima University, Higashi-Hiroshima 739-8530, Japan.
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Abstract
Paramecium bursaria chlorella virus (PBCV-1) is the prototype of a family of large, icosahedral, plaque-forming, dsDNA viruses that replicate in certain unicellular, eukaryotic chlorella-like green algae. Its 330-kb genome contains approximately 373 protein-encoding genes and 11 tRNA genes. The predicted gene products of approximately 50% of these genes resemble proteins of known function, including many that are unexpected for a virus, e.g., ornithine decarboxylase, hyaluronan synthase, GDP-D-mannose 4,6 dehydratase, and a potassium ion channel protein. In addition to their large genome size, the chlorella viruses have other features that distinguish them from most viruses. These features include: (a) The viruses encode multiple DNA methyltransferases and DNA site-specific endonucleases. (b) The viruses encode at least some, if not all, of the enzymes required to glycosylate their proteins. (c) PBCV-1 has at least three types of introns, a self-splicing intron in a transcription factor-like gene, a spliceosomal processed intron in its DNA polymerase gene, and a small intron in one of its tRNA genes. (d) Many chlorella virus-encoded proteins are either the smallest or among the smallest proteins of their class. (e) Accumulating evidence indicates that the chlorella viruses have a very long evolutionary history.
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Affiliation(s)
- James L Van Etten
- Nebraska Center for Virology and Department of Plant Pathology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska 68583-0722, USA.
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Tonetti M, Zanardi D, Gurnon JR, Fruscione F, Armirotti A, Damonte G, Sturla L, De Flora A, Van Etten JL. Paramecium bursaria Chlorella virus 1 encodes two enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of GDP-L-fucose and GDP-D-rhamnose. J Biol Chem 2003; 278:21559-65. [PMID: 12679342 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m301543200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
At least three structural proteins in Paramecium bursaria Chlorella virus (PBCV-1) are glycosylated, including the major capsid protein Vp54. However, unlike other glycoprotein-containing viruses that use host-encoded enzymes in the endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi to glycosylate their proteins, PBCV-1 encodes at least many, if not all, of the glycosyltransferases used to glycosylate its structural proteins. As described here, PBCV-1 also encodes two open reading frames that resemble bacterial and mammalian enzymes involved in de novo GDP-L-fucose biosynthesis. This pathway, starting from GDP-D-mannose, consists of two sequential steps catalyzed by GDP-D-mannose 4,6 dehydratase (GMD) and GDP-4-keto-6-deoxy-D-mannose epimerase/reductase, respectively. The two PBCV-1-encoded genes were expressed in Escherichia coli, and the recombinant proteins had the predicted enzyme activity. However, in addition to the dehydratase activity, PBCV-1 GMD also had a reductase activity, producing GDP-D-rhamnose. In vivo studies established that PBCV-1 GMD and GDP-4-keto-6-deoxy-D-mannose epimerase/reductase are expressed after virus infection and that both GDP-L-fucose and GDP-D-rhamnose are produced in virus-infected cells. Thus, PBCV-1 is the first virus known to encode enzymes involved in nucleotide sugar metabolism. Because fucose and rhamnose are components of the glycans attached to Vp54, the pathway could circumvent a limited supply of GDP sugars by the algal host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michela Tonetti
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Biochemistry and Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research, University of Genoa, Viale Benedetto XV 1, 16132 Genoa, Italy.
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Abstract
Viruses occur throughout the biosphere. Cells of Eukarya, Bacteria, and Archaea are infected by a variety of viruses that considerably outnumber the host cells. Although viruses have adapted to different host systems during evolution and many different viral strategies have developed, certain similarities can be found. Viruses encounter common problems during their entry process into the host cells, and similar strategies seem to ensure, for example, that the movement toward the site of replication and the translocation through the host membrane occur. The penetration of the host cell's external envelope involves, across the viral world, either fusion between two membranes, channel formation through the host envelope, disruption of the membrane vesicle, or a combination of these events. Endocytic-type events may occur during the entry of a bacterial virus as well as during the entry of an animal virus; the same applies for membrane fusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minna M Poranen
- Institute of Biotechnology and Department of Biosciences, University of Helsinki, Finland.
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